Mass Wasting Geologists use the term landslide in a general sense to cover a wide variety of mass movements that

may cause loss of life, property damage, or a general disruption of human activities. In 218 B.C., Avalanches in the European Alps buried 18, people! an earth"ua#e$generated landslide in %sian, &hina, #illed an estimated 1, , people in 1''(! and ), people died when mudflows and avalanches destroyed %uara*, +eru, in 1,-1. .hat ma#es these mass movements so terrifying, and yet so fascinating, is that they almost always occur with little or no warning and are over in a very short time, leaving behind a legacy of death and destruction. Mass wasting /also called mass movement0 is defined as the downslope movement of material under the direct influence of gravity. 1ost types of mass wasting are aided by weathering and usually involve surficial /surface0 materials. 2he material moves at rates ranging from almost imperceptible, as in the case of creep, to e3tremely fast as in a roc#fall or slide. 2hough water can play an important role, the relentless pull of gravity is the ma4or force behind mass wasting. Factors Influencing Mass Wasting .hen the gravitational force acting on a slope e3ceeds its resisting force, slope failure /mass wasting0 occurs. 2he resisting forces helping to maintain slope stability include the slope material5s strength and cohesion, the amount of internal friction between grains, and any e3ternal support of the slope. 2hese factors collectively define a slope5s shear strength.

6pposing a slope5s shear strength is the force of gravity. Gravity operates vertically but has a component acting parallel to slope, thereby causing instability. 2he greater a slope5s angle, the greater the chance for mass wasting. 2he steepest angle that a slope can maintain without collapsing is its angle of repose. At this angle, the shear strength of the slope5s material e3actly counterbalance the force of gravity. 7or unconsolidated material, the angle of repose normally ranges from 2' to - degrees. 8lopes steeper than - degrees usually consist of unweathered solid roc#. All slopes are in a state of dynamic e"uilibrium, which means that they are constantly ad4usting to new conditions. .hile we tend to view mass wasting as a disruptive and usually destructive event, it is one of the ways that a slope ad4usts to new conditions. 1any factors can cause mass wasting9 a change in slope gradient, wea#ening of materials by weathering, increased water content, changes in the vegetation cover, and overloading. Although most of these are interrelated, we will e3amine them separately for ease of discussion, but will also show how they individually and collectively affect a slope5s e"uilibrium. Slope Gradient 8lope gradient is probably the ma4or cause of mass wasting. Generally spea#ing, the steeper the slope, the less stable it is. 2herefore, steep slopes are more li#ely to e3perience mass wasting than gentle ones. A number of processes can oversteepen a slope. 6ne of the most common is undercutting by stream or wave action. 2his

removes the slope5s base, increases the slope angle, and thereby increases the gravitational force acting parallel to the slope. .ave action, especially during storms, often result in mass movements along the shores of oceans or large la#es. E3cavations for road cuts and hillside building sites are another ma4or cause of slope failure. Grading the slope too steeply, or cutting into its side, increases the stress in roc# or soil until it is no longer strong enough to remain at the steeper angle and mass wasting ensues. 8uch action is analogous to undercutting by streams or waves and has the same result, thus e3plaining why so many mountain roads are plagued by fre"uent mass movements. 7ortunately, many of the slope failures associated with hillside road cuts and building construction can be avoided or greatly minimi*ed by better understanding of the factors involved. Weathering and Climate 1ass wasting is more li#ely to occur in loose or poorly consolidated slope material than in solid bedroc#. As soon as solid roc# is e3posed at the Earth5s surface, weathering begins to disintegrate and decompose it, thereby reducing its shear strength and increasing its susceptibility to mass wasting. 2he deeper the weathering *one e3tends, the greater the li#elihood of some type of mass movement. 8ome roc#s are more susceptible to weathering than others and climate plays an important role in the rate and type of weathering. In the tropics, where temperatures are high and considerable rainfall occurs, the effects of weathering e3tend to depths of several tens of meters, and rapid mass movements most commonly occur in the deep weathering *one. In arid and semiarid regions, the weathering *one is usually considerably shallower. :evertheless, locali*ed and intense cloud$bursts can drop large "uantities of water on an area in a short time. .ith little vegetation to absorb this water, runoff is rapid and fre"uently results in mudflows. In high mountains, roc#falls are common because of frost action. Water Content 2he amount of water in roc# or soil influences slope stability. ;arge "uantities of water from melting snow or heavy storms greatly increase the li#elihood of slope failure. 2he additional weight that water adds to a slope can be enough to cause mass movement. 7urthermore, water percolating through a slope5s material helps to decrease friction between grains, contributing to a loss of cohesion. 7or e3ample, slopes composed of dry clay are usually "uite stable, but when wet, they can "uic#ly lose cohesiveness and internal friction and become an unstable slurry. 2his occurs because clay, which can hold large "uantities of water, consists of platy particles that easily slide over each other when wet. 7or this reason, clay beds are fre"uently the slippery layer along which overlying roc# units slide downslope. Vegetation <egetation affects slope stability in several ways. =y absorbing the water from a rainstorm, vegetation decreases water saturation of a slope5s material and the resultant loss of shear strength that fre"uently leads to mass wasting. In addition, the root system of vegetation helps to stabili*e a slope by binding soil particles together and holding the soil to bedroc#. 2he removal of vegetation by either natural or human activity is a ma4or cause of many mass movements. 8ummer brush and forest fires in southern &alifornia, for e3ample, fre"uently leave the hillsides bare of vegetation. 7all rainstorms saturate the ground causing mudslides that do tremendous damage. Overloading

