Chapter 2.

Parameterized Curves in R
3
Def. A smooth curve in R
3
is a smooth map : (a, b) R
3
.
For each t (a, b), (t) R
3
. As t increases from a to b, (t) traces out a curve in
R
3
. In terms of components,
(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) , (1)
or
:
x = x(t)
y = y(t)
z = z(t)
a < t < b ,
velocity at time t:
d
dt
(t) =

(t) = (x

(t), y

(t), z

(t)) .
speed at time t:

d
dt
(t)

= [

(t)[
Ex. : R R
3
, (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, 0) - the standard parameterization of the
unit circle,
:
x = r cos t
y = r sin t
z = 0

(t) = (r sin t, r cos t, 0)

[

(t)[ = r (constant speed)

1
Ex. : R R
3
, (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, ht), r, h > 0 constants (helix).

(t) = (r sin t, r cos t, h)

[

(t)[ =

r
2
+ h
2
(constant)
Def A regular curve in R
3
is a smooth curve : (a, b) R
3
such that

(t) ,= 0 for
all t (a, b).
That is, a regular curve is a smooth curve with everywhere nonzero velocity.
Ex. Examples above are regular.
Ex. : R R
3
, (t) = (t
3
, t
2
, 0). is smooth, but not regular:

(t) = (3t
2
, 2t, 0) ,

(0) = (0, 0, 0)
Graph:
:
x = t
3
y = t
2
z = 0

y = t
2
= (x
1/3
)
2
y = x
2/3
There is a cusp, not because the curve isnt smooth, but because the velocity = 0
at the origin. A regular curve has a well-dened smoothly turning tangent, and hence
its graph will appear smooth.
The Geometric Action of the Jacobian (exercise)
Given smooth map F : U R
3
R
3
, p U. Let X be any vector based at the
point p. To X at p we associate a vector Y at F(p) as follows.
Let : (, ) R
3
be any smooth curve such that,
(0) = p and
d
dt
(0) = X,
2
i.e. is a curve which passes through p at t = 0 with velocity X. (E.g. one can
take (t) = p + tX.) Now, look at the image of under F, i.e. consider = F ,
: (, ) R
3
, (t) = F (t) = F((t)). We have, (0) = F((0)) = F(p), i.e.,
passes through F(p) at t = 0. Finally, let
Y =
d
dt
(0).
i.e. Y is the velocity vector of at t = 0.
Exercise 2.1. Show that
Y = DF(p)X.
Note: In the above, X and Y are represented as column vectors, and the rhs of the
equation involves matrix multiplication. Hint: Use the chain rule.
Thus, roughly speaking, the geometric eect of the Jacobian is to send velocity
vectors to velocity vectors. The same result holds for mappings F : U R
n
R
m
(i.e. it is not necessary to restrict to dimension three).
Reparameterizations
Given a regular curve : (a, b) R
3
. Traversing the same path at a dierent
speed (and perhaps in the opposite direction) amounts to what is called a reparame-
terization.
Def. Let : (a, b) R
3
be a regular curve. Let h : (c, d) R (a, b) R
be a dieomorphism (i.e. h is 1-1, onto such that h and h
1
are smooth). Then
= h : (c, d) R
3
is a regular curve, called a reparameterization of .
(u) = h(u) = (h(u))
I.e., start with curve = (t), make a change of parameter t = h(u), obtain repa-
rameterized curve = (h(u)); t = original parameter, u = new parameter.
3
Remarks.
1. and describe the same path in space, just traversed at dierent speeds (and
perhaps in opposite directions).
2. Compare velocities:
= (h(u)) i.e.,
= (t), where t = h(u) .
By the chain rule,
d
du
=
d
dt

dt
du
=
d
dt
h

> 0: orientation preserving reparameterization.

h

< 0: orientation reversing reparameterization.

