Mody and Marchildon: Chemical Engineering Process Design Chapter 17 MECHANICAL SEPARATIONS P:/CEPDtxt2007/CEPDtextCh17 Mechanical separations comprise the

operations in which different phases are parted from one another. There are fi e !eneral sit"ations# namel$ where the phases are 1. li !id and li !id "i##i$ci%le or only $li&htly #i$ci%le in each other' (. $olid and $olid ). &a$ and li !id *. &a$ and $olid +. li !id and $olid. %$ contrast with molecular separations# which are disc"ssed in the next section# mechanical separations are distin!"ished &$ the a&sence of component transfer &etween phases. The need for a mechanical separation ma$ arise in dealin! with mixt"res of phases fo"nd in nat"ral raw materials or in p"rif$in! process materials where extraneo"s phases ha e infiltrated. ' mechanical separation also ma$ &e the final step in a molec"lar separation: two phases ma$ ha e &een &ro"!ht into intimate contact in order to promote component molec"lar transfer &etween the phases( afterwards the phases ha e to &e separated. )n another sit"ation a fl"id *e.!.# air+ ma$ ha e &een "sed to con e$ solid pellets and m"st then# at the end of the tra el# &e separated from &oth the pellets and from an$ fines that were !enerated. ' mechanical and a molec"lar separation ma$ &e "sed in se,"ence: in a familiar domestic operation s"ch as dr$in! a load of washin!# the clothes are first wr"n! or sp"n to remo e the &"l- of the rinse water *a mechanical operation+# then h"n! or t"m&led to diff"se o"t the rest of the water . a molec"lar operation. 'n excellent reference for man$ of the operations disc"ssed in this section is /ol"me 1# Chapter 0# 1Mechanical 2eparations3 in 4"dwi! *1556+. Ta&le 17.1 2"mmar$ of Mechanical 2eparations METHO, li !id$olidli !id $olid 1. Decantation $es 2. Coalescence $es 7. Centrif"!ation 0. 2creenin! 6. El"triation# Classification 8. Ma!netic attraction 7. C$clone flow 9. 2ettlin!# Differential settlin! 5. :lotation 10. )nertial precipitation: De. $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es &a$li !id $es $es &a$$olid li !id$olid

mistin!# 2cr"&&in! 11. :oam.&rea-in! 12. Electrostatic precipitation 17. :iltration 10. :locc"lation 16. ;$droclone flow 18. <ic-in! and Expression $es $es $es $es $es $es $es $es

4"dwi! E E *1556+ Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants# ="lf P"&lishin! Compan$# ;o"ston.

17.1. Li !id-Li !id Separation$ There are man$ sit"ations where a process ends "p with a mixt"re of two *or more+ li,"id phases. The li,"ids ma$ &oth &e or!anics or# er$ often# one is or!anic and the other is lar!el$ water. 2ome sit"ations are li,"id.li,"id extraction a chemical reaction that !enerates an immisci&le prod"ct or &$.prod"ct *e.!.# water+ a feed stream containin! water cooled condensate from a>eotropic distillation cooled condensate from steam strippin! a,"eo"s sol"tion "sed to wash or otherwise treat an or!anic li,"id. The three common methods of separation all rel$ on a difference in densit$ of the two phases. 17.1.1. Decantation or Settling )f the densit$ difference is s"fficient# the simplest method is to "se !ra it$ to p"ll the phases apart. The de ice or essel is called a decanter if it operates partiall$ f"ll and a settler if it operates f"ll. )f operatin! contin"o"sl$# the mixt"re enters at one end and soons separates into a li!ht top la$er and a hea $ &ottom la$er. Part of the li!ht phase remains in dispersed form in the &ottom la$er and part of the hea $ phase remains in dispersed form in the top la$er. T$picall$ a droplet si>e of 160 microns *a micron &ein! 1/1000th of a millimetre+ is "sed for calc"lation p"rposes. )n the rest of the operation the droplets rise or fall to ?oin their appropriate phase and the essel is si>ed to allow this to happen. 2i!ales recommends that# re!ardless of the calc"lated al"e of droplet fall or rise elocit$# the elocit$ ne er &e ass"med !reater than 10 inches per min"te. 4"dwi! *1556+ ,"otes one ho"r as a t$pical time for separation. Pro ision is made at the end of the essel to draw off the two phases. This is done in a controlled manner# to re!"late the le el of

the interface &etween phases and# in the case of a decanter# to re!"late the o erall hei!ht in the essel.

