Water Quality

CHAPTER 3: Environmental Microbiology

SHAHRUL ISMAIL, DESc.
University College of Science and Technology Malaysia

What is water quality?

The term "water quality" is used to describe the microbiological, physical and chemical properties of water that determine its fitness for a specific use. These properties are determined by substances which are either dissolved or suspended in the water.

Requirements of water for domestic use:

I. colorless and sparkling clear II. must be free from solids in suspension and must not deposit sediment III. good taste and free from odor IV. reasonably soft V. cheap and plentiful VI. free from disease causing bacteria VII. free from objectionable dissolved gases such as sulphurated hydrogen however should have adequate dissolved oxygen VIII. free from harmful salts IX. free from objectionable minerals, such as iron, manganese, arsenic, other poisonous metals X. free from radioactive substances such as radium, stronsium etc. XI. reasonably free from phenolic compounds, chlorides, fluorides and iodine XII. should not lead to scale formation and should not be corrosive.

Impurities in water
Water has been called both the matrix of life and the universal solvent. in addition to providing a life-support system for a broad range of living organisms, it can dissolve virtually every chemical compound - though not necessarily to a detectable degree. In nature, it is never totally pure. No matter how isolated it is from sources of contamination, it will always have some chemicals. Gases or minerals in the air, soil or rock are dissolved by the water.
Some dissolved materials give water its characteristic taste pure water is generally considered to be flat and tasteless. minerals can cause hardness (calcium or magnesium), color (iron), contamination (arsenic), radioactivity (radium, radon) Humans can cause contamination through the improper use of pesticides or fertilizers through the disposal of waste.

Classification of the Impurities in water

Types of impurities
a) Suspended Solids b) Turbidity c) Odour d) Taste e) Temperature

1) Physical

2) Chemical
3) Biological

a) b) c) d) e) f)

TDS Alkalinity Hardness Fluoride Metals Nutrients

a) Microorganisms

Suspended Solid
a. Suspended solid measured in mg/L

Sources (s): i) inorganic compounds such as clay, sand ii) organic compounds such plant fibre, human waste
Effects (s): i) Aesthetics ii) Adsorption point/centre for chemical and microorganism iii) Health aspect

Turbidity
b. Turbidity Source (s): i) same as in (a)

effect (s): i) same as in (b)

Odour
c. Odour and taste Source (s): i) inorganic compounds such as minerals,metals, salts, ii) organic compound from petroleum and/or degradation of organic matter Effect(s): i) aesthetic ii) health problems [reaction from sources and other chemicals such as chlorine (Cl)

Taste
c. Odour and taste Source (s): i) inorganic compounds such as ii) organic compound from effect(s): i) aesthetic ii) health problems [reaction from sources and other chemicals such as chlorine (Cl)

Temperature
d. Temperature - Should be between 10 to 20 oC - More than 25 oC is objectionable measured in oC or oF source (s): i) effect from ambience ii) industrial activities cooling system

Effect (s): i) disturb biological activities ii) chemical properties such as

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

a. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) solid left in water after the water is filtered and dried. Source (s): i) inorganic compounds ii) organic compounds

Effect (s): i) cause taste, colour and odour problems ii) health aspect iii) small amount of TDS water becomes corrosive to attain equilibrium

measured in either mg/L (organic + inorganic) or mS/m* [milisiemens per meter measuring unit for conductivity (the potential of water allowing electric current to flow in it)] only measure compounds that produce ion (when it is added to water)

Alkalinity
b. Alkalinity The quantity of ions in water to neutralize acid or a measure of water strength to neutralize acid.
-), carbonate (CO 2-), Main constituents are bicarbonate (HCO 3 3 and hydroxide (OH-) ions.

Source (s): i) mineral dissolved in water and air ii) human activities such as Effect (s): i) non pleasant taste ii) reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (positive ion) produces precipitation in pipe.