Ex. : (0, 2) R
3
, (t) = (cos t, sin t, 0). Reparameterization function:
h : (0, ) (0, 2),
h : t = h(u) = 2u, u (0, ) ,
Reparameterized curve:
(u) = (t) = (2u)
(u) = (cos 2u, sin 2u, 0)
describes the same circle, but traversed twice as fast,
speed of =

d
dt

= 1 , speed of =

d
du

= 2 .
Remark Regular curves always admit a very important reparameterization: they
can always be parameterized in terms of arc length.
Length Formula: Consider a smooth curve dened on a closed interval,
: [a, b] R
3
.
4
is a smooth curve segment. Its length is dened by,
length of =
_
b
a
[

(t)[dt.
I.e., to get the length, integrate speed wrt time.
Ex. (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, 0) 0 t 2.
Length of =
_
2
0
[

(t)[dt =
_
2
0
rdt = 2r.
Fact. The length formula is independent of parameterization, i.e., if : [c, d] R
3
is a reparameterization of : [a, b] R
3
then length of = length of .
Exercise 2.2 Prove this fact.
Arc Length Parameter:
Along a regular curve : (a, b) R
3
there is a distinguished parameter called arc
length parameter. Fix t
0
(a, b). Dene the following function (arc length function).
s = s(t), t (a, b) , s(t) =
_
t
t
0
[

(t)[dt .
Thus,
if t > t
0
, s(t) = length of from t
0
to t
if t < t
0
, s(t) = length of from t
0
to t.
s = s(t) is smooth and by the Fundamental Theorem of calculus,
s

(t) = [

(t)[ > 0 for all t (a, b)

Hence s = s(t) is strictly increasing, and so has a smooth inverse - can solve smoothly
for t in terms of s, t = t(s) (reparameterization function).
Then,
(s) = (t(s))
is the arc length reparameterization of .
Fact. A regular curve admits a reparameterization in terms of arc length.
5
Ex. Reparameterize the circle (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, 0), < t < , in terms of
arc length parameter.
Obtain the arc length function s = s(t),
s =
_
t
0
[

(t)[dt =
_
t
0
rdt
s = rt t =
s
r
(reparam. function)
Hence,
(s) = (t(s)) =
_
s
r
_
(s) = (r cos
_
s
r
_
, r sin
_
s
r
_
, 0).
Remarks
1. Often one relaxes the notation and writes (s) for (s) (i.e. one drops the tilde).
2. Let = (t), t (a, b) be a unit speed curve, [

(t)[ = 1 for all t (a, b). Then,

s =
_
t
t
0
[

(t)[dt =
_
t
t
0
1dt
s = t t
0
.
I.e. up to a trivial translation of parameter, s = t. Hence unit speed curves are
already parameterized wrt arc length (as measured from some point). Conversely,
if = (s) is a regular curve parameterized wrt arc length s then is unit speed,
i.e. [

(s)[ = 1 for all s (why?). Hence the phrases unit speed curve and curve
parameterized wrt arc length are used interchangably.
Exercise 2.3. Reparameterize the helix, : R R
3
, (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, ht) in
terms of arc length.
Vector elds along a curve.
We will frequently use the notion of a vector eld along a curve .
Def. Given a smooth curve : (a, b) R
3
a vector eld along is a vector-valued
map X : (a, b) R
3
which assigns to each t (a, b) a vector X(t) at the point (t).
6
Ex. Velocity vector eld along : (a, b) R
3
.

: (a, b) R
3
, t

(t) ;
if (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)),

(t) = (x

(t), y

(t), z

(t)).
Ex. Unit tangent vector eld along .
T(t) =

(t)
[

(t)[
.
[T(t)[ = 1 for all t. (Note must be regular for T to be dened).
Ex. Find unit tangent vector eld along (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, ht).