2i!ales % *1576 @"ne 27+ 1;ow to Desi!n 2ettlin! Dr"ms3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.101. 100. 17.1.(. Coalescence To coalesce is to &rin! to!ether and "nite. )n the present case the coalescence is of small li,"id droplets dispersed in another li,"id. T$picall$ the droplets are in the si>e ran!e 0.1 . 60 microns# which is too small to separate "nder the infl"ence of !ra it$. *This is &eca"se the terminal elocit$ of small droplets aries as the s,"are of diameter.+ )n coalescence the two.phase mixt"re is passed thro"!h a &ed of fi&res or particles onto which the dispersed li,"id attaches *possi&l$ adsor&s+ and &"ilds "p into lar!er droplets *e.!.# 600.6000 microns+# which can then &e separated &$ !ra it$. The effecti eness of coalescence in li,"id.li,"id separation re,"ires some de!ree of interfacial tension *):T+ &etween the two li,"ids. The lower limit is a&o"t 20 d$nes per centimetre when !lass fi&res are "sed. More recentl$ pol$meric fi&res# sometimes with a s"rface coatin!# ha e allowed coalescence down to ):T of 0.6 d$nes/cm. %rown A 4 and <ines T ; *1557 Decem&er+ 1)mpro e s"spended water remo al from f"els3# ;$drocar&on Processin! p.56.100. <ines T ; and %rown A 4 *1557 Decem&er+ 1Diffic"lt 4i,"id.4i,"id 2eparations3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.100.105. Batona '# Darde T and <ines T ; *2001 '"!"st+ 1)mpro e ha>e remo al for :CC !asoline3# ;$drocar&on Processin! p.107.109. 17.1.). Centrifugation Centrif"!ation ma-es "se of rotation to create lar!e centrif"!al forces# h"ndreds or tho"sands of times !reater than !ra it$. Droplets that wo"ld mo e onl$ er$ slowl$ "nder !ra it$ can &e !reatl$ speeded "p in a centrif"!e. The s"&?ect of centrif"!ation is disc"ssed in more detail in section 7.9.6.1 on li,"id.solid separation. :or li,"id.li,"id separation a tubular bowl t$pe of centrif"!e is !enerall$ "sed. The t"&e rotates a&o"t a ertical axis and achie es forces t$picall$ "p to 82000 times that of !ra it$ in la&orator$

centrif"!es and 18000 in ind"strial "nits. The li,"id mixt"re enters at the &ottom of the t"&e and lea es in two phases thro"!h concentric o"tlets at the top.

17.(. Solid-Solid Separation$ 2olid particles or pellets of different t$pes often occ"r as mixt"res. The difference in t$pe ma$ &e simpl$ si>e or it ma$ &e the chemical nat"re of the particles. 2ome separation sit"ations are remo e o er.si>ed particles that wo"ld r"in a s"rface finish or ca"se an electronic prod"ct to fail remo e fine particles that wo"ld ca"se a d"stin! pro&lem or that wo"ld !et r"&&ed off in a mo"lded or coated o&?ect sort o"t and rec$cle o er.si>e particles in a commin"tion operation prepare feed for a mass.transfer operation or a chemical reaction# where small si>e processes faster remo e 1tramp3 metal from a solid prod"ct. 2ome separation mechanisms depend on differential &eha io"r in a separation s$stem for !ases and solids or li,"ids and solids# examples &ein! centrifugation# cyclone flow# hydroclone flow# differential settling and flotation. These operations are disc"ssed s"&se,"entl$. )t sho"ld &e noted that# in these cases# the &eha io"r of the solid particles ma$ depend on a com&ination of their si>e# shape and densit$# so the separation with respect to the characteristic of interest ma$ not &e as distinct as desired. Three methods specific to solid.solid separation are screening# air-classification and separation by magnetic or electrostatic forces# and are disc"ssed in this section. Two terms that descri&e the nat"re and effecti eness of a si>e.separation operation are cut size and size-selectivity. C"t si>e is the si>e *diameter+ of particle s"ch that fift$ percent is sorted into the 1lar!e3 cate!or$ and fift$ percent into the 1small3 cate!or$. 2i>e.selecti it$ is the relation *"s"all$ !i en !raphicall$+ &etween particle diameter and percent retained as 1lar!e3. )n an ideal separation 100C of particles &i!!er than c"t si>e are retained as 1lar!e3

and >ero percent of particles less than c"t si>e are so retained. )n practice the selecti it$ c"r e is more or less 12.shaped3. 10 0 C Aetained as 4ar!e t$pical 6 0 ideal

Particle Diam. Diameter * c"t.si>e + DiDiameter )n desi!nin! or anal$>in! a solid.solid si>e.separation s$stem it is necessar$ to meas"re the
si>e and si>e distri&"tion of the particles. 2now and 'llen *1552+ list fi e techni,"es screenin! with standard wire.mesh sie es# applica&le to particles down to 200 microns and# with special electroformed sie es# down to 6 microns microscop$# applica&le down to 1 micron low.an!le laser li!ht scatterin! *diffraction+ for particles from 0.06 to 1000 microns electrical sensin! and co"ntin!# applica&le down to 0.7 microns %ET *%r"na"er.Emmett.Teller+ nitro!en !as adsorption to meas"re s"rface area. 2now A ; and 'llen T *1552 Ma$+ 1Effecti el$ Meas"re Particle.2i>e.Classifier Performance3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.25.77. . 17.(.1. Screening )n contin"o"s processin!# a feed stream of particles is contin"o"sl$ deposited onto a hori>ontal or nearl$ hori>ontal screen and con e$ed across the s"rface of the screen &$ i&rator$ or !$rator$ motion of the screen s$stem. The o&?ecti e ma$ &e to 1scalp3 the o er.si>e particles# in which case e er$thin! else passes thro"!h the screen# or the o&?ecti e ma$ &e to remo e 1fines3# in which case onl$ the fines pass thro"!h the screen# or the o&?ecti e ma$ &e to remo e &oth o er.si>e and "nder.si>e particles in which case two screens are "sed. )t ma$ e en &e desired to di ide the pellets into se eral si>e 1c"ts3 th"s re,"irin! m"ltiple screens. The effecti eness with which the si>e di isions are made is dictated &$ the speed of passa!e of the pellets o er the screen# &$ the t$pe and i!o"r of the i&rator$ or !$rator$ motion# &$ the flowa&ilit$ of the particles# &$ their shape and &$ their densit$. 2creenin! relies on !ra it$ to p"ll the particles thro"!h the screen apert"res# so denser particles are easier to screen. =$rator$ motion is more effecti e in spreadin! particles across the screen s"rface. The capacit$ of a screen s$stem is ,"oted in po"nds per ho"r of feed per