Hardness
c. Hardness

Measure of multivalent cations in water such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn3+ Ca2+ and Mn2+ are very important
Source (s): i) natural mineral on earth effect (s): i) excessive soap usage (a waste !) ii) precipitate form on hardware iii)precipitate in pipe temperature and pH increased

Hardness
Two kinds of hardness: i) carbonate hardness ii) non-carbonate hardness

Hardness
Carbonate hardness Non-carbonate hardness

1. temporary in character e.g. Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2 2. precipitated through boiling

1. permanent in character e.g. CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2, MgSO4 2. eliminated through chemical softness methods and/or ion exchange

Fluoride
d. Fluoride Source (s): i) minerals Effect (s): i) not good for health if it is taken in high concentration ii) concentration of 1 mg/L is good for the growth of children teeth iii) excessive concentration color on teeth and problem in bone growth

Metals - Introduction
e. Metals non toxic and toxic

non toxic - Ca2+, Mn2+, Na+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Al3+, Cu2+, Zn2+

dangerous for health if the concentration is high

Source (s): i) minerals, readily available from nature Effect (s): i) color, odour, taste and turbidity ii) deteriorate health (at high concentration)

Metals - Toxic
Toxic As2+, Ba2+, Cd2+, Cr2+, Pb2+, Hg2+ stored up in food chain
Source (s): i) human activities such as mining and industries Effect (s): i) dangerous disease such as cancer, abortion and deformation in newborn baby ii) organic and inorganic compounds

Nutrients
g. Nutrients
crucial elements needed by animals and plants to live important elements C, N, P C easily obtained from CO2, degradation of organic compounds N, P limiting factors

Nutrient - Nitrogen
Nitrogen (N) Source (s): i) elements for protein, chlorophyll and biological compounds ii) decomposition to a simple compound . iii) animals and human wastes, chemicals (fertilizers) effect (s): i) NO3- poisoning in human and animals babies & human below than 6 month old) NO3- > NO2- (in acidic condition) will substitute O2 in blood vessel Babies algae breeding and aquatic plants ii) Excessive algae breeding and aquatic plants

Nutrient Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus (P) exist in a form of orthophosphate, condensed phosphate, and organic phosphate. Source (s): i) readily present in soil ii) fertilizers iii) human wastes (organic phosphate) iv) domestic wastes (element in detergent)

effects (s) i) algae breeding and aquatic plants ii) >0.2 mg/L disturb coagulation processes in water treatment plants

Biological
microorganism that bring diseases are called pathogen. Their quantities are very small compared to other microorganisms. The experiments to determine the presence of all pathogens takes a long time and very expensive. It is only carried out for very specific cases
The presence of pathogenic microorganism is shown by indicator microorganism

Biological
Pathogenic microorganisms

Indicator microorganism
Their presence shows that pollution has occurred and suggests the TYPE and LEVEL of pollution. Indicator microorganism properties: Can be used for all types of water Always present when pathogen is present Always absent when pathogen is absent Easily experimented and give reliable results

Living organisms in water

Algae
Algae is a term referring collectively to a wide range of pigmented, oxygen-producing,photosynthetic organisms usually present in surface waters. Virtually all aquatic vegetation without true roots, stems and leaves is regarded as algae. Algae range from microscopicallysmall unicellular forms, the size of bacteria, to larger filamentous forms which can be metres in length. Like other plants, algae are primary producers requiring light, carbon dioxide,water, nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate, and trace elements for growth Algae are common inhabitants of surfaces water exposed to sunlight.

 The classification of algae

Blue-green algae:
These typically dominate highly nutrient-enriched waters and are sometimes referred to as cyanobacteria. toxins have been associated with a number of livestock and game deaths, and with widespread gastroenteritis in human populations

Green algae:
These are common summer residents of less enriched water bodies.

Euglena:
These are flagellate unicellular algae, typical of organicallyenriched water.

Diatoms:
These are flagellate unicellular algae surrounded by a silica coating.

