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navigation, earch For other u e , ee Alexander the Great (di am!iguation)" Alexander ### the Great $a ileu of %acedon, &egemon of the &ellenic 'eague, (haraoh of )gypt, *hahen hah of (er ia Alexander fighting (er ian king +ariu ###" From Alexander %o aic, from (ompeii, ,aple , %u eo Archeologico ,a-ionale" Reign ../0.1. $2 $orn July 13, .4/ $2 (ella, %acedon +ied June 53, .1. $2 (aged .1) $a!ylon (redece or (hilip ## *ucce or Alexander #6 2on ort Roxana of $actria *tateira of (er ia # ue Alexander #6 Father (hilip ## of %acedon %other 7lympia of )piru 8 ho9:v ; d ; eWar of Alexander the Great 2haeronea (..< $2) = >he!e (..< $2) = Granicu (..? $2) = %iletu (..? $2) = &alicarna u (..? $2) = # u (... $2) = Gordium (... $2) = >yre (..1 $2) = Ga-a (..1 $2) = Gaugamela (..5 $2) = (er ian Gate (..3 $2) = *ogdian Rock (.1@ $2) = Aorno (.1@ $2) = &yda pe River (.1/ $2) = %alli (.14 $2) Alexander the Great (Greek: or A,[1 [! "e#a$ Alexandro$% &'l( !) *+, -. / &'ne 1) *!* -.0,[* [1 [+ al$o kno2n a$ Alexander 333, 9a an ancient Greek8/:8@:8<: king (!a ileu ) of %acedon (../=.1. $2)" &e 9a one of the mo t ucce ful military commander in hi tory, and 9a undefeated in !attle" $y the time of hi death, he had conAuered mo t of the 9orld kno9n to the ancient Greek " Follo9ing the unification of the multiple city0 tate of ancient Greece under the rule of hi father, (hilip ## of %acedon (a la!our Alexander had to repeat !ecau e the outhern Greek re!elled after (hilipB death), Alexander 4on5'ered the A4hae6en7d 8er$7an 96:7re, 7n4l'd7n# Anatol7a, ;(r7a, 8hoen747a, &'dea, Ga<a, 9#(:t, -a4tr7a, and "e$o:ota67a, and extended the =o'ndar7e$ o> h7$ o2n e6:7re a$ >ar a$ 8'n?a=, 3nd7a" (rior to hi death, Alexander had already made plan for military and mercantile expan ion into the Ara!ian penin ula, after 9hich he 9a to turn hi armie to the 9e t (2arthage, Rome, and the #!erian (enin ula)" &i original vi ion had !een to the ea t, though, to the end of the 9orld and the Great 7uter *ea, a de cri!ed !y h7$ =o(hood t'tor Ar7$totle" Alexander integrated many foreigner into hi army, leading ome cholar to credit him 9ith a Cpolicy of fu ion"C @e al$o en4o'ra#ed 6arr7a#e$ =et2een h7$ $old7er$ and >ore7#ner$% he h76$el> 2ent on to 6arr( t2o >ore7#n :r7n4e$$e$A Alexander died after t9elve year of con tant military campaigning, po i!ly a a re ult of malaria, poi oning, typhoid fever, viral encephaliti or the con eAuence of alcoholi m"8D:853: &i legacy and conAue t lived on long after him, and u hered in centurie of Greek ettlement and cultural influence over di tant area " Bh7$ :er7od 7$ kno2n a$ the @ellen7$t74 A#e, and >eat'red a 4o6=7nat7on o> Greek, "7ddle 9a$tern and 3nd7an 4'lt're" Alexander him elf 9a featured prominently in the hi tory and myth

of !oth Greek and non0Greek culture " &i exploit in pired a literary tradition in 9hich he appeared a a legendary hero in the tradition of Achille " 2ontent 8hide: 5 )arly life 5"5 A cent of %acedon 1 (eriod of conAue t 1"5 Fall of the Achaemenid (er ian )mpire 1"5"5 &o tility 1"1 #nva ion of #ndia 1". After #ndia . +eath ."5 2au e ."1 *ucce or .". $ody ."? >e tament ? (er onal life 4 'egacy and divi ion of the empire 4"5 #nfluence on Ancient Rome / 2haracter @ Greek and 'atin ource < 'egend <"5 #n the $i!le <"1 #n the EurBan <". #n the *hahnameh <"? ,ame <"4 #n ancient and modern culture D ,ote 53 Reference 55 Further reading 55"5 ,on0GreekF'atin per pective 51 )xternal link