"nit area of screen# &"t the act"al capacit$ depends on the t$pe of particles and on what constit"tes an ade,"ate de!ree of separation: how m"ch off.specification material can &e left in the prod"ct and# con ersel$# how m"ch wasta!e of prod"ct is accepta&le. %loc-a!e of screen openin!s red"ces s$stem capacit$( it can &e addressed and minimi>ed if it is a pro&lem for the material at hand. 2creenin! is effecti e down to a&o"t 70.100 microns# which is inade,"ate for some of toda$3s prod"cts that incorporate s"per.fine particles. DeCenso ' @ *2000 'pril+ 1Dr$ 2creenin! of =ran"lar 2olids3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.78.97. :eed

D er.si>e :ines *"nder.si>e+ Prod"ct 17.(.(. Elutriation, Air-Classification ' particle immersed in a stationar$ or mo in! fl"id &"t with a elocit$ different from the fl"id is acted "pon &$ a dra! force which tends to ma-e the particle ta-e the same elocit$ as the fl"id. )f an external force *e.!.# !ra itational or centrif"!al+ acts on the particle then the particle adopts a speed and/or direction different from the fl"id. The extent to which this happens depends on the relati e ma!nit"des of dra! force and the external force. )n !eneral# the !reater the si>e *and the !reater the densit$+ of the particle# the !reater the de iation. This principle is "sed in centrif"!ation# c$clone separation# and settlin!# as well as in el"triation and air.classification. Elutriation itself is a cr"de separation tool# dependin! on onl$ !ra it$ as the external force. )f particles are introd"ced into an "pward.mo in! stream of !as# the li!hter ones are carried with the !as and the hea ier ones fall thro"!h the !as. The selecti it$ of this separation is poor &"t el"triation ma$ &e a !ood pre.separation step. 2ome commercial el"triators are in the form of a >i!.>a! channel. Air-classification "ses rotational motion of air to create centrif"!al force. The rotation ma$ come from tan!entiall$ introd"ced air# as in a c$clone# &"t the more effecti e and hi!h.thro"!hp"t classifiers "se a mechanical rotor. C$clones are effecti e down to particle si>e aro"nd 06 microns( the$ do not !i e !ood 1sharpness of c"t3. Mechanicall$. dri en classifiers# incorporatin! also an el"triation section# operate in the ran!e 6.260 microns. 2pecial hi!h.ener!$ dispersion classifiers operate in the ran!e 1.60 microns.

Classifiers are often "sed in com&ination with commin"tion and sometimes with on.line laser meas"rement of particle a era!e si>e. Sharpness of cut is defined on the &asis of the size-selectivity c"r e. The particle diameter# D76# is noted at which 76 wei!ht C is classified as 1lar!e3 and the particle diameter# D26# is noted at which 26C is classified as 1lar!e3. 2harpness of c"t E D26 / D76 /al"es can ran!e from extremes of 0.0 *no separation+ to 1.0 *perfect separation+. T$pical al"es are 0.7 to 0.7 &"t can reach 0.5 for low loadin!. Bl"mpar ) / *1552 'pril+ 1Control and 2cale."p 'ir Classifiers3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.60.66. ;ixon 4 *1552 @"l$+ 12i>in! Fp 'ir Classifiers3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.65.82. Crawle$ =# Malcolmson '# Crosle$ ) and Mc4eish ' *2002 'pril+ 1Particle Classification: Ma-in! the =rade3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.60.80. :ines G air# o"t :eed# in

'ir# in Coarse# o"t 17.(.). Magnetic Separation, Electrostatic Precipitation )f particles of different composition are to &e separated# then other properties &esides si>e ma$ &e p"t to "se. Differences in densit$ or shape *or si>e+ ma$ &e in o-ed. Ma!netic s"scepti&ilit$ is another possi&ilit$. Certainl$ if one component is a ferromagnetic# s"ch as iron# co&alt or nic-el# then# &eca"se of its er$ hi!h s"scepti&ilit$# it is relati el$ eas$ to p"ll free from a mixt"re of particles. Man$ other materials . other elements and compo"nds . are paramagnetics and ha e the a&ilit$ *s"scepti&ilit$+ to &e temporaril$ ma!neti>ed in a ma!netic field. )f the t$pes of particles in a mixt"re ha e different s"scepti&ilities then the$ ma$ &e separa&le &$ ma!netic means. Ta&les of s"scepti&ilit$ are a aila&le. 2ome s"&stances are diamagnetic and are repelled &$ ma!netic fields. The 2tationar$ e,"ipment where&$ separation is carried o"t is e,"ipped first to attract the s"scepti&le ma!net particles and then to deposit them in a different location from the non *or lesser+ attracted particles. ' ma!netic dr"m is one s"ch de ice.

Particles of different composition ma$ sometimes &e separated &$ electrical forces. ' char!e is ind"ced in the particles &$ means of contact# cond"ction or ionic &om&ardment. Dependin! on the nat"re of the material# indi id"al particles pic- "p more or less char!e and are attracted more or less to an electrode of opposite char!e. The method &ecomes ineffecti e for particles !reater than a&o"t 0 millimetres diameter &eca"se !ra itational forces *proportional to the c"&e of diameter+ &ecome m"ch !reater than the electrical forces which are proportional to diameter s,"ared.