General removal requires coagulation, flocculation and/or sedimentation

Viruses Viruses are submicroscopic inert particles of protein and nucleic acid which are unable to replicate or adapt to environmental conditions outside a living host. Human enteric viruses require man as their specific host and are associated with the digestive tract. Enteric viruses are viruses which are primarily transmitted by the faecal-oral route, that is, transmission by faecally-contaminated water or food. The virus causes polio paralysis meningitis hepatitis respiratory illness diarrhoea.

 Enteritis, diarrhea, and dysentery

Cholera Salmonella Shigella - E. coli

Bacteria

Enteric fever
Typhoid Paratyphoid

Paralysis
Botulism

Eye, ear, and skin infections

Miscellaneous bacteria

Urinary tract infections

E. coli - Others

Protozoa
Giardia and Cryptosporidium are protozoan parasites with several lifecycle stages, of which the cysts (Giardia) or oocysts (Cryptosporidium) are infective to humans. Species which infect humans are Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. Infection occurs by ingestion of the cysts or oocysts disease like gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, vomiting and anorexia. Theoretically, one cyst or oocyst is sufficient to cause infection and an infective dose of 10 Giardia cysts has been demonstrated. Giardia lamblia has been identified as one of the most common causes of waterborne disease outbreaks

Protozoa
Giardia Cryptosporidia Amoeba

Helminthes
Round worm Tape worm Hook worm Whip worm

WATER-RELATED or WATER BORN DISEASES

Typically placed in four classes:

Waterborne diseases: caused by the ingestion of water contaminated by human or animal faeces or urine containing pathogenic bacteria or viruses; include cholera, typhoid, amoebic and bacillary dysentery and other diarrheal diseases. Water-washed diseases: caused by poor personal hygiene and skin or eye contact with contaminated water; include scabies, trachoma and flea, lice and tick-borne diseases. Water-based diseases: caused by parasites found in intermediate organisms living in contaminated water; include dracunculiasis, schistosomiasis, and other helminths. Water Vector diseases: caused by insect vectors, especially mosquitoes, that breed in water; include dengue, filariasis, malaria, onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis and yellow fever.

water-borne diseases and their causative agent

Bacteria Salmonella typhi Other Salmonella spp Shigella spp. Vibrio cholerae Vibrio parahaemolyticus Escherichia coli Legionella pneumophila Yersinia enterolitica Campylobacter spp. Leptospira spp. Disease Typhoid Salmonellosis (gastroenteritis) Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) cholera Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Legionnairesdisease Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Jaundice

Virus Hepatitis A virus Polio virus Protozoa Giardia intestinalis Balantidium coli Entamoeba histolytica Cryptosporidium parvum Cyclospora cagetanensis Naegleria fowleri

Disease

Hepatitis Poliomyelitis Diseases caused Giardiasis Balantidiasis Amoebic dysentery Cryptosporidiosis Diarrhoea Encephalitis

Physical Examination
Temperature
Using graduated thermometer

Color
Using various standards or scales Hazen or platinic color chlorides scales, Burgess scale or cobalt scale tintometer
sample is centrifuged and compared with standard color

Arbitary scaled called cobalt scale

1unit cobalt scale = 1mg of platinum cobalt in 1 liter Fro domestic purpose it should not exceed 20 preferably less than 10

 Taste and Odor

Threshold odor number
Volume of water in cc required to be added to 100cc of odorless water when the mixture just starts giving odor 6 cc added to 100 cc means the threshold odor number is 6

Should not be greater than 3

Turbidity
i) turbidity rod
Graduated aluminum rod (20.3cm) with platinum needle (1mm dia.) at bottom and non stretching tape 12.2cm attached at top Dipped into water and reading at which the platinum needle becomes invisible is turbidity in ppm For rough estimation only

 Ii) Jacksons Turbidimeter

Used when turbidity is more than 25ppm preferably more than 100ppm Metal container with graduated glass tube placed over a metal stand Water is poured into glass tube and the flame of the standard candle is watched until its visibility ceases Longer the path lesser turbid the water 21.5cm = 100 JTU and 10.8cm = 200JTU ; 1 JTU = 1ppm