(t) = (r sin t, r cos t, h)

[

(t)[ =

r
2
+ h
2
T(t) =
1

r
2
+ h
2
(r sin t, r cos t, h)
Note. If s (s) is parameterized wrt arc length then [

(s)[ = 1 (unit speed)

and so,
T(s) =

(s).
Dierentiation. Analytically vector elds along a curve are just maps,
X : (a, b) R R
3
.
Can dierentiate by expressing X = X(t) in terms of components,
7
X(t) = (X

(t), X
2
(t), X
3
(t)) ,
dX
dt
=
_
dX
1
dt
,
dX
2
dt
,
dX
3
dt
_
.
Ex. Consider the unit tangent eld to the helix,
T(t) =
1

r
2
+ h
2
(r sin t, r cos t, h)
T

(t) =
1

r
2
+ h
2
(r cos t, r sin t, 0).
Exercise 2.4. Let X = X(t) and Y = Y (t) be two smooth vector elds along
: (a, b) R
3
. Prove the following product rules,
(1)
d
dt
X, Y ) =
dX
dt
, Y ) +X,
dY
dt
)
(2)
d
dt
X Y =
dX
dt
Y + X
dY
dt
Hint: Express in terms of components.
Curvature
Curvature of a curve is a measure of how much a curve bends at a given point:
This is quantied by measuring the rate at which the unit tangent turns wrt distance
along the curve. Given regular curve, t (t), reparameterize in terms of arc length,
s (s), and consider the unit tangent vector eld,
T = T(s) (T(s) =

(s)).
Now dierentiate T = T(s) wrt arc length,
dT
ds
= curvature vector
8
.
The direction of
dT
ds
tells us which way the curve is bending. Its magnitude tells us
how much the curve is bending,

dT
ds

= curvature
Def. Let s (s) be a unit speed curve. The curvature = (s) of is dened
as follows,
(s) = [T

(s)[ (= [

(s)[) ,
where

=
d
ds
.
Ex. Compute the curvature of a circle of radius r.
Standard parameterization: (t) = (r cos t, r sin t, 0).
Arc length parameterization: (s) =
_
r cos
_
s
r
_
, r sin
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
.
T(s) =

(s) =
_
sin
_
s
r
_
, cos
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
T

(s) =
_

1
r
cos
_
s
r
_
,
1
r
sin
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
=
1
r
_
cos
_
s
r
_
, sin
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
(s) = [T

(s)[ =
1
r
(Does this answer agree with intuition?)
Exercise 2.5. Let s (s) be a unit speed plane curve,
(s) = (x(s), y(s), 0) .
For each s let,
(s) = angle between positive x-axis and T(s).
Show: (s) = [

(s)[ (i.e. =

d
ds

).
Hint: Observe, T(s) = cos (s)i + sin (s)j (why?).
9
Conceptually, the denition of curvature is the right one. But for computational
purposes its not so good. For one thing, it would be useful to have a formula for
computing curvature which does not require that the curve be parameterized with
respect to arc length. Using the chain rule, such a formula is easy to obtain.
Given a regular curve t (t), it can be reparameterized wrt arc length s (s).
Let T = T(s) be the unit tangent eld to .
T = T(s), s = s(t),
So by the chain rule,
dT
dt
=
dT
ds

ds
dt
=
dT
ds

d
dt

dT
dt

d
dt

dT
ds

. .

and hence,
=

dT
dt

d
dt

,
i.e.
(t) =
[T

(t)[
[

(t)[
,

=
d
dt
.
Exercise 2.6. Use the above formula to compute the curvature of the helix (t) =
(r cos t, r sin t, ht).
Frenet-Equations
Let s (s), s (a, b) be a regular unit speed curve such that (s) ,= 0 for all
s (a, b). (We will refer to such a curve as strongly regular). Along we are going
to introduce the vector elds,
T = T(s) - unit tangent vector eld
N = N(s) - principal normal vector eld
B = B(s) - binormal vector eld
T, N, B is called a Frenet frame.
10
At each point of
T, N, B forms an
orthonormal basis, i.e.
T, N, B are mutually
perpendicular unit vectors.
To begin the construction of the Frenet frame, we have the unit tangent vector
eld,
T(s) =

