SPECIAL FOUNDATIONS

PROJECT SOIL LIQUEFACTION

Lazar Gheorghe
Group 3409

Soil Liquefaction
During earthquakes, sand volcanoes and eruption of water and soil from the ground are often observed, also extensive damage to structures occurring as a result of a decrease in bearing capacity of the soil. The decrease of bearing capacity of the soil is due to two phenomena: a liquefaction of the soil from the ground surface to some depth and the other is the loosening of the soil due to the upward flow of water which results from liquefaction of the soil at some distance below the ground surface. Assessment and mitigation of hazard associated with seismically induced soil liquefaction has created major interest over the past decade, major advances occurring in both understanding and practice, so that we can consider soil liquefaction engineering a sub-field in its own right. According to Sladen et al (1985): Liquefaction is a phenomenon wherein a mass of soil loses a large percentage of its shear resistance, when subjected to monotonic, cyclic, or shock loading, and flows in a manner resembling a liquid until the shear stress acting on the mass are as low as the reduced shear resistance. Liquefaction is a process in which the seismic shear waves cause an increase in the pore water pressure in a cohesionless soil stratum. This increase in pore pressure reduces the effective stress confining the soil. The reduction in effective confining stress causes a reduction of shear modulus of the soil, which in turn, results in increased soil deformation. Also associated with liquefaction is a loss in bearing strength. In the case of full liquefaction, when the increase in pore water pressure reduces the confining stress to zero, the soil experiences a full loss of strength and undergoes large viscous deformations. Large lateral deformations are possible when liquefaction occurs on ground having even minimal slope. When a loose sand is subjected to seismically induced vibratory motion, it tends to decrease in volume. If it is saturated and drainage is impeded, some of the inter-particle stress is transferred to the water. The transferred load causes a rise in the pore water pressure, generally, the higher the intensity of vibration, the greater the potential for increase in pore water pressure. As the pore pressure approaches the confining pressure on the soil, shear resistance is lost. As a consequence a structure situated on this soil may tilt and settle, resulting in differential motions which may cause severe damage. Increased lateral loads from liquefied soil can result in failures of waterfront retaining structures. Seismically-induced soil liquefaction produced spectacular and devastating effects, thrusting the issue forcefully to the attention of engineers and researchers. The first step in most engineering treatments of soil liquefaction needs to be the assessment of liquefaction

potential, or the risk of liquefaction. Once the occurrence of liquefaction is proven to be a potentially serious risk, the following process needs to be the assessment of the consequences of a potentially occurring liquefaction, involving the assessment of available post-liquefaction strength and resulting overall stability of the site/structure/built facilities. After that, if postliquefaction instability is found to be relevant, then it means that the deformation and displacement potential is large and engineering remediation is needed. Ongoing evolution of new methods for mitigation of liquefaction hazard provides an ever increasing suite of engineering options, but the efficacy and reliability of some of these remain debatable, and accurate and reliable engineering analysis of the improved performance provided by many of these mitigation techniques continues to be difficult. Acting by itself, liquefaction not only doesn`t pose particular hazard, but during seismic vibrations, a liquefied layer at depth could act as an insulator, blocking the transmission of vibrational energy from the underlying layers to the structures founded at the surface. The real problems appear when liquefaction leads to some form of permanent movement or ground failure. The most important ground failures associated to liquefaction are the following: loss of bearing strength the ground can liquefy and lose its ability to support structures. lateral spreading - the ground can slide down very gentle slopes or toward stream banks riding on a buried liquefied layer. sand boils - sand-laden water can be ejected from a buried liquefied layer and erupt at the surface to form sand volcanoes; the surrounding ground often fractures and settles. flow failures earth moves down steep slope with large displacement and much internal disruption of material. ground oscillation the surface layer, riding on a buried liquefied layer, is thrown back and forth by the shaking and can be severely deformed. flotation light structures that are buried in the ground (like pipelines, sewers and nearly empty fuel tanks) can float to the surface when they are surrounded by liquefied soil. settlement when liquefied ground re-consolidates following an earthquake, the ground surface may settle or subside as shaking decreases and the underlying liquefied soil becomes more dense.

The void ratio of the sand, the confining pressure acting on the sand, the magnitude of the cyclic stress or strain and the number of the stress cycles to which the sand is subjected determine the danger of liquefaction of saturated sand. The magnitude of the confining pressure acting on the sand is also an important factor. Technical solutions to prevent damages due to liquefaction include: removal of liquefiable material and replacement

 site dewatering or improved drainage such as stone columns in situ site improvement containment or encapsulation modification of structure geometry deep foundations such as piles alternative site selection Substitution or replacement of soil to improve drainage has been used including vibroreplacement and stone columns. Methods of compaction have been successfully used including vibroprobe, vibro-compaction, dynamic compaction, compaction grouting, and compaction piles. In order to improve drainage, substitution or replacement of liquefiable soil has been used by vibro-replacement and stone columns (replacing liquefiable cohesionless soils with stiffer columns of gravel and rock which improves strength and promotes drainage). Elimination or reducing the liquefaction potential can also be achieved by cement grouting, jet grouting and deep mixing .Preloading the site increases liquefaction resistance by increasing the effective confining pressures. Ground improvement and structural solutions that are available to reduce hazard from liquefaction. General Category I. Excavation and/or compaction Mitigation Methods a. Excavation and disposal of liquefiable soils b. Excavation and recompaction c. Compaction (for new fill) a. Compaction with vibratory probes (e.g.: Vibroflotation, Terraprobe, etc.) b. Dynamic consolidation (Heavy tamping) c. Compaction piles d. Deep densification by blasting e. Compaction grouting a. b. c. d. Permeation grouting Jet grouting Deep mixing Drains o Gravel drains o Sand drains o Pre-fabricated strip drains e. Surcharge pre-loading

Notes

II. In-situ ground densification

Can be coupled with installation of gravel columns Can also provide reinforcement

III. Selected other types of ground treatment

Many drain installation processes also provide in-situ densification.

f. Structural fills IV. Berms, dikes, sea walls, and other edge containment structure/systems a. Structures and/or earth structures built to provide edge containment and thus to prevent large lateral spreading.

V. Deep foundations

a. Piles (installed by driving or vibration) b. Piers (installed by drilling or excavation)

Can also provide ground densification

VI. Reinforced shallow foundations

a. Grade beams b. Reinforced mat c. Well-reinforced and/or posttensioned mat d. "Rigid" raft

There have been major advances in seismic soil liquefaction engineering over the past decade. These advances have been stimulated lessons and data provided by earthquakes that have occurred over the past 15 years, as well as by the research efforts and professional will borne of these events. The advances achieved have, importantly, affected practice as well as research, and soil liquefaction engineering has now grown into a semi-mature field in its own right.
REFERENCES: 1. Liquefaction, Flow, and Associated Ground Failure - T. Leslie Youd , United States Department of the Interior 2. Recent advances in soil liquefaction engineering: A unified and consistent framework R.B. Seed, K.O. Cetin, R.E.S. Moss, A.M. Kammerer, J. Wu, J. M. Pestana, M. F. Riemer, R.B. Sancio, J.D. Bray, R. E. Kayen, and A. Faris, 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Semina, April 30, 2003 3. http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/sfgeo/liquefaction/ 4. Seismic Design Criteria for soil liquefaction J.M. Ferritto, NAVAL FACILITIES ENGINEERING SERVICE CENTER June 1997 5. Characteristics of liquefied sands during Mino-Owari, Tohnankai and Fukui Earthquakes Hideaki Kishida 6. http://www.ces.clemson.edu/chichi/TW-LIQ/Album.htm