INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH Int. J. Energy Res.

2010; 34:11951204 Published online 29 December 2009 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.1639

SHORT COMMUNICATION Environmental and economical impact of LED lighting systems and effect of thermal management
Mehmet Arik1,,y and Anant Setlur2
1 2

General Electric Company Global Research Center, Thermal Systems Laboratory, One Research Circle ES-210 Niskayuna, NY 12309, U.S.A. General Electric Company Global Research Center, Optical Materials Laboratory, One Research Circle ES-210 Niskayuna, NY 12309, U.S.A.

SUMMARY Solid-state lighting (SSL) technologies such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) have been of interest for the last 15 years. This article focuses on inorganic LED technology and their evolving applications, energy efciency, and economic impact as well as the effect of thermal management on LED lighting systems. The efcacy of the best commercial 1 W LED packages currently surpasses 120 lm/W, which is more efcient than typical metal-halide and uorescent lamps. This high efcacy will eventually allow LED lighting systems to be used in specialty and general illumination applications. However, higher lumen requirements for LED systems will inevitably lead to signicant thermal challenges at both the chip and the system level that need to be addressed to enable practical applications at low costs. In this article, the basics of LED lighting will be discussed rst. It will be followed by the potential economic benets for high efciency LED lighting systems in the general illumination market. We will then discuss the thermal challenges and possible candidate cooling technologies in LED lighting systems. Copyright r 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS:

light emitting diodes; LEDs; solid state lighting; SSL; thermal management; synthetic jets; luminaire; lamp; energy; environment

1. INTRODUCTION The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that lighting accounts for 22% of total primary energy consumption annually [1]. This totals to 6.45 quadrillion BTUs (quads) or 1890 billion kW h with an annual national cost of $152 billion. The most inefcient light sources, incandescent

lamps, account for 48% (3.07 quads) of this total. There have been recent trends and legislation to replace incandescent lamps with halogen and compact uorescent lamps (CFLs). While linear uorescent lamps (LFLs) and CFLs can have very high efcacies (Table I), they are very mature technologies, and their efcacies are not expected to improve by more than 5%. Given the maturity of

*Correspondence to: Mehmet Arik, General Electric Company Global Research Center, Thermal Systems Laboratory, One Research Circle ES-210 Niskayuna, NY 12309, U.S.A. y E-mail: arik@crd.ge.com Received 23 September 2009 Accepted 25 September 2009

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Table I. Efcacy values of lighting devices [2]. Light source Incandescent (no ballast) Halogen (no ballast) Compact uorescent (CFL, including ballast) Linear uorescent (including ballast) Metal halide (including ballast) Cool white LEDs (5000 K, excluding driver) Warm white LED (CCTo3300 K, excluding driver) Efcacy [lm/W] 1018 1520 3560 60100 5090 6090 4060

LFL and CFL technologies, it was previously thought that reducing the lighting energy consumption would primarily come from the adoption of these efcient lighting sources. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) were not initially considered for general illumination. They were mostly used as red, yellow, and green color indicator lights based on AlInGaP semiconductor technology. White LED lamps and/or systems were not possible because no efcient blue LEDs were available. This situation changed in the mid-1990s with the introduction of ultra bright blue LEDs from Nichia that were based on the InGaN semiconductor system. These initial LEDs produced about 1 mW optical power at 450 nm and marked a key starting point for LED-based lighting. This initial work in developing blue InGaN LEDs has subsequently led to high power blue, green, and violet LEDs and has enabled the semiconductor-based light sources that is the focus of this article. In LED-based lighting systems, white light is produced by two basic approaches. First, one can use a combination of red, green, and blue LEDs. The second approach is to implement a violet/blue LED in combination with inorganic phosphor powders to downconvert LED radiation into white light. Today, efcacies for phosphor converted LEDs using blue InGaN LEDs and Y3Al5O12: Ce31 (YAG:Ce) yellow phosphors can be more than 120 lm/W for 1 W devices, signicantly better than LFLs and CFLs. However, apart from efcacy, color quality is an another important aspect for general illumination, dened by two key metrics (provided that the color of the lamp is close to that of a blackbody source), the correlated color temperature (CCT) and the color-rendering index (CRI). For a given spectral power distribution, the
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Figure 1. Photograph of a GE Lumination VioTM.