17.). .a$-Li !id Separation$ Two !eneral sit"ations are li,"id.dispersed.in.!as and !as.dispersed.in.li,"id. The first sit"ation arises for instance when apo"r from a &oilin! or spar!ed pool of li,"id carries *entrains+ li,"id droplets apo"r emer!es from a flashin! two.phase flow a !as. apo"r mixt"re is cooled. The second sit"ation ma$ arise when !as passes thro"!h# or apo"r is !enerated within# a li,"id# and is partic"larl$ prono"nced if the li,"id is isco"s a li,"id is a!itated i!oro"sl$. )n !eneral these !as.li,"id mixt"res are "ndesired and re,"ire separation. The li,"id.in.!as sit"ation is examined first. The method of separation depends on the si>e of the li,"id droplets and also on the loadin! in the !as. <e examine the methods startin! with the lar!est droplets and the hi!hest loadin!s.

17.).1. Gravity Settling Two.phase mixt"res emer!in! from !as.li,"id pipelines often ha e lar!e li,"id loadin!s and !ross dispersion of li,"id in the !as. ' t$pical li,"id concentration is 60 litres per c"&ic metre of !as. ' simple 1-noc-.o"t3 pot can do the initial separation of !as and li,"id and sho"ld &e installed ahead of an$ more sophisticated de ice. =as lea es at the top and li,"id lea es at the &ottom# &oth streams pro&a&l$ containin! some amo"nt of the other phase. 17.).(. Cyclone Flow :or li,"id content in the ran!e 1 to 60 litres per c"&ic metre a c$clone is effecti e in separatin! li,"id from !as# especiall$ if the li,"id droplets are lar!er than 10.60 microns. ;owe er# smaller droplets are carried o"t with the !as stream. 17.).). nertial Precipitation! De-Misting, Scru""ing :or droplets !reater than 6.60 microns# passa!e of the !as.li,"id thro"!h a wire.mesh pad can remo e most of the li,"id. The !as passes aro"nd the wire elements &"t the li,"id# ha in! more inertia# collides with the wire and collects *precipitates+ on it. The li,"id r"ns to!ether *i.e.# coalesces+ and forms droplets that are lar!e eno"!h to detach and fall &aca!ainst the main flow. The cut size of the droplets remo ed *i.e.# the diameter of droplet s"ch that 60 percent are remo ed from the !as+ ma$ &e estimated from the form"la C"t si>e E 2.702 x 108 x H * !as iscosit$ x wire diameter+ / * li,"id densit$ x !as elocit$+ I 1/2 )t is common to install a mesh pad at the top of a -noc-.o"t pot# to remo e some of the li,"id that still remains in the !as. 'nother ariet$ of inertial precipitation is the scrubber where the droplets which it is desired to remo e collide with lar!er drops of li,"id spra$ed into the path of the !as. These drops are lar!e eno"!h to settle &$ !ra it$. This t$pe of s$stem is "sed for droplets 20 microns or less. There are se eral st$les of scr"&&ers# some of them er$ thoro"!h. Df co"rse the introd"ction of the additional li,"id m"st &e compati&le with the process materials. 17.).*. Electrostatic Precipitation Droplets as small as 2 microns ma$ &e remo ed from a stream of !as &$ &ein! !i en a char!e thro"!h *ioni>ation of the !as+ and then &ein! collected on an electrode. The method wor-s &etter at lar!er si>es# e.!.# a&o e 60 microns. 17.).+. Coalescence <hen droplet si>e is er$ small# sa$ less than a micron# the inertial techni,"es &ecome ineffecti e. Mists and fo!s comprise droplets in this si>e ran!e. 2mall particles follow the motion of the !as so closel$ that there is little chance for capt"re &$ impin!ement. )n this case the phenomenon of choice is coalescence. The !as.li,"id mixt"re is passed thro"!h a &ed of fine fi&res onto which the li,"id droplets adhere in passin! and on which the$ !row to a si>e that lets them separate after the !as.li,"id mixt"re lea es the coalescer. The &ed is t$picall$ a hollow c$linder# either ertical or hori>ontal. =as and li,"id enter at one end and emer!e from the o"tside of the c$linder all alon! its len!th. The fi&res are

si>ed to enhance the !rowth of droplets. The$ ma$ ha e a non.wettin! fl"oropol$mer coatin! which preser es the capt"red droplets as droplets and enhances their a&ilit$ to "nite with one another. <ines T ; *2000 @an"ar$+ 1)mpro e li,"id/!as coalescer performance3# ;$drocar&on Processin! p.95.58. %loch ; P *2000 '"!"st+ 12ol e $o"r h$drocrac-er compressor pro&lems3# ;$drocar&on Processin! p.75.02.