6verloading is almost always the result of human activity and typically results from dumping, filling, or piling up of material. >nder natural conditions, a material5s load is carried by its grain$to$grain contacts, and a slope is thus maintained by the friction between grains. 2he additional weight created by overloading increases the water pressure within the material, which in turn decreases its shear strength, thereby wea#ening the slope material. If enough material is added, the slope will eventually fail, sometimes with tragic conse"uences. Geolog and Slope Sta!ilit 2he relationship between topography and the geology of an area is important in determining slope stability. If the roc#s underlying a slope dip in the same direction as the slope, mass wasting is more li#ely to occur than if the roc#s are hori*ontal or dip in the opposite direction. .hen the roc#s dip in the same direction as the slope, water can percolate along the various bedding planes and decrease the cohesiveness and friction between ad4acent roc# layers. 2his is particularly true when there are interbedded clay layers because clay becomes very slippery when wet. Even if the roc#s are hori*ontal or dip in a direction opposite to that of the slope, 4oints /water pathways underground 5e3pand when wet50 may travel in the same direction as the slope. .ater migrating through them weathers the roc# and e3pands these openings until the weight of the overlying roc#s cause it to fall. "riggering Mechanisms .hile the factors previously discussed all contribute to slope instability, most, though not all, rapid mass movements are triggered by a force that temporarily disturbs slope e"uilibrium. 2he most common triggering mechanisms are strong vibrations from earth"ua#es and e3cessive amounts of water from a winter snow melt or a heavy rainstorm. <olcanic eruptions, e3plosions, and even loud claps of thunder may also be enough to trigger a landslide if the slope is sufficiently unstable. 1anyavalanches, which are rapid movements of snow and ice down steep mountain slopes, are triggered by the sound of a loud gunshot, a sonic boom from a super sonic airplane, or, in rare cases, even a person5s shout. " pes of Mass Wasting Geologists recogni*e a variety of mass movements. 8ome are of one distinct type, while others are a combination of different types. It is not uncommon for one type of mass movement to change into another along its course. A landslide, for e3ample, may start out as a slump at its head and, with the addition of water, become an earthflow at its base. Even though many slope failures are combinations of different materials and movements, it is still convenient to classify them according to their dominant behavior. 1ass movements are generally classified on the basis of the ma4or criteria 10 rate of movement /rapid or slow0! 20 type of movement /primarily falling, sliding, or flowing0! and ?0 type of material involved /roc#, soil, or debris0. #apid mass movements involve a visible movement of material. 8uch movements usually occur "uite suddenly, and the material moves very "uic#ly downslope. @apid mass movements are potentially dangerous and fre"uently result in loss of life and property damage. 1ost rapid mass movements occur on relatively steep slopes and can involve roc#, soil, or debris. Slow mass movements advance at an imperceptible rate and are usually only detectable by the effects of their movements such as tilted trees, power poles, or crac#ed