CCT is dened as the temperature of an equivalent blackbody light source. As a reference, sunlight has a CCT ranging from 5000 6500 K, while incandescent and halogen lamps have CCTs ranging from 2500 3200 K. The CRI is a metric that denes how colors appear under a specic light source with blackbody light sources dened to have CRIs of 100; typical LFLs and CFLs have CRIs of about 82. Currently, the LEDs with the highest efcacy have very high CCTs (>5000 K) with CRIs of 75, producing a cold bluish light. Therefore, these lamps, while efcient, are not likely to replace low CCT, high CRI incandescent, or halogen lamps. However, developments in phosphor and LED system technology have led to warmer white LEDs (26003500 K) that now approach and surpass CFL efcacies. One example of a warm white LED package is the GE Lumination VioTM [2] (Figure 1) that demonstrates the benets of solid-state lighting (SSL): long life, robustness, and energy savings with exceptional light quality. This effort to make the efcacy of LED lighting competitive with traditional light sources has required advances in LED chip efciency, polymer or silicone encapsulants, phosphors, thermal management, and power electronics. These advances will enable LEDs to replace incandescent lamps and CFLs.
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While white LED efcacy can surpass the efcacy of traditional lighting sources, there are still expectations for signicant improvements in LED lighting system efcacy. The U.S. DOE has dened a long-term efcacy goal of 160 lm/W for warm white LEDs over the next decade [1]. If this efcacy goal is reached along with a reduction in the initial cost of LED-based lighting systems, the energy and economic benets from the development of LEDbased lighting will be enormous. For example, if all incandescent lamps were replaced by 160 lm/W LED-based sources, this would reduce the total primary energy consumption in the U.S. by 10%, leading to a reduction in the national energy bill of about $65 billion and a reduction in the total carbon emission of 45 million metric tons (MMTC). Even achieving intermediate DOE goals will lead to signicant energy savings and reductions in carbon emissions. We take as an example the replacement of 1500 lm incandescent reector lamp systems with 9 lm/W efcacy with 75 lm/W SSL systems. Assuming an initial cost of $50 for the LED system, the comparable incandescent system would cost $650 more over the LED system lifetime when taking the energy and lamp replacement costs into consideration. This translates into a payback time of 1 year for 8 h/day of operation and would therefore be attractive to commercial and industrial customers who are sensitive to the overall cost of lighting systems. Taking a market penetration of 25% for replacing incandescent reector lamps in the U.S. with this LED system would result in an annual energy savings of 0.13 quads and an annual reduction in the total carbon emission of 2.1 million metric tons. The example represents only one replacement market with a limited market penetration. Considering all of the potential markets within lighting and higher market penetrations, the energy savings and reduction in overall carbon emission will be signicant. While this estimate is for incandescent lamp replacements, high efciency SSL will eventually also give signicant energy savings versus CFLs, especially when considering optical losses in CFL xtures can be more than 50%. Due to the potential of LED lighting, engineers and designers are looking to replace both low efcacy incandescent lamps and create new xtures
Copyright r 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