=as# o"t

Coalesced li,"id =as G li,"id# in

17.)./. Foam-#rea$ing The other t$pe of !as.li,"id mixt"re sometimes re,"irin! separation is the mixt"re where the li,"id forms the contin"o"s phase# i.e.# froths and foams. 2ometimes it is essential to separate the li,"id components from the !as components. Dften howe er# the pro&lem is ?"st that the foam ta-es "p space in a reactor or in the sta!es of a distillation col"mn. )n the extreme# foam ma$ start iss"in! from the essel where !as was expected. There are three sit"ations. 1. ' li,"id is &oilin! or !as is &ein! passed thro"!h it. E en tho"!h the !as separates from the li,"id &$ lea in! the top s"rface it still occ"pies space within the &"&&l$ mixt"re. The in situ li,"id ol"metric fraction in the mixt"re is !enerall$ descri&ed &$ an expression of form ol frac li,"id E 1 / * 1 J a K F2 + where 0S is the s"perficial elocit$ of the !as * ol"metric flow di ided &$ cross.sectional area+ and a is a constant the al"e of which depends on the s$stem and partic"larl$ on li,"id iscosit$. This &eha io"r is simpl$ a fact of life: the expansion of the li,"id into a &"&&l$ mixt"re has to &e ta-en into acco"nt when desi!nin! or fillin! a essel. 2. ' !as has &een introd"ced into the li,"id d"rin! part of a process &"t that part is o er. <hile most of the &"&&les ha e risen and disappeared# a pop"lation of small slowl$.risin! &"&&les remains. This sit"ation occ"rs most commonl$ with isco"s li,"ids. The rise elocit$ is proportional to &"&&le diameter s,"ared and in ersel$ to li,"id iscosit$. )f the !as m"st &e remo ed and if it is not practical to wait lon! eno"!h# then a ac""m ma$ &e applied in order to increase the si>e of the &"&&les or the li,"id ma$ &e heated to red"ce its iscosit$.

7. ' tr"e foam is present# i.e.# a la$er of sta&le &"&&les at the top of the li,"id pool. =enerall$ a third# trace component is responsi&le for the sta&ilit$ of the &"&&les. Mechanical means# li-e rotatin! &ars or paddles# are sometimes "sed to stir and &rea- the &"&&les. More commonl$ a chemical# !enerall$ at low concentration *a few parts per million+# is added as an anti-foam. The nat"re and operati e mechanism of these s"&stances aries &"t it is tho"!ht that the$ ma$ s"&stit"te their acti it$ for that of the component ca"sin! the foam. )n an$ case the$ ca"se the li,"id mem&rane &etween the &"&&les to r"pt"re or to thin and drain &ac- into the pool# th"s allowin! the !as in the &"&&les to escape. 2ilicones are a pop"lar anti.foam# as are se eral different or!anic compo"nds and a few inor!anics. 'nti.foams are chosen for their effecti eness in the s$stem at hand and also for the lac- of an$ ad erse effects on the process or prod"ct. :or instance# some anti.foams are "naccepta&le in food or in pac-a!in! materials that will come in contact with food. Perr$ A ; and =reen D < *1557+ Perrys Chemical Engineers andboo!" Seventh Edition# Chapter 10# p.56.59# Mc=raw.;ill %oo- Compan$# Lew Mor-.

17.*. .a$-Solid Separation$ Three possi&le reasons wh$ !as stream &earin! partic"lates ma$ re,"ire separation are the partic"lates ha e al"e the e,"ipment into which the !as is s"&se,"entl$ enterin! wo"ld &e dama!ed &$ partic"lates *e.!.# a compressor+ the !as is &ein! released to atmosphere and m"st &e clean. ' common sit"ation is in pne"matic con e$in! of pellets# where not onl$ m"st the pellets &e separated from the !as stream &"t so m"st an$ fines that were !enerated &$ attrition. Phillips pro ides a s"r e$ of methods for remo in! partic"lates *&oth solid and li,"id+ from !ases. The followin! methods are disc"ssed here !ra it$ settlin! c$clone flow scr"&&in! filtration electrostatic precipitation Phillips ; < *2000 2eptem&er+ 12elect the Proper =as Cleanin! E,"ipment3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.15.79. 17.*.1. Gravity Settling

)f partic"lates are lar!e eno"!h then the$ ma$ &e remo a&le &$ pro idin! a >one of low !as elocit$ and low dra! force# so that !ra it$ can do its wor-. The terminal or fall elocit$ 0 of small particles of diameter ,p can &e calc"lated &$ e,"atin! the force of !ra it$ to the resisti e force of the 1stationar$3 !as: */8+ D7 * p . ! + !c E 7 ! Dp F where p is particle densit$# & is !as densit$# & is !as iscosit$ and &c is the con ersion 5.9 newtons per -ilo!ram force. To achie e separation in an$ reasona&le time *a few seconds+ the particles ha e to ha e diameters in the millimetre ran!e. )f the ran!e of particle si>es extends "p this hi!h then settlin! is a !ood first sta!e in the separation se,"ence. 17.*.(. Cyclone Flow C$clones are one of the oldest methods of partic"late separation. 's mentioned in section 17.2.2# the si>e selecti it$ is mediocre *!enerall$ ma-in! c$clones inade,"ate for sortin! particles &$ si>e+ and this fact m"st &e -ept in mind in when desi!nin! for separation of particles from !ases. T$picall$# for c$clones the sharpness of cut as defined in section 17.2.2 is 0.2. Nen> pro ides the method and e,"ations re,"ired for desi!nin! a c$clone to remo e particles down to a re,"ired si>e. The o erall efficienc$ *percent of enterin! particles remo ed+ of a !i en c$clone depends on the enterin! si>e distri&"tion. C$clones are not effecti e at si>es &elow a&o"t 6 microns. )n some de ices on the mar-et the centrif"!al action of a c$clone is replaced &$ mechanicall$ dri en rotation and this allows particles as small as one micron to &e separated. Nen> : ' *2001 @an"ar$+ 1C$clone.Desi!n Tips3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.80.80. 17.*.). Scru""ing 2cr"&&in! with a li,"id can -noc- o"t particles in the ran!e 0.1 to 100 microns. The simple spra$ tower scr"&&er is not the most efficient desi!n# with poor efficienc$ especiall$ at particle si>es &elow 10 microns. More modern desi!ns incorporate c$clone action# pac-ed and fl"idi>ed &eds# tra$ed col"mns# orifice and ent"ri flow. )n most of these cases the !as flow is channeled down at selected locations to achie e hi!h elocit$ so that its ener!$ can &e "sed to atomi>e the scr"&&in! li,"id and present lar!e li,"id s"rface area for particle capt"re. These scr"&&ers ha e hi!her press"re drop than simple spra$ de ices.