foundations. Although rapid mass movements are more dramatic, slow mass movements are responsible for the downslope transport of a much greater volume of weathered material. Falls #oc$falls are a common type of e3tremely rapid mass movement in which roc#s of any si*e fall through the air. @oc#falls occur along steep canyons, cliffs, and road cuts and build up accumulations of loose roc#s and roc# fragments at their base called talus. @oc#falls result from failure along 4oints or bedding planes in the bedroc# and are commonly triggered by natural or human undercutting of slopes, or by earth"ua#es. 1any roc#falls in cold climates are the result of frost wedging. &hemical weathering caused by water percolating through fissures in carbonate roc#s /limestone, dolostone, and marble0 is also responsible for many roc#falls. @oc#falls range in si*e from small roc#s falling from a cliff to massive falls involve millions of cubic meters of debris that destroy buildings, bury towns, and bloc# highways. @oc#falls are a particular common ha*ard in mountainous areas where roads have been built by blasting and grading through steep hillsides of bedroc#. Anyone who has ever driven through the Appalachians, the @oc#y 1ountains, or the 8ierra :evada is familiar with the A.atch for 7alling @oc#sA signs posted to warn drivers of the danger. 8lopes particularly prone to roc#falls are sometimes covered with wire mesh in an effort to prevent dislodged roc#s from falling to the road below. Another tactic is to put up wire mesh fences along the base of the slope to catch or slow down bouncing or rolling roc#s. Slides A slide involves movement of material along one or more surfaces of failure. 2he type of material may be soil, roc#, or a combination of the two, and it may brea# apart during movement or remain intact. A slide5s rate of movement can vary from e3tremely slow to very rapid. 2wo types of slides are generally recogni*ed9 10 slumps or rotational slides, in which movement occurs along a curved surface! and 20 roc# or bloc# glides, which move along a more or less planar surface. A slump involves the downward movement of material along a curved surface of rupture and is characteri*ed by the bac#ward rotation of the slump bloc#. 8lumps occur most commonly in unconsolidated or wea#ly consolidated material and range in si*e from a small individual sets, such as occur along stream ban#s, to massive, multiple sets that affect large areas and cause considerable damage. 8lumps can be caused by a variety of factors, but the most common is erosion along the base of a slope, which removes support for the overlying material. 2his local steepening may be caused naturally by stream erosion along its ban#s or by wave action at the base of a coastal cliff. 8lope oversteepening can also be caused by human activity, such as the construction of highways and housing developments. 8lumps are particularly prevalent along highway cuts where they are generally the most fre"uent type of slope failure observed. .hile many slumps are merely a nuisance, large$scale slumps involving populated areas and highways can cause e3tensive damage. 8uch is the case in coastal southern &alifornia where slumping and sliding have been a constant problem. 1any areas along the coast are underlain by poorly to wea#ly consolidated silts, sands, and gravels interbedded with clay layers, some of which are weathered ash falls. In addition, southern &alifornia is tectonically active so that many of these deposits are cut by faults and 4oints, which allow the infre"uent rains to percolate downward rapidly, wetting and lubricating the clay layers.

A roc$ or block glide occurs when roc#s move downslope along a more or less planar surface. 1ost roc# glides occur because the local slopes and roc# layers dip in the same direction, although they can also occur along fractures parallel to a slope. 2he largest #now roc# glide in the world is the prehistoric 8aidmarreh landslide in southwestern Iran. A slab of limestone ? 'm thic#, 1-#m long, and '#m wide became detached from the Babir #uh ridge and slid down and across the ad4acent 8#m wide 8aidmarreh <alley with enough momentum to climb over a ridge -( m high before stopping nearly 18#m from its sourceC 2he volume of the slipped material was about 21#mD?, and it weighed appro3imately ' billion tons. .hen the debris from the roc# glide finally settled, it covered an area of 1((#mD2.