Iii) Nephelometer
Uses photometer to detect light intensity at right angle to the incident ray Value expressed as NTU ( Nephelomtric turbidity unit) or sometimes FTU as the scale is referenced formazin polymer

Chemical examination
pH
pH is logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration
= 10 =
1 10 1 10

Similarly, = 10 =

+ = 14 For pure water pH = 7 because H-ion concentration = 10-7

Colorimetric method
Phenolphthalein, thymol blue,bromophenol, methyl orange etc

Electrometric method
pH meter

 Hardness
Three methods 1) Clarks Method: - standard soap solution required to obtain a permanent lather with water sample of known volume with constant shaking 2) Hehners method: - temporary hardness -titration with a standard solution of sulphuric acid using methyl orange as indicator - permanent hardness -standard sodium carbonate solution is added to water sample and evaporated to dryness - the amount excess over that to convert the sulphates and chlorides into carbonate gives permanent hardness 3) Versenate method: - titrating against EDTA (Di-ethyline diamine tetracitic acid) solution) using Eriochrome black T as indicator at pH 8.5 to 11 For potable water hardness of water should be more than 5 degrees but less than 8 degrees

Biological examination
Microbiological examination of water
Purposes
To detect and assess the degree of excremental pollution in the source of supply To assess the amount of treatment required to render a source of supply safe for consumption To ascertain the efficiency of the purification treatment at various stages To locate the cause of any sudden deterioration in quality To establish the bacterial purity of water and demonstrate the persistence of quality in distribution system

Indicator Organism Concept

Correlated (Indirect evidence) to the presence of pathogens Normally harmless in their normal habitat but indicates pollution Coliform and Escherica coli (E-coli) Population large enough in comparison to pathogens to isolate in small water samples (100 ml) Simple and rapid Inexpensive Safety, not culturing pathogens

Coliform Group
Total coliform Fecal coliform
All total coliform criteria Grows at 44.5C
total coliform fecal coliform E. coli

Escherichia coli
Individual species Enzyme specific

 Coliform index
Record the quantities tested in order to magnitudes, total number o tests and number of positive results Record ratio of positive to total successive ratios Find the product of each difference and reciprocal of the larger quantity used in computing the ratio from which difference was taken The E-coli index is the sum of these products

Quantities c.c

No. of tests (2)

Number positive (3)

Ratio (3):(2) (4)

Difference between lines in column(4) (5)

Product (6)

(1)

10 1
0.1 0.01 0.001

30 30
30 30 30

20 10
5 4 1

0.667 0.333
0.167 0.13333 0.05

0.334
0.166 0.0337 0.0833 SUM

0.0334
0.166 0.337 8.33 8.869

E-coli Index

 Most probable number(MPN)

E-coli index has shortcomings so become obsolete and replaced by MPN Law of probability and standard table is used according to combination of test results
Number of positive tubes
50ml tubes 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 10ml tubes 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 1 2 4 5 2 3 6 9 16

MPN per 100ml

Limits within which MPN per 100ml can lie

Lower limits <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 1 <0.5 <0.5 1 2 4 Upper limits 4 5 11 13 6 9 15 21 40

 The Coliform test a) Multiple tube fermentation technique

Two stages i) Presumptive test ii) Confirmed test

b) Membrane filter technique

 Multiple tube fermentation technique

Presumptive test
Inoculating measured amount of water sample into tubes of Mac Conkey bile salt lactose broth Incubating the culture at 37oC for 2 hrs to 48 hrs If acid and gas is formed the test is positive If no tubes are positive means no coliform bacteria Positive result requires further testing

Confirmed test
Some water from presumptive test is taken Placed in another fermentation tube containing brilliant green lactose bile as culture medium Kept in incubator at 37oC for 48hrs If gas is formed it confirms presence of B-coli

 Membrane filter technique

Sample of water is filtered through uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain all coliforms and other bacteria 5cm dia. And 150micron thickness The membrane is then put in contact with culture medium M-endos medium in incubator at 37oC for 24 hours Colonies of bacteria are counted with microscope