(s),

=
d
ds
Consider the derivative T

= T

(s).
Claim. T

T along .
Proof. It suces to show T

, T) = 0 for all s (a, b). Along ,

T, T) = [T[
2
= 1.
Dierentiating both sides,
d
ds
T, T) =
d
ds
1 = 0

dT
ds
, T) +T,
dT
ds
) = 0
2
dT
ds
, T) = 0
T

, T) = 0.
Def. Let s (s) be a strongly regular unit speed curve. The principal normal
vector eld along is dened by
N(s) =
T

(s)
[T

(s)[
=
T

(s)
(s)
((s) ,= 0)
The binormal vector eld along is dened by
B(s) = T(s) N(s).
Note, the denition of N = N(s) implies the equation
T

= N
11
Claim. For each s, T(s), N(s), B(s) is an orthonormal basis for vectors in space
based at (s).
Mutually perpendicular:
T, N) = T,
T

) =
1

T, T

) = 0.
B = T N B, T) = B, N) = 0.
Unit length: [T[ = 1, and
[N[ =

[T

=
[T

[
[T

[
= 1,
[B[
2
= [T N[
2
= [T[
2
[N[
2
T, N)
2
= 1.
Remark on o.n. bases.
X = vector at (s).
X can be expressed as a linear combination
of T(s), N(s), B(s),
X = aT + bN + cB
The constants a, b, c are determined as follows,
X, T) = aT + bN + cB, T)
= aT, T) + bN, T) + cB, T)
= a
Hence, a = X, T), and similarly, b = X, N), c = X, B). Hence X can be
expressed as,
X = X, T)T +X, N)N +X, B)B.
12
Torsion: Torsion is a measure of twisting. Curvature is associated with T

; torsion
is associated with B

:
B = T N
B

= T

N + T N

= N N + T N

Therefore B

= T N

which implies B

T, i.e.
B

, T) = 0
Also, since B = B(s) is a unit vector along , B, B) = 1 which implies by dieren-
tiation,
B

, B) = 0
It follows that B

is a multiple of N,
B

= B

, T)T +B

, N)N +B

, B)B
B

= B

, N)N.
Hence, we may write,
B

= N
where = torsion := B

, N).
Remarks
1. is a function of s, = (s).
2. is signed i.e. can be positive or negative.
3. [(s)[ = [B

(s)[, i.e., = [B

[, and hence measuures how B wiggles.

Given a strongly regular unit speed curve , the collection of quantities T, N, B, ,
is sometimes referred to as the Frenet apparatus.
Ex. Compute T, N, B, , for the unit speed circle.
(s) =
_
r cos
_
s
r
_
, r sin
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
T =

=
_
sin
_
s
r
_
, cos
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
T

=
1
r
_
cos
_
s
r
_
, sin
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
13
= [T

[ =
1
r
N =
T

k
=
_
cos
_
s
r
_
, sin
_
s
r
_
, 0
_
B = T N
=

i j k
s c 0
c s 0

= k = (0, 0, 1) ,
(where c = cos
_
s
r
_
and s = sin
_
s
r
_
). Finally, since B

= 0, = 0, i.e. the torsion

vanishes.
Conjecture. Let s (s) be a strongly regular unit speed curve. Then, is a
plane curve i its torsion vanishes, 0.
Exercise 2.7. Consider the helix,
(t) = (r cos t, r sin t, ht).
Show that, when parameterized wrt arc length, we obtain,
(s) = (r cos s, r sin s, hs), ()
where =
1

r
2
+ h
2
.
Ex. Compute T, N, B, , for the unit speed helix ().
T =

= (r sin s, r cos s, h)
T

=
2
r(cos s, sin s, 0)
= [T

[ =
2
r =
r
r
2
+ h
2
= const.
N =
T

= (cos s, sin s, 0)
14
B = T N =

i j k
r sin s r cos s h
cos s sins 0

B = (h sin s, h cos s, r)
B

= (h
2
cos s, h
2
sin s, 0)
= h
2
(cos s, sin s, 0)
B

= h
2
N
B

= N = hw
2
=
h
r
2
+ h
2
.
Remarks.
(s) = osculating plane of at (s)
= plane passing through (s) spanned by N(s) and T(s)
(or equivalently, perpendicular to B(s)).
(1) s (s) is the family of osculating planes along . The Frenet equation
B