that use the unique optical properties of LEDs. However, even with the advances in LED brightness and efcacy, the lumen requirements for typical replacement lamps in general illumination (>700 lm) require a large number of LEDs, leading to high initial lamp costs. Therefore, it would be ideal to drive LEDs at the highest current possible while retaining high efcacies and long lifetimes. However, high LED drive currents can lead to fundamental issues, called droop, that reduces the extrinsic quantum efciency of many InGaN devices. Droop has been a limiting factor leading to lower efcacies at high drive currents, but recent progress in device design has helped to alleviate many of these issues [3]. However, even these LEDs with reduced droop still have stringent thermal requirements at high drive currents that compromise both LED efciency and lifetime. It is important to note that lumen output data cited by many LED manufacturers are based on an LED junction temperature (Tj) of 251C [46], which differs from the actual operation temperature in xtures and lamps. In general, Tj is always higher at steady state when operated under constant current in a xture. Even in a well-designed xture with adequate heat sinking, the LED light output can be reduced by 4 10% compared with the indicated typical luminous ux rating of the LED package. In addition, direct incandescent or CFL replacement bulbs using LEDs will require careful thermal design as typical sockets do not provide an adequate thermal path. These two examples point out the important role that thermal management will play in an efcient LED-based lighting. While much of this article focuses on LED packages and their thermal management, we note that the entire lighting system must be optimized to minimize energy consumption with each component optimized to minimize their losses. 2. LED THERMAL MANAGEMENT A typical LED lighting system consists of LED chip(s), phosphor(s) for color conversion, encapsulant, power electronics, thermal management, optical components, and a xture that integrates all of these components [7]. The rst four critical components of LED lamps (Figure 2) can be very
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there can be signicant efciency losses at high Tjs, so reducing these losses is one development goal for both LED chip manufacturers and designers of LED xtures. 2.2. Phosphor systems In most LED systems, white light is generated using inorganic phosphors that absorb violet or blue LED radiation and convert this radiation into white light. The room temperature quantum efciency of typical LED phosphors, dened as the number of photons emitted divided by the number of photons absorbed, can exceed 80%. However, phosphors must also retain their efciency at high temperatures to maximize the lumen output of LED devices under typical operation. Reducing phosphor quenching at temperatures over 1501C is a challenge for the materials scientists and chemists that design and optimize LED phosphors. This materials development must also be integrated with LED package design to maximize phosphor efciencies. 2.3. Polymeric materials Typical LED power packages use a variety of polymeric and silicone materials in the molded body, encapsulants, and lenses that enhance light extraction from the LED chip, as well as phosphor binders. Given the variety of potential degradation mechanisms, there are numerous thermal challenges for silicones and epoxies that can be used in LEDs. As getting the maximum lumens over the entire lamp lifetime is the primary goal, changes in the polymer optical properties due to high temperatures is not tolerable. As noted above, high power LED packages [8] and systems require materials that need to survive high temperatures (>1001C when in contact with the chip or as a phosphor binder) and optical uxes (>100 W/cm2) for tens of thousands of hours. Traditional epoxybased systems have difculties in withstanding these conditions for typical 1 W power packages on the market, as long-term operation over 1001C combined with violet or blue irradiation causes yellowing and darkening of epoxies. This has led to a switch to silicones for LED encapsulants and phosphor binders.
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Figure 2. A conceptual LED package and components.

sensitive to temperature, affecting the efciency and lifetime of each particular component. A typical LED package efciency, when accounting for the losses beyond LED chip efciency, is 5070% depending on the chip architecture, materials, phosphor, and package design. The energy not converted to light leads to heat generation in the package. Therefore, the thermal management system has to be designed with all of these components in mind to optimize the overall system efciency. A more detailed discussion of some of the issues involved with these specic components is given in [8]. 2.1. LED chips It is well known that LED performance is strongly dependent on the junction temperature. Tj, with signicant losses affects LED efciency and lifetime. These effects are severe in AlInGaP-based orange and red LEDs where there is also a shift in the peak wavelength at higher temperatures [9,10]. This wavelength shift makes it more difcult to design lighting systems that require a constant color during various operating conditions. It currently appears that the thermal issues for AlInGaP-based LEDs are intrinsic to this materials system and must be accounted for in lamps and xtures that use orange and red LEDs, making thermal management even more critical. In InGaN LED systems, the thermal issues are less challenging versus the AlInGaP system as the wavelength shift and efciency losses with temperature are smaller. However, as noted above,
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4.5
Area_1 [@20K] Area_2 [@30 K] Mass_1 [@20 K] Mass_2 [@30 K]

Required Surface Area [m2]

