The Learning Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is a form of learning in which the conditioned stimulus

or CS, comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus or US. (A stimulus is a factor that causes a response in an organism.) The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.The US is usually a biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits a response from the start; this is called the unconditioned response or UR. The CS usually produces no particular response at first, but after conditioning it elicits the conditioned response or CR. Classical conditioning differs from operant or instrumental conditioning, in which behavior emitted by the subject is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (i.e. reward or punishment). Conditioning is usually done by pairing the two stimuli, as in Pavlovs classic experiments.Pavlov presented dogs with a ringing bell followed by food. The food elicited salivation (UR), and after repeated bell-food pairings the bell also caused the dogs to salivate. In this experiment,the unconditioned stimulus is the dog food as it produces an unconditioned response, saliva. The conditioned stimulus is the ringing bell and it produces a conditioned response of the dogs producing saliva. It was originally thought that the process underlying classical conditioning was one where the conditioned stimulus becomes associated with, and eventually elicits, the unconditioned response. But many observations do not support this hypothesis. For example, the conditioned response is often quite different from the unconditioned response. Learning theorists now more commonly suggest that the CS comes to signal or predict the US. In the case of the salivating dogs in Pavlov's experiment, the bell tone signaled and predicted the arrival of the dog food, thus resulting in the dog salivating.Robert A. Rescorla provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its consequences, in his 1988 article "Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is." I. P. Pavlov provided the most famous example of classical conditioning.During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food, the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called this anticipatory salivation psychic secretion. From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food, then this stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a bell to call the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the bell. Pavlov called the bell the conditioned (or conditional) stimulus (CS) because its effect depended on its association with food. He called the food the unconditioned stimulus (US) because its effect did not depend on previous experience. Likewise, the response to the CS was the conditioned response (CR) and that to the US was the unconditioned response (UR). The timing between the presentation of the CS and US is integral to facilitating the conditioned response. Pavlov found that the shorter the interval between the bell's ring and the appearance of the food, the more quickly the dog learned the conditioned response and the stronger it was. As noted earlier, it is often thought that the conditioned response is a replica of the unconditioned response, but even Pavlov noted that saliva produced by the CS differs in composition from that produced by the US. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS and US.It was also thought that repeated

pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, however many CRs can be learned with a single trial as in fear conditioning and taste aversion learning. Classic conditioning in advertising Many phrases in ads bring to mind a specific product and the success of these products is the result of conditioned responses. These connections are not formed through rehearsal or study; they are created involuntarily through classical conditioning. Advertisers are most successful when they are able to condition the public to link their product or service to specific emotions and ideas. The best way to avoid being involuntarily conditioned is to be informed. If we find the facts on the product ourselves it is easier to steer clear of these trained responses. Another way to avoid being conditioned is simply to know that we are being trained to make certain connections. Many advertisements actually give little information about the product. Being aware of the relationship advertisers are trying to form makes being objective easier. Use of Music Advertising that uses music is taking advantage of classical conditioning. Music that is happy and repetitive helps consumers to feel happy when they hear it. Consumers then associate the feelings of happiness with the product and may be more likely to buy the product. Jingles that stick in the mind, such as rhyming jingles, or tunes based on popular songs, can also act as a form of classical conditioning. Every time the consumer remembers the tune, they unconsciously also remember the product associated with it. This may make the consumer more likely to buy the product.

Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behaviour may change in form, frequency, or strength. Operant conditioning is a term that was coined by B.F Skinner in 1937.The word operant can be described as, "an item of behavior that is initially spontaneous, rather than a response to a prior stimulus, but whose consequences may reinforce or inhibit recurrence of that behavior". Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (or respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behaviour" or operant behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviours which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviours conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates a total of four basic

consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction (i.e. no change in consequences following a response). Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency. Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency. Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsequential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences) it will occur less frequently. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a decline in that behavior. Four contexts of operant conditioning Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive refers to addition, and negative refers to subtraction. What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment. Hence positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock). The four procedures are: Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. Negative reinforcement (Escape): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Operant conditioning to change human behavior State Goal (aims for the study) Monitor Behavior (log conditions) Reinforce desired behavior (give reward for proper behavior) Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior

Also: Avoidance learning is a type of learning in which a certain behavior results in the cessation of an aversive stimulus. For example, performing the behavior of shielding one's eyes when in the sunlight (or going outdoors) will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in one's eyes. Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat would cease pushing the lever. Noncontingent reinforcement refers to delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's (aberrant) behavior. The idea is that the target behavior decreases because it is no longer necessary to receive the reinforcement. This typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which serves to decrease the rate of the target behavior.As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement". Token economy is an exchange system using the principles of operant conditioning where a token is given as a reward for a desired behaviour. Tokens may later be exchanged for a desired prize or rewards such as power, prestige, goods or services. Shaping is a form of operant conditioning in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a desired response are reinforced. Chaining is an instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. Response Cost is a form of punishment in which the annihilation of an appetitive stimulus always follows the reducing in the occurrence of a response. Biological correlates of operant conditioning The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R.T. Richardson. They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been demonstrated to cause plasticity in many cortical regions. Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning. Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when the action of dopamine is high.