= N shows that the torsion measures how the osculating plane is twisting
along .
(2) (s
0
) passes through (s
0
) and is spanned by

(s
0
) and

(s
0
). Hence, in a
sense that can be made precise, s (s) lies in (s
0
) to second order in s. If
(s
0
) ,= 0 then

(s
0
) is not tangent to (s
0
). Hence the torsion gives a measure
of the extent to which twists out of a given xed osculating plane
15
Theorem. (Frenet Formulas) Let s (s) be a strongly regular unit speed curve.
Then the Frenet frame, T, N, B satises,
T

= N
N

= T + B
B

= N
Proof. We have already established the rst and third formulas. To establish the
second, observe B = T N N = B T. Hence,
N

= (B T)

= B

T + B T

= N T + B N
= (B) + (T)
= T + B.
We can express Frenet formulas as a matrix equation,
_
_
T
N
B
_
_

=
_
_
0 0
0
0 0
_
_
. .
A
_
_
T
N
B
_
_
A is skew symmetric: A
t
= A. A = [a
ij
], then a
ji
= a
ij
.
The Frenet equations can be used to derive various properties of space curves.
Proposition. Let s (s), s (a, b), be a strongly regular unit speed curve.
Then, is a plane curve i its torsion vanishes, 0.
Proof. Recall, the plane which passes through the point x
0
R
3
and is perpen-
dicular to the unit vector n consists of all points x R
3
which satisfy the equation,
n, x x
0
) = 0
16
: Assume s (s) lies in the plane . Then, for all s,
n, (s) x
0
) = 0
Since n is constant, dierentiating twice gives,
d
ds
n, (s) x
0
) = n,

) = n, T) = 0 ,
d
ds
n, T) = n, T

) = n, N) = 0 ,
Since n is a unit vector perpendicular to T and N, n = B, so B = n. I.e.,
B = B(s) is constant which implies B

= 0. Therefore 0.
: Now assume 0. B

= N B

= 0, i.e. B(s) is constant,

B(s) = B = constant vector.
We show s (s) lies in the plane, B, x (s
0
)) = 0, passing through (s
0
),
s
0
(a, b), and perpendicular to B, i.e., will show,
B, (s) (s
0
)) = 0 . ()
for all s (a, b). Consider the function, f(s) = B, (s) (s
0
)). Dierentiating,
f

(s) =
d
ds
B, (s) (s
0
))
= B

, (s) (s
0
)) +B,

(s))
= 0 +B, T) = 0 .
Hence, f(s) = c = const. Since f(s
0
) = B, (s
0
) (s
0
)) = 0., c = 0 and thus
f(s) 0. Therefore () holds, i.e., s (s) lies in the plane B, x (s
0
)) = 0.
Sphere Curves. A sphere curve is a curve in R
3
which lies on a sphere,
[x x
0
[
2
= r
2
, (sphere of radius r centered at x
0
)
x x
0
, x x
0
) = r
2
17
Thus, s (s) is a sphere curve i there exists x
0
R
3
, r > 0 such that
(s) x
0
, (s) x
0
) = r
2
, for all s. ()
If s (s) lies on a sphere of radius r, it is reasonable to conjecture that has
curvature
1
r
(why?). We prove this.
Proposition. Let s (s), s (a, b), be a unit speed curve which lies on a sphere
of radius r. Then its curvature function = (s) satises,
1
r
.
Proof Dierentiating (*) gives,
2

, x
0
) = 0
i.e.,
T, x
0
) = 0.
Dierentiating again gives:
T

, x
0
) +T,

) = 0
T

, x
0
) +T, T) = 0
T

, x
0
) = 1 (T

,= 0)
N, x
0
) = 1
But,
[N, x
0
)[ = [N[[ x
0
[[ cos [
= r[ cos [,
and so,
= [[ =
1
[N, x
0
)[
=
1
r[ cos [