17.*.*. Filtration The most common t$pe of partic"late filter "sed ind"striall$ is made of fa&ric# thro"!h which the !as passes and on the s"rface of which the particles collect. )n fact# the ca-e which forms is the prime filter medi"m. These filters are si>ed for !as elocit$ of 0.7 to 2.6 metres per min"te and press"re drop of 0.6 to 1.6 -ilopascals *2.8 inches of water+. :a&ric filters are er$ efficient *!reater than 55 percent# approachin! 100 percent+ e en for particles of s"&.micron si>e. 's the ca-e of collected particles &"ilds "p# the press"re drop increases# so pro ision is made to periodicall$ remo e the ca-e# &$ sha-in! or p"lsin! the fa&ric or &$ re ersin! the flow. This t$pe of filter is limited in the temperat"re it can tolerate# &"t new s$nthetic fi&res ha e raised the limit. ' -noc-.o"t step to remo e lar!e hot particles is sometimes pro ided "pstream. 'nother approach is to pass the !as.particle mixt"re thro"!h a !ran"lar &ed. This t$pe of filter can operate at hi!her temperat"re. Efficienc$ of 55.5 percent can &e achie ed. 's the !ran"les &ecome coated with particles the &ed re,"ires re!eneration or replacement. )n some case the &ed is mo in!: !ran"les are contin"o"sl$ withdrawn# cleaned and rec$cled. :or low loadin! of partic"lates# high-efficiency particulate air # EPA$ filters pro ide hi!h efficienc$ down to er$ small si>es of particles *less than 0.1 micron+. The medi"m is a paper comprisin! er$ fine fi&res *less than a micron diameter+ in a matrix of lar!er fi&res. 17.*.+. Electrostatic Precipitation Electrical char!e can &e ind"ced on particles# allowin! them to &e collected on an oppositel$ char!ed s"rface. The ad anta!es# relati e to other separators# are low press"re drop and tolerance of hi!h temperat"re and press"re. The disad anta!e is cost.

17.+. Li !id-Solid Separation$ 2ome of the sit"ations in which a li,"id and solid particles are mixed with each other are nat"rall$ occ"rin! streams of water &earin! silt li,"id.phase reaction mixt"res containin! a catal$st in pellet form mother li,"or and cr$stalli>ed material waste streams containin! sl"d!e or other en ironmental contaminants. The most often "sed separation techni,"es are centrif"!ation and filtration. The$ alon! with some lesser methods are disc"ssed here. 17.+.1. Se%imentation Centrifugation 's explained pre io"sl$# centrif"!ation is an extension of the techni,"e of settling# where the force of !ra it$ is replaced &$ a m"ch !reater centrifugal force. The smallest and simplest centrif"!e is that fo"nd in the chemistr$ la&orator$# where a circ"lar rac- of test

t"&es is whirled at hi!h speed !enerall$ to dri e a dispersed precipitate to the &ottom of the t"&e. )n section 17.1.7 the tubular *sometimes called tubular bowl+ centrif"!e was mentioned as a de ice for separatin! immisci&le li,"ids. This de ice is also "sed for li,"id.solid mixt"res. This is a more common "sa!e of centrif"!es in !eneral and# when so desi!ned and "sed# the$ are called sedimentation centrifuges. There are se eral st$les. The solid-bowl bas!et *or solid-bowl batch+ centrif"!e is similar to the t"&"lar &"t is less elon!ated and is "sed at lar!er scales and can tolerate lar!er solid particles. 4i-e the t"&"lar it is a &atch "nit# re,"irin! periodic sh"tdown to remo e the solids that are deposited at the wall. 4i,"id is contin"o"sl$ dischar!ed. %oth centrif"!es rotate a&o"t a ertical axis. The multi-chamber *or chamber bowl+ centrif"!e is also a &atch essel rotatin! a&o"t a ertical axis. )nternall$ it is fitted with concentric ertical partitions s"ch thst the sl"rr$ has to "p and down s"ccessi e ann"li. The effect is to prod"ce more s"rface area for solids to settle on.

2l"rr$# in 4i,"id# o"t

' famil$ of disc *or disc stac!+ centrif"!es are also fitted with internal partitions &"t inclined at an an!le to the ertical. 2l"rr$ is initiall$ directed to the o"tside of the rotatin! shell# then has to ma-e its wa$ &ac- across the partitions to reach a central exit. '!ain the o&?ecti e is to ha e more area for solids settlin!.There are three main st$les of disc centrif"!es. The solids retaining *or manual discharge+ disc centrif"!e is a &atch de ice in that it m"st &e sh"t down periodicall$ and cleared of solids. The intermittent discharge *or solids e%ecting+ disc centrif"!e allows solids to &e expelled a"tomaticall$ from time to time and is th"s a contin"o"s operation.