Operant conditioning in advertising In operant conditioning, the term "contingency," which Skinner used frequently in his explanations of operant conditioning, is clearly relevant to such advertisements. Whether explicitly or implicitly, through words or images, the purpose of these ads is to communicate an "if then." statement: if we use the product, we will receive the specified benefit. Positive Reinforcement This is a type of operant conditioning in which consumers are rewarded for buying a product or service. The reward acts to reinforce the behavior, making the consumer more likely to continue buying the product. For example, coupons are a form of operant conditioning. Consumers use coupons to buy a product for money off, then continue to buy the product even when the coupons are no longer available, because they become conditioned to buying the product. Free offers are another form of operant conditioning. One operant conditioning strategy is to offer consumers a free sample, then a coupon good for a large discount, then a coupon for a smaller discount. At the end of this, the consumer may be so used to using the product that they continue to buy it at full price. Offers such as Buy 10, get one free are another form of operant conditioning. Negative Reinforcement This type of operant conditioning may be used to get consumers to stop doing something. For example, electricity companies may charge more for electricity used during peak hours. This is a way to get people to use less electricity during peak hours. Salespeople who call at inconvenient times or use pressure to convince you to buy a product or service are also using negative conditioning. The idea is that you will buy the product in order to stop the pestering. Another form of negative conditioning is a threat to void a warranty if the consumer does not use the company's repair and maintenance products. For example, voiding the warranty of a printer if you do not use the manufacturer's branded ink cartridges.

Observational learning is the learning that occurs through observing the behavior of other people. Albert Bandura, who is best known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, discovered this basic form of learning in 1986. Bandura stressed the importance of observational learning because it allowed children especially, to acquire new responses through observing others' behavior. This form of learning does not need reinforcement to occur; instead, a model is required. A social model can be a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher, but particularly in childhood a model is someone of authority or higher status. A social model is significantly important in observational learning because it allows one to cognitively process behavior, encode what is observed, and store it in memory for later imitation. While the model may not be intentionally trying to instill any particular behavior, many behaviors that one observes, remembers and imitates are actions that models display. A child may learn to swear, smack, smoke, and deem other inappropriate behavior acceptable through poor modeling. Bandura claims that children continually learn desirable and undesirable behavior through observational learning. Observational learning suggests that an individual's environment, cognition, and behavior all integrate and ultimately determine how one functions.Through observational learning, behaviors of an individual can spread across a culture through a process known as diffusion chain, which basically occurs when an individual first learns a behavior by observing another individual and that individual serves as a model through whom other individuals will learn the behavior and so on so forth.

Culture and environment also play a role in whether observational learning will be the dominant learning style in a person or community. In some cultures, children are expected to actively participate in their communities and are therefore exposed to different trades and roles on a daily basis. This exposure allows children to observe and learn the different skills and practices that are valued in their communities.In communities where children's primary mode of learning is through observation, the children are rarely separated from adult activities. This incorporation into the adult world at an early age allows children to use observational learning skills in multiple spheres of life. Culturally, they learn that their participation and contributions are valued in their communities. This teaches children that it is their duty as members of the community to observe contributions being made in order to gradually become involved and participate further in the community. Observational learning in advertising

Modeling

Modeling is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.For example, this woman could be modeling the behavior of picking out and eating healthy fruit.Because she is attractive, it makes you want to imitate her behavior

Reinforcement:

Subjects are more likely to model behavior if the person doing the behavior is attractive and is being reinforced by something good happening after doing the behavior

Punishment:

Subjects are less like to model a behavior if the person doing the behavior is punished by something bad happening after doing the behavior.

Modeling in Advertising

Advertising tends to use attractive people.Who are modeling use of a product that the advertiser wants to sell.And use of that product is reinforced by something good happening.For example, drink this soda and an attractive person will fall in love with you.

Negative advertising

If you want to use advertising to decrease a behavior, you would show unattractive people modeling the behavior you want to decrease.And that behavior is being punished by something bad happening after the behavior.For example, this ad would make people not want to smoke cigarettes and drink beer so they could avoid being fat and dumpy. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of problem solving. Students learn both thinking strategies and domain knowledge. The goals of PBL are to help the students develop flexible knowledge, effective problem solving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation. Problem-based learning is a style of active learning.

Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is to facilitate learning by supporting, guiding, and monitoring the learning process. The tutor must build students confidence to take on the problem, and encourage the students, while also stretching their understanding. PBL represents a paradigm shift from traditional teaching and learning philosophy,which is more often lecture-based. The constructs for teaching PBL are very different from traditional classroom/lecture teaching.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning http://www.marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-internal-influences-learning.html http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/intro_Consumer_Behavior.html