Flows 1ass movements in which material flows as a viscous fluid or displays plastic movement are termed flows. 2heir rate of movements ranges from e3tremely slow to e3tremely rapid. In many cases, mass movements may begin as falls, slumps, or slides and change into flows further downslope. Mudflows are the most fluid of the ma4or mass movement types. 2hey consist of at least ' E silt and clay si*ed material combined with a significant amount of water /up to ? E0. 1udflows are common in arid and semiarid regions where they are triggered by heavy rainstorms that "uic#ly saturate the regolist, turning it into a raging flow of mud that engulfs everything in its path. 1udflows can also occur in mountain regions and in areas covered by volcanic ash where they can be particularly destructive. =ecause mudflows are so fluid, they generally follow a pree3isting channels until the slope decreases or the channel widens, at which point the fan out.

Aerial view of the city of Armero, Colombia, devastated by mudflows triggered by the eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in November 19 !" #he mudflows destroyed everything in their paths and killed about $!,%%% people" &'hotograph by (arrell )" *erd, +,),"%e!ris flows are composed of larger$si*ed particles than those in mudflows and do not contain as much water. &onse"uently, they are usually more viscous than mudflows, typically do not move as rapidly, and rarely are confined to pree3isting channels. Febris flows can, however, be 4ust as damaging because they can transport large ob4ects. &arthflows move more slowly than either mudflows or debris flows. An earthflow slumps from the upper part of a thic#, viscous, tongue$shaped mass of wet regolith. ;i#e mudflows and debris flows, earthflows can be of any si*e, and are fre"uently destructive. 2hey occur most commonly in humid climates on grassy soil$covered slopes following heavy rains. 8ome clays spontaneously li"uefy and flow li#e water when they are disturbed. 8uch 'uic$ cla s have caused serious damage and loss of lives in 8weden, :orway, eastern &anada, and Alas#a. Guic# clays are composed of silt and clay particles made by the grinding action of glaciers. Geologists thin# these fine sediments were originally deposited in a marine environment where their pore space was filled with salt water. 2he ions in the salt water helped establish strong bonds between the clay particles, thus stabili*ing and strengthening the clay. .hen the clays were subse"uently uplifted above sea level, however, the salt water was flushed out by fresh groundwater, reducing the effectiveness of the ionic bonds between the clay particles and thereby reducing the overall strength and cohesiveness of the clay. &onse"uently, when the clay is disturbed by a sudden shoc# or sha#ing, it essentially turns to a li"uid and flows. Solifluction is the slow downslope movement of water$saturated surface sediment. 8olifluction can occur in any climate where the ground becomes saturated with water, but is most common in cold climates where the upper surface periodically thaws and free*es. (ermafrost is ground that remains permanently fro*en. It covers nearly 2 E of the world5s land surface. Furing the warmer season when the upper portion of the permafrost thaws, water and surface sediments form a soggy mass that flows by solifluction and produces a characteristic lobate topography. Creep is the slowest type of flow. It is also the most widespread and significant mass wasting process in terms of the total amount of material moved downslope and the monetary damage that it does annually. &reep involves e3tremely slow downhill movement of soil or roc# under the ine3orable pull of gravity. Although in can occur anywhere and in any climate, it is most effective and significant as a geologic agent in humid regions. In fact, it is the most common form of mass wasting in the southeastern >nited 8tates and the southern Appalachian 1ountains.

=ecause the rate of movement is essentially imperceptible, we are fre"uently unaware of creep5s e3istence until we notice its effects9 tilted trees and power poles, bro#en streets and sidewal#s, and crac#ed retaining walls or foundations. &reep usually involves the whole hillside and probably occurs, to some e3tent, on any weathered or soil$covered, sloping surface. Comple) Movements 1any mass movements are combinations of different movement types. .hen one type is dominant, the movement can be classified as one of the movements described so far. If several types are more or less e"ually involved, it is called a comple) movement. 2he most common type of comple3 movement is the slide$flow in which there is sliding at the head and then some type of flowage farther along its course. 1ost slide$flow landslides involve well$defined slumping at the head, followed by a debris flow or earthflow. Any combination of different mass movement types can be classified as a comple3 movement.

A de!ris avalanche is a comple3 movement that often occurs in very steep mountain ranges. Febris avalanches typically start out as roc#falls when large "uantities of roc#, ice, and snow are dislodged from a mountainside, fre"uently as a result of an earth"ua#e. 2he material then slides or flows down the mountainside, pic#ing up additional surface material and increasing in speed and momentum.
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