3. CANDIDATE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES AND COOLING EFFICIENCY LED lighting systems have unique cooling needs compared with conventional lighting systems. A detailed discussion of internal thermal resistance paths is given in references [7] and [8]. To summarize, conduction is the dominant cooling path in LED packages followed by convection and radiation, which is quite different than traditional incandescent or halogen lamps where radiation is the primary cooling method. Considering that virtually all existing sockets and xtures are not designed to conduct heat, this places additional emphasis on understanding and developing the appropriate cooling technologies for SSL applications. Therefore, several current and research-phase technologies will be discussed in the following section with respect to their applicability to LED lighting systems. 3.1. Heat sink technology Heat sinks made up of metal or composite materials have been commonly used in electronics cooling applications for both passive and active cooling systems. There are advantages of passive air-cooling with heat sinks, such as a relatively simple design and minimal reliability issues. However, heat sinks inevitably suffer from a large surface area and weight. Aluminum heat sinks take up more than 90% of the volume and weight, making lamps and xtures signicantly heavier than an incandescent lamp at the same lumen output. This could pose signicant barriers to products such as direct replacement of incandescent bulbs. In addition, heat sink requirements will place limits on lamp and xture designers who initially viewed the small size of LEDs as a key advantage over traditional lighting technologies. Figure 3 and 4 presents the effect of the external heat transfer coefcient on the required heat sink surface area and mass for an aluminum heat sink at 10 W with a n thickness of 2 mm. The contribution of the heat sink base as well as other installation peripherals is assumed to be 30% of the overall weight. For a 20 K heat sink, the weight can be as much as 3 lb for passive cooling by natural convection. However, if the
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0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 [W/m2-K] 12 External Heat Transfer Coefficient

4 Heat Sink Weight [lb] 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Figure 3. Effect of external heat transfer coefcient on the heat sink surface area and mass.

Figure 4. Forced convection cooling set-up.

external heat transfer coefcient is improved to 10 from 2 W/m2 K, the heat sink weight is then reduced to 0.5 lb. This shows the need for using active cooling solutions to improve the external heat transfer coefcient. 3.2. Small-scale rotary fans Fans are commonly used in electronics cooling applications, and they provide more than 3X enhancement over natural convection depending on fan speed and ow rate. A large variety of fan sizes providing different operating regimes are available. For LED applications, fans have to be very compact and energy efcient with lifetimes of more than 50 000 h. An experimental study has been performed to understand the effect of low form factor fans over 25.4 mm vertical at heated
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surfaces. Figure 5 presents the effect of the driving voltage on the external heat transfer coefcient. It is found that fans from two different manufacturers can provide external heat transfer coefcients that are greater than 100 W/m2 K. Figure 6 presents the effect of the driving power on the overall power consumption of a fan for two fans. The fan power consumption can be as high as 0.6 W to reach external heat transfer coefcients over 100 W/m2 K. This additional power consumption will affect the overall system efcacy and guides cooling solution choices. Figure 7 and 8 shows the variation in the coefcient of performance (COP) with the fan driving voltages ranging from 3 to 5 V. This plot shows that COP of two fans is very similar. Although Fan C had a lower
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external heat transfer coefcient, this was compensated by comparatively low power consumption. Figure 7 also shows that COP decreases with driving voltage, and both fans have similar COPs of 14, 9, and 6 at 3, 4, and 5 V, respectively. Those numbers are much smaller than other technologies such as piezo fans and synthetic jets as detailed below. Apart from the COP, there are also other issues for fan-based thermal management. If LED components are expected to last for 50 000 h (with 70% of the initial lumen output), it will be challenging to nd a fan where 99% of the total fan population has that lifetime. Ball bearing fans typically have a maximum mean time between failures (MTBF) of 65 000 h, meaning that 50% of the fans will fail at 65 000 h. In addition, there are

25

110 Heat Transfer Coefficient [W/m 2-K] 100

Fan_A

20
Fan_C

Fan_A Fan_C

COP (Q/ W)

90 80 70 60 50 40 2

15

10

0 2 3 4 Driving Voltage (V) 5 6

4 Voltage (V)

Figure 7. Variation of COP with driving voltage.

Figure 5. Effect of driving voltage over external heat transfer coefcient.

0.7 0.6 Fan Power Consumption [W] 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 2 3 4 Voltage (V) 5 6 Fan_A Fan_C

Figure 6. Variation of power consumption of the fans with driving voltage.