The nozzle discharging disc centrif"!e is pro ided with contin"o"s dischar!e of solids and is operated contin"o"sl$. )n all of the "nits li,"id is dischar!ed contin"o"sl$.

2l"rr$# in

4i,"id# o"t

The lar!e contin"o"s ersatile wor-horse of ind"str$ is the scroll decanter *or solid-bowl decanter+. 2ome "nits rotate a&o"t a ertical axis# some a&o"t a hori>ontal axis. The rotatin! c$linder or &owl is fitted with an internal wall.wipin! helical screw which rotates at a sli!htl$ different speed. The screw contin"o"sl$ p"shes solids to a dischar!e port as the solids appear on the wall.

' h$&rid ariation on this desi!n is the screen-bowl decanter *or screen-bowl centrif"!e+ in which the screw p"sh the solids across a c$lindrical screen &efore dischar!e# allowin! the solid to rid itself of free li,"id. 'lon! this theme# there are filters which "se centrif"!al action as the moti e force to achie e hi!h rates of filtration. The references pro ide comparisons of the operational details and the applica&ilit$ of the ario"s centrif"!e desi!ns. Moir D L *1599 March 29+ 12edimentation Centrif"!es3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.02.61. 4et-i ' = *1559 2eptem&er+ 1Bnow <hen to T"rn to Centrif"!al 2eparation3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.25.00. Perr$ A ; and =reen D < *1557+ Perrys Chemical Engineers andboo!" Seventh Edition# Chapter 19# p.110.126# Mc=raw.;ill %oo- Compan$# Lew Mor-. 17.+.(. Filtration :iltration is the separation of solids from a fl"id &$ passa!e of the fl"id thro"!h a medi"m that restrains all or part of the solids. :iltration from !ases has alread$ &een descri&ed# in section 17.0.0. ;ere the fl"id is li,"id. :iltration tends to &e "sed when the solids content in the li,"id.solid sl"rr$ is relati el$ low. )n most cases the li,"id is the prod"ct of al"e and the remo al of solids is done to impro e the al"e and processa&ilit$ of the li,"id. The filtration medi"m ma$ &e an$ one *or a com&ination+ of wo en screens or fa&ric# or non.wo en fa&ric or paper# or a poro"s mem&rane. The confi!"ration ma$ locate the medi"m in a plate.and.frame apparat"s# on hori>ontal plates# as circ"lar or flat cartrid!es. as a &elt# as a rotar$ dr"m# or as the wall of a centrif"!e. =ran"lar &eds are also sometimes "sed for filtration. There are three &asic t$pes of filtration. 1. Ca!e filtration. The solids &"ild "p on the s"rface of the filter medi"m and form a ca-e of steadil$ increasin! thic-ness. This ca-e act"all$ &ecomes the filter. ' filter aid *e.!.# diatomaceo"s earth+ ma$ &e added to enhance the filtration. ;owe er it m"st &e remo ed from time to time as the press"re drop &ecomes excessi e. 2. Depth filtration. The solid particles enter into the filter medi"m and are trapped &etween fi&res. =rad"all$ the medi"m &ecomes pl"!!ed or &e!ins to pass solids o"t with the filtrate *the lea in! li,"id+# so the filter re,"ires periodic cleanin!. 7. Cross-flow membrane filtration. This more recentl$ de eloped t$pe of filtration is desi!ned to separate o"t er$ small particles. )nstead of flowin! though the filter medi"m *in this case a poro"s mem&rane+ the li,"id.solid mixt"re mo es across it. 2ome material passes thro"!h the mem&rane &"t the s"rface of the mem&rane is -ept free of solids acc"m"lation. There are fo"r de!rees of mem&rane filtration# as listed &$ D"ff$*2007+:

T$pe Micro Fltra Lano Ae erse osmosis

press"re drop *&ars+ 0.6.7 1.6.10 8.20 10.80

Pore passa!e si>e 0.06.6 microns 1000.60000 molec"lar wei!ht 100.700 mol wt 'llows onl$ water to pass

;a$es B O *2001 @"l$+ 1Process :iltration: Characteri>in! :l"ids G Medi"m 2election3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.72.79. D"ff$ @ *2007 @"ne+ 1P"ttin! Crossflow :iltration to the Test3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.76.01.

17.+.(. Settling )f the difference in densities of li,"id and solid is !reat eno"!h then an ade,"ate separation ma$ &e achie ed simpl$ &$ lettin! the particles settle to the &ottom of a essel. The operation ma$ &e &atch or contin"o"s. )f the o&?ecti e is to prod"ce a clear li,"id *e.!.# water+ then the settler is called a clarifier. )f the o&?ecti e is to reco er a al"a&le solid prod"ct then the settler is called a thic!ener. )n an$ case the &eha io"r of the descendin! solid phase is complicated &$ the interaction of particles with one another. Dne cannot simpl$ extrapolate from the &eha io"r of sin!le particles. )n contin"o"s operation there will alwa$s &e a !radient of solid concentration from top to &ottom of the essel. Christian @ % *1550 @"l$+ 1)mpro e Clarifier and Thic-ener Desi!n and Dperation3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.60.68. 17.+.). Flotation )n settlin!# the more common case and the case "s"all$ considered is that of particles hea ier than the li,"id. 2olids settle to the &ottom. )n the e ent that the solid material is less dense then the particles float to the top where the$ ma$ &e s-immed off. ;owe er e en denser particles can &e made to float if &"&&les attach to them. This is the principle of flotation. )t is "sed in the metall"r!ical ind"str$ where ore particles are considera&l$ hea ier than water &"t it is still con enient to remo e them from the top rather than the &ottom. )n waste water treatment# flotation is "sed to remo e fats# !reases and oil$ material# which wo"ld act"all$ float on its own &"t onl$ er$ slowl$. %"&&les form a!!lomerates &etween small !lo&"les and help them rise# &eca"se the$ !et &i!!er and &eca"se the$ !et li!hter with the air attached. The process wor-s &est when the air &"&&les are small# aro"nd 2 millimetres in diameter. :lotation is also "sed in the reco er$ of oil from tar sands. %elhateche D ; *1556 '"!"st+ 1Choose 'ppropriate <astewater Treatment Technolo!ies3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.72.05.

