Energy band diagrams

In the atoms, the larger the radius, the higher the electron potential energy
Hence, electron position can be described either by radius or by its potential
energy
In the semiconductor crystal: the atom orbits OVERLAP; radius-based
description becomes impractical. Energy-based description works well:
The highest orbit filled with electrons becomes the VALENCE BAND
The higher orbit (nearly empty) becomes the CONDUCTION BAND
E
Single atom
Excited electrons cannot move
Crystal
Excited electrons can move (free electrons)
free electrons
holes
Valence energy band
Conductance energy band
Energy band diagrams
Bandgap (or forbidden energy)
Free electron
Hole
Optical processes in semiconductors:
radiation and absorption
Related electrical processes:
electron - hole pair generation and recombination
Absorption
Related electrical process:
electron - hole pair generation
The photon with the energy exceeding the bandgap energy of
semiconductor can be absorbed.
The photon disappears; the photon energy excites the electron
from the valence band into the conduction band.
As a result, one e-h pair is being created
Photon
absorption
E = h =
g
Radiation
Related electrical process:
electron - hole pair recombination
When the excited electron meets the hole in the valence band, it
may occupy that place. As a result the e-h pair disappear; this
process is called recombination.
During recombination, the electron energy is released as a
photon with the energy closed to the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor.
Photon
absorption
E = h =
g
Photon
emission
E = h =
g
Electron and hole concentrations under illumination
We define n
0
and p
0
as the electron and hole concentrations
in the absence of illumination (dark concentrations).
n and p are the additional concentrations generated by light.
Note that in the equilibrium for ANY semiconductor,
np= n
i
2
Under illumination:
np (n+n
0
) (n+ p
0
) > n
i
2
When the semiconductor is under CONSTANT illumination,
the photons are being absorbed at a constant rate;
absorbed photons GENERATE electron- hole pairs
Therefore the concentration of e-h pairs
MUST linearly increase with the time.
The GENERATION RATE,
G, is the number of electron-hole pair generated per unit time:
n= p = G t;
How does the semiconductor sample
come to a steady-state condition under illumination?
Generation rate
Recombination rate
The probability of electron and hole "annihilation",
or the RECOMBINATION rate,
is proportional to both electron AND hole concentrations:
R ~ n p =
r
n p
Therefore, when n and p increase due to illumination,
the RECOMBINATION rate, R, also increases.
The e-h concentration increases
until the increasing recombination rate would compensate it.
Under the steady state condition we have:
G = R;
Steady-state e-h pair concentration
The steady-state concentration of photo-electrons (and photo-holes):
G =
r
n p n p = G /
r
np (n+n
0
) (n+ p
0
)
Under strong illumination, n>>n
0
and n>> p
0
np n
2
G =
r
n
2
:
n= (G/
r
)
1/2
R =
r
n p
G = R;
Spontaneous and Excessive
Recombination Rate
In case of direct electron - hole recombination
The spontaneous recombination rate in the equilibrium as
Electron and hole LIFETIME
As follows from
at very high excitation level, n >> n
0
, p
0
At low excitation level, n << n
0
, p
0
The recombination rate R is often expressed as

n
R

=
The lifetime, , determines the mean time an electron
spends before recombining with hole.
Example
Optical beam irradiating an intrinsic semiconductor (GaAs)
produces 0.510
23
cm
-3
/s electron-hole pairs.
The steady state concentration of photoelectrons is n= 10
14
cm
-3
.
1) Find the electron /hole recombination lifetime .
2) Find the radiative recombination coefficient B
r
Solution
In steady state,
G = R

n
R

=
Therefore,
The recombination rate,

n
G

=
G
n
=
The lifetime
ns s
s cm
cm
G
n
2 10 2
10 5 . 0
10
9
1 3 23
3 14
= =

Solution
In GaAs, n
i
~10
5
cm
-3
, therefore, n>> n
0
.
In this case,
1 3 6
9 3 14
10 5
10 2 10
1 1


=

=

= s cm
s cm n
B
r
r

Radiative and nonradiative recombination

Nonradiative recombination
typically does not produce
photons;
The electron energy is being
transferred to phonons, i.e.
into the heat.
Radiative and nonradiative recombination
When both radiative and nonradiative recombination processes
take place in semiconductor,