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Figure 8. Effect of thermoelectric driving current on the heat removal with given temperature gradient across the device [11].
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signicant noise issues with rotary fans. For example, most PCs have at least two fans and most people are familiar with their steady drone. In general, however, this noise level is not tolerable for lighting systems; this was previously demonstrated by the replacement of magnetic ballasts (average noise 30 dB) with electronic ballasts in LFL systems. The combination of these disadvantages makes it less likely that fan-based thermal solutions will be extensively implemented in LED lighting systems. 3.3. Thermoelectric technology Solid-state, thermoelectric (TE) modules, operating by the Peltier principle convert electrical energy to a temperature gradient, and there has been signicant research interest leading to modules with a high 1D or 2D gure of merit [12]. TE technology has a unique advantage of having no moving parts, making them rugged, reliable, and quiet. The lifetime of typical TE coolers can exceed 100 000 h [1214], matching or exceeding the lifetime of LED chip components. There are many commercial TE suppliers, and standard design software has also been developed for customers. One such package is TECCad Lite 1.0 [9,10] that has been used to analyze LED systems to obtain the heat removal rates, temperature differences, and COP. The maximum TE driving current provides maximum cooling and the largest temperature difference. However, there is an adverse affect on the efciency. Figure 9 and 10 presents the thermodynamic efciency of a commercial TE device. Although the given COP numbers are as high as 2.4, these COP values are at low temperature gradients. At useful temperature gradients such as 40 K, the COP is much lower, 0.3, such that removing 12 W of heat requires 36 W of energy consumption. This makes current TE technology impractical for LED systems as this energy consumption negatively impacts the overall system efcacy. 3.4. Piezo fan technology Piezoelectric fans giving turbulence while consuming (o20 mW) have that create a local mixing of air and heat transfer enhancements very small amounts of power also been proposed for heat
Figure 9. Effect of driving current on the COP at various temperature gradients [12].
45 40 35 30 h, W/m 2-K 25
Piezofan Nat Conv

20 15 10 5 0 5% 10% 15% 20% Amplitude Ratio of Fan 25% 30%

Figure 10. Heat Transfer enhancement for fan amplitude ratios compared with natural convection [15].

removal in LED systems [8]. The heat transfer enhancement due to piezo fans is strongly related to many factors: the orientation of the heated surface to the blade motion, the distance of the blade to the heated surface, the overall magnitude of the blade amplitude (amount of deection), and the extended surfaces of the primary heated surface. In general, higher amplitudes and closer placement of the tip of the fan to the heated surface strongly increases the cooling enhancement with heat transfer coefcients as high as 80 W/m2 K [12]. Combining piezoelectric fans and heat sinks have also been shown to be an efcient method of system cooling as discussed in Reference [13]. A heat sink and piezoelectric fan system is capable
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of effectively cooling an area of about 75 cm2. The overall system characterization also shows that the heat sink not only provides surface area, but also ow shaping for the three-dimensional ow eld of the fans. Velocities at the heat sink of the order of 1.5 m/s were achieved through this critical shaping. A volumetric coefcient of performance COPv was also proposed to properly compare the performance of piezofans [13]. The system described a COPv of 5 over natural convection. In addition, as piezo fans are driven at less than 100 Hz, their noise is less than 25 dB, making them tolerable for general lighting applications. One potential drawback is that the size of piezo fans can be a limiting factor for many LED applications as maximum cooling is at large displacement amplitudes that require a long fan blade. 3.5. Synthetic jet technology Synthetic jets, which are one class of micro-uidic devices, are another possible cooling technology for compact LED lighting systems. Shedding of small-scale dense vortices results in tremendous heat transfer performance enhancement versus natural convection. A cavity communicating with the external ambient through a small orice is the path for suction and expulsion of a high velocity, high momentum uid (see Figure 1113). Within this eld, a large number of theoretical and experimental results have been presented, and synthetic jet thermal management has attracted interest from both academia and industry [14,15]. We have extensively investigated synthetic jet devices and their unsteady impingement heat transfer. The maximum experimental heat transfer coefcient, based on heater surface area and average heater temperature, ranges from 150 to 240 W/m2 K [16]. The electrical power consumption of the synthetic jets for a range of driving voltages is given in Figure 13. The peak power consumptions for three voltages were 25, 100, and 275 mW at driving conditions of 20, 40, and 60 V, respectively, indicating that the overall power consumption for synthetic jet cooling will be low. Figure 14 presents the variation of the coefcient of thermal performance with the jet driving voltage and frequency. It is observed that COP can be as high as 433, when
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Figure 11. Schematic of a synthetic jet cooling of electronics: (a) compression/expulsion and (b) expansion/ingestion.
160 140 Heat Transfer Coefficient [W/m 2-K] 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 200 400 600 800 Driving Frequency [Hz] 1000 1200
@20V @40V @60V