1
r
.
Exercise 2.8. Prove that any unit speed sphere curve s (s) having constant
curvature is a circle (or part of a circle). (Hints: Show that the torsion vanishes
(why is this sucient?). To show this dierentiate () a few times.
Lancrets Theorem.
Consider the unit speed circular helix (s) = (r cos s, r sin s, hs), = 1/

r
2
+ h
2
.
This curve makes a constant angle wrt the z-axis: T = r sin s, r cos s, h),
cos =
T, k)
[T[[k[
= h = const.
18
Def. A unit speed curve s (s) is called a generalized helix if its unit tangent
T makes a constant angle with a xed unit direction vector u ( T, u) = cos =
const).
Theorem. (Lancret) Let s (s), s (a, b) be a strongly regular unit speed curve
such that (s) ,= 0 for all s (a, b). Then is a generalized helix i / =constant.
Non-unit Speed Curves.
Given a regular curve t (t), it can be reparameterized in terms of arc length
s (s), (s) = (t(s)), and the quantities T, N, B, , T can be computed. It is
convenient to have formulas for these quantities which do not involve reparameterizing
in terms of arc length.
Proposition. Let t (t) be a strongly regular curve in R
3
. Then
(a) T =

[ [
, =
d
dt
(b) B =

[

[
(c) N = B T
(d) =
[ [
[ [
3
(e) =
,
...
)
[ [
2
Proof. We derive some of these. See Theorem 1.4.5, p. 32 in Oprea for details.
Interpreting physically, t=time, =velocity, =acceleration. The unit tangent
may be expressed as,
T =

[ [
=

v
where v = [ [ = speed. Hence,
19
= vT
=
d
dt
vt =
dv
dt
T + v
dT
dt
=
dv
dt
T + v
dT
ds

ds
dt
=
dv
dt
T + v(N)v
= vT + v
2
N
Side Comment: This is the well-known expression for acceleration in terms of its
tangential and normal components.
v = tangential component of acceleration ( v = s)
v
2
= normal component of acceleration
= centripetal acceleration (for a circle, v
2
=
v
2
r
).
, lie in osculating plane; if ,= 0,
...
does not.
Continuing the derivation,
= vT ( vT + v
2
N)
= v vT T + v
3
T N
= v
3
B
[ [ = v
3
[B[ = v
3

Hence,
=
[ [
v
3
=
[ [
[ [
3
Also,
20
B = const =

[ [
.
Exercise 2.9. Derive the expression for . Hint: Compute
...
and use Frenet
formulas.
Exercise 2.10. Suppose is a regular curve in the x-y plane, (t) = (x(t), y(t), 0),
i.e.,
:
x = x(t)
y = y(t)
(a) Show that the curvature of is given by,
=
[ x y y x[
[ x
2
+ y
2
]
3/2
(b) Use this formula to compute the curvature = (t) of the ellipse,
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1 .
Fundamental Theorem of Space Curves
This theorem says basically that any strongly regular unit speed curve is com-
pletely determined by its curvature and torsion (up to a Euclidean motion).
Theorem. Let = (s) and = (s) be smooth functions on an interval (a, b) such
that (s) > 0 for all s (a, b). Then there exists a strongly regular unit speed curve
s (s), s (a, b) whose curvature and torsion functions are and , respectively.
Moreover, is essentially unique, i.e. any other such curve can be obtained from
by a Euclidean motion (translation and/or rotation).
Remarks
1. The FTSC shows that curvature and torsion are the essential quantities for
describing space curves.
2. The FTSC also illustrates a very important issue in dierential geometry.
The problem of establishing the existence of some geometric object having certain
geometric properties often reduces to a problem concerning the existence of a solution
to some dierential equation, or system of dierential equations.
21
Proof: Fix s
0
(a, b), and in space x P
0
= (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) R
3
and a positively
oriented orthonormal frame of vectors at P
0
, T
0
, N
0
, B
0
.
We show that there exists a unique unit speed curve : (a, b) R
3
having
curvature and torsion such that (s
0
) = P
0
and has Frenet frame T
0
, N
0
, B
0