Nin-"s = '# %$ers < D and Doerr < < *1559 Ma$+ 1)dentif$ 'ppropriate <ater Aeclamation Technolo!ies3# Chemical En!ineerin! Pro!ress p.15.71. ;airston D *2002 Ma$+ 1Com&in! Dil from Tar 2ands3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.27.71. 17.+.+. Flocculation )n settlin!# where terminal elocit$ aries as the s,"are of particle diameter# and in an$ process where fl"id dra! forces are in ol ed# it is ad anta!eo"s to ha e &i!!er particles. ' flocc"latin! a!ent acts to &rin! small particles to!ether into lar!er faster.settlin! entities. ;"!hes *1577+ lists a n"m&er of flocc"lants# all of them or!anic# most of them pol$meric# some non.ionic# some containin! acidic or &asic f"nctional !ro"ps. To &e economicall$ practical a flocc"latin! a!ent m"st &e effecti e in low concentrations. The$ are "sed in settlin! and also in decantin! centrif"!es. ;"!hes M ' *1577+ 1Coa!"lation and :locc"lation3# in 2 aro s-$ 4# editor# Solid-&i'uid Separation" (utterworths" &ondon) Perr$ A ; and =reen D < *1557+ Perrys Chemical Engineers andboo!" Sevenyh Edition" chapter 19# p.87. Moir *1599 March 29+ op cit 17.+./. &y%roclone Flow The h$droclone *or hydrocyclone or hydraulic cyclone+ is the li,"id.phase analo!"e of the !as.phase c$clone. )t is "sed to separate particles contin"o"sl$ from li,"id where the particles are more dense than the li,"id.. 4i-e a c$clone# it has a tan!ential feed and a swirlin! motion which dri es the particles towards the wall. The initial part of the wall is c$lindrical and the later part narrows down in conical fashion. 4ar!e particles lea e alon! with some of the li,"id thro"!h a central o"tlet at the narrow end of the cone. This is the underflow. 2mall particles and most of the li,"id lea e thro"!h a central pipe at the other end# the overflow. The desi!n of a h$droclone starts with the specification of the desired cut size ,+1# alread$ defined as that particle diameter for which 60 percent of those particles lea e in the "nderflow. =ome> *1552+ pro ides an e,"ation for the re,"ired diameter of the h$droclone. ;e pro ides f"rther e,"ations for li,"id capacit$ and for press"re drop. 'ltho"!h h$droclones are "s"all$ shown with their axis ertical this orientation is not mandator$ &eca"se !ra it$ pla$s little part in the operation. =ome> states the followin! relationship for the efficienc$ of separation of particles of diameter , other than the c"t si>e: Percent lea in! with the "nderflow E E E 100 x H 1 . e . * *D / D60+ . 0.116 + KK7 I %ased on this expression# the sharpness of cut *defined in section 17.2.2+ is calc"lated as 0.87# which is ,"ite !ood. ;$droclones ha e the ad anta!es of no mo in! parts and contin"o"s operation. ;owe er the internal motion is i!oro"s and ma$ dama!e some materials.

2 aro s-$ 4 *1577+ 1;$droc$clones3# in 2 aro s-$ 4# editor# Solid-&i'uid Separation" (utterworths" &ondon =ome> @ / *1552 'pril+ 1Correlations Ease ;$droc$clone 2election Part 13# Chemical En!ineerin! p.187.9( *1552 Ma$+ p.181.187. 2alc"dean M# =artshore ) and 2tatie E C *2007 'pril+ 1Test ;$droc$clones %efore The$ 're %"ilt3# Chemical En!ineerin! p.88.71. 17.+.7. E'pression an% (ic$ing )f the li,"id.solid mixt"re is lar!el$ solid and if the li,"id is loosel$ held# then it ma$ &e possi&le to s,"ee>e o"t# or e*press a si!nificant part of the li,"id. <rin!in! a cloth or s,"ee>in! an oran!e are domestic examples and in fact expression is "sed commerciall$ in the ma-in! of ?"ices.. Expression ma$ &e "sed to !et rid of the &"l- of the li,"id &efore a more intense step to reach the final desired le el. )n paper.ma-in!# press.felts are &ro"!ht into contact with the formed sheet to wic! away some of the resid"al water left after the initial formation of the sheet. This step precedes the final dr$in! o er steam.heated rolls. %lottin! paper is another example of a wic-in! material. Perr$ A ; and =reen D < *1557+ Perrys Chemical Engineers andboo!" Sevenyh Edition" chapter 19# p.126.170.