Figure 12. Experimental external heat transfer coefcients.

operating at 20 and 200 Hz. At the largest driving voltage, the COP is approximately 36 at 200 Hz. While lower voltages have larger COPs, the heat removal rate is smaller. When the cooling performance is high and synthetic jets are compact, there are also potential acoustic issues as the noise levels are over 65 dB. As discussed above with rotary fan cooling, these noise issues have to be addressed to implement this synthetic jet cooling technology in lighting applications. In our current synthetic jets,
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0.3 0.25 Power Consumption (W) 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 200 400 600 Frequency (Hz) 800 1000 1200
20 V 40 V 60 V

Figure 13. Electrical power consumption of a jet.

1000

@20V

@40V

@60V

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10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Driving Frequency [Hz]

 LEDs, even at high initial costs, can provide signicant economical and environmental benets.  Many of the components within LED packages and lighting systems are temperature limited and therefore require efcient thermal management.  LED cooling solutions should also match the efciency, compactness, and reliability (>50 000 h) of LED chip components.  Potential thermal management technologies specically, heat sinks, thermoelectrics, piezoelectric fans, synthetic jets, and small form factor fans have also been discussed in regard to their heat transfer performance, power consumption level, and resulting thermodynamic COPs.  Newer technologies such as piezoelectric fans and synthetic jets can provide signicantly better cooling versus traditional heat sinks and fans and should be considered when designing advanced LED lighting systems.  Combining these thermal management technologies with advances in chips, materials, packaging, and driver electronics will make LED lighting more affordable and accelerate its overall market and environmental impact.
REFERENCES 1. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ ssl/ssl_mypp2009_web.pdf. 2. http://www.lumination.com/product.php?id 5 56. 3. http://www.cree.com/index.asp. 4. http://www.lumileds.com/. 5. http://www.nichia.com/. 6. Arik M, Petroski J, Weaver S. Thermal challenges in the future generation solid-state lighting applications: light emitting diodes. Proceedings of the ASME/IEEE ITHERM-Conference, San Diego, 2002. 7. Arik M, Weaver S, Setlur A, Haitko D. Thermal needs and challenges for the solid state lighting devices: materials to packages. ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE2005-79330, Orlando, Florida, 511 November 2005. 8. Arik M, Weaver S, Setlur A, Haitko D, Petroski J. Chip to system levels thermal needs and alternative thermal technologies for high brightness LEDS. Journal of Electronics Packaging 2006; 328338. 9. http://www.marlow.com/. 10. http://www.melcor.com/. 11. http://www.rmtltd.ru/teccad.htm. 12. Arik M, Petroski J, Bar-Cohen A, Demiroglu M. Energy efciency of low form factor cooling devices. ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE2007-41275, Seattle, WA, 1115 November 2007. Int. J. Energy Res. 2010; 34:11951204 DOI: 10.1002/er

Figure 14. Coefcient of thermal performance of a synthetic jet.

the noise levels can be decreased to less than 40 dB if they are excited at 400 Hz. Therefore, further research is necessary to invent and develop compact synthetic jets with o25 dB noise levels. Achieving these noise levels without performance losses will enhance the impact of these efcient and compact thermal solutions in LED lighting.

Coefficient of Performance

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A study discussing the state of the art in LEDbased SSL technology and potential economical and environmental benets is presented with following conclusions:  LEDs are a viable technology to replace incandescent bulbs in the short term, and compact uorescent lighting systems in the longer term.
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13. Petroski J, Arik M, Gursoy M. Piezoelectric fans: Heat transfer enhancements for electronics cooling. ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, Jacksonville, FL, 2008. 14. Garg J, Arik M, Weaver S, Wetzel T, Saddoughi S. Advanced localized air cooling with synthetic jets. ASME Journal of Electronics Packaging 2005; 503511.

15. Arik M. An investigation into feasibility of impingement heat transfer and acoustic abatement of meso scale synthetic jets. Journal of Applied Thermal Engineering 2007; 27(89):14831494. 16. Utturkar Y, Arik M, Seeley CE, Gursoy M. An experimental and computational heat transfer study of pulsating jets. ASME Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2008; 130(6):062201.

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Int. J. Energy Res. 2010; 34:11951204 DOI: 10.1002/er