at (s
0
).
The proof is based on the Frenet formulas:
T

= N
N

= T + B
B

= N
or, in matrix form,
d
ds
_
_
T
N
B
_
_
=
_
_
0 0
0
0 0
_
_
_
_
T
N
B
_
_
.
The idea is to mimmick these equations using the given functions , . Consider
the following system of O.D.E.s in the (as yet unknown) vector-valued functions
e
1
= e
1
(s), e
2
= e
2
(s), e
3
= e
3
(s),
de
1
ds
= e
2
de
2
ds
= e
1
+ e
3
de
3
ds
= e
2
_

_
()
We express this system of ODEs in a notation convenient for the proof:
d
ds
_
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
_
_
=
_
_
0 0
0
0 0
_
_
. .

_
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
_
_
,
Set,
=
_
_
0 0
0
0 0
_
_
=
_

i
j

,
22
i.e.
1
1
= 0,
1
2
= ,
1
3
= 0, etc. Note that is skew symmetric,
t
=

j
i
=
i
j
, 1 i, j 3. Thus we may write,
d
ds
_
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
_
_
=
_

i
j

_
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
_
_
,
or,
d
ds
e
i
=
3

j=1

i
j
e
j
, 1 i 3
IC :
e
1
(s
0
) = T
0
e
2
(s
0
) = N
0
e
3
(s
0
) = B
0
Now, basic existence and unique result for systems of linear ODEs guarantees
that this system has a unique solution:
s e
1
(s), s e
2
(s), s e
3
(s), s (a, b)
We show that e
1
= T, e
2
= N, e
3
= B, = and = for some unit speed curve
s (s).
Claim e
1
(s), e
2
(s), e
3
(s) is an orthonormal frame for all s (a, b), i.e.,
e
i
(s), e
j
(s)) =
ij
s (a, b)
where
ij
is the Kronecker delta symbol:

ij
=
_
0 i ,= j
1 i = j.
Proof of the claim: We make use of the Einstein summation convention:
d
ds
e
i
=
3

j=1

i
j
e
j
=
i
j
e
j
Let g
ij
= e
i
, e
j
), g
ij
= g
ij
(s), 1 i, j 3. Note,
g
ij
(s
0
) = e
i
(s
0
), e
j
(s
0
))
=
ij
The g
ij
s satisfy a system of linear ODEs,
23
d
ds
g
ij
=
d
ds
e
i
, e
j
)
= e

i
, e
j
) +e
i
, e

j
)
=
i
k
e
k
, e
j
) +e
i
,
j

)
=
i
k
e
k
, e
j
) +
j

e
i
, e

)
Hence,
d
ds
g
ij
=
i
k
g
kj
+
j

g
i
IC : g
ij
(s
0
) =
ij
Observe, g
ij
=
ij
is a solution to this system,
LHS =
d
ds

ij
=
d
ds
const = 0.
RHS =
i
k

kj
+
j

i
=
i
j
+
j
i
= 0 (skew symmetry!).
But ODE theory guarantees a unique solution to this system. Therefore g
ij
=
ij
is
the solution, and hence the claim follows.
How to dene : Well, if s (s) is a unit speed curve then

(s) = T(s) (s) = (s

0
) +
_
s
s
0
T(s)ds.
Hence, we dene s (s), s (a, b) by,
(s) = P
0
+
_
s
s
0
e
1
(s)ds
Claim is unit speed, = , = , T = e
1
, N = e
2
, B = e
3
.
24
We have,

=
d
ds
(P
0
+
_
s
s
0
e
1
(s)ds) = e
1
[

[ = [e
1
[ = 1 , therefore is unit speed,
T =

= e
1
= [T

[ = [e

1
[ = [e
2
[ =
N =
T

=
e

=
e
2

= e
2
B = T N = e
1
e
2
= e
3
B

= e

3
= e
2
= N
= .
25