)arly life Alexander fighting a lion 9ith hi friend 2rateru (detail)" &e 9ear a chlamy cape, and a peta u hat" .rd century $"2" mo aic, (ella mu eum" World vie9 at the time of Alexander: recon truction of &ecataeu B ancient 9orld map, 4th century $2"$orn in (ella, capital of %acedon, Alexander 9a the on of Ging (hilip ## of %acedon and of hi fourth 9ife 7lympia , an )pirote prince " 7n hi motherB ide, he 9a a econd cou in of (yrrhu of )piru , 9ho him elf 9ould go on to !ecome a cele!rated generalH thu , there are nota!le example of military geniu on !oth ide of hi family" According to (lutarch, hi father 9a de cended from &eracle through Garanu of %acedon and hi mother de cended from Aeacu through ,eoptolemu and Achille "855: (lutarch relate that !oth (hilip and 7lympia dreamt of their onB future !irth" #n (hilipB dream, he ealed her 9om! 9ith the eal of the lion" Alarmed !y thi , he con ulted the eer Ari tander of >elme o , 9ho determined that hi 9ife 9a pregnant and that the child 9ould have the character of a lion"851: Another odd coincidence i that the temple of Artemi in )phe u 9a et afire on the night of hi !irth" (lutarchB explanation i that the God 9ere too !u y 9atching over Alexander to care for the temple" According to five hi torian of antiAuity (Arrian, 2urtiu , +iodoru , Ju tin, and (lutarch), after hi vi it to the 7racle of Ammon at *i9a, rumor pread that the 7racle had revealed AlexanderB father to !e Ieu , rather than (hilip" #n upport of thi , (lutarch (Alexander ."5,.) claim that (hilip avoided 7lympia B !ed !ecau e of her affinity for leeping in the company of nake "

#n hi early year , Alexander 9a rai ed !y hi nur e 'anike, 9ho 9a 2leitu B older i ter" 'ater, Alexander 9a educated !y a trict teacher: 'eonida , him elf a relative of 7lympia " 'eonida B frugal 9ay are kno9n to u through the extant record: reportedly, 9hen Alexander thre9 a large amount of acrificial incen e into a fire, 'eonida reprimanded him, telling him that he could 9a te a much incen e a he 9i hed once he had conAuered the pice !earing region " Jear later, follo9ing AlexanderB conAue t of Ga-a, a city directly on the (er ian pice trade route, the young king ent !ack over 54 ton of myrrh to 'eonida a a retort" #t 9a Ari totle, though, 9ho 9a AlexanderB mo t famou and important tutor" >he famou philo opher trained Alexander in rhetoric and literature, and timulated hi intere t in cience, medicine, and philo ophy" &i gift to Alexander, a copy of the #liad, 9a purportedly among the young kingB mo t pri-ed po e ion 00and 9a kept under hi pillo9, along 9ith a dagger" When Alexander 9a ten year old, a >he alian !rought a hor e of uch Auality to ell to (hilip that it 9a la!eled a prodigy" A it turned out, though, the hor e 9a o 9ild that no man could mount him" Joung Alexander, recogni-ing that the hor eB o9n hado9 9a the ource of it fear, 9ent to the teed and turned him to9ard the un" Kpon doing o, the hor e calmed do9n, and the young king ea ily mounted and rode him" &i father and other people 9ho a9 thi 9ere very impre edH (hilip ki ed him 9ith tear of Loy and aid C%y on, eek thee out a kingdom eAual to thy elfH %acedon ha not room for thee"C >hi hor e 9a named $ucephalu , meaning Cox0headedC00though there i the po i!ility that the name refer to the !rand that denoted the hor eB origin" $ucephalu 9ould !e AlexanderB companion throughout hi Lourney , and 9a truly loved: 9hen the hor e died (due to old age, according to (lutarch, for he 9a already .3H other ource claim that $ucephalu died of 9ound u tained in a !attle in #ndia), Alexander named a city after him called $ocephia or $ucephala"

A cent of %acedon *ardonyx cameo repre enting Alexander the Great" >hought to !e !y (yrgotele , engraver of Alexander, around .14 $2" 2a!inet de %Mdaille , (ari " $u t of Alexander (Roman copy of a ..3 $2) tatue !y 'y ippu , 'ouvre %u eum)" According to +iodoru , the Alexander culpture !y 'y ippu 9ere the mo t faithful"#n .?3 $2, (hilip led an attack on $y-antium, leaving Alexander, no9 aged 5/, to act a regent of %acedon" *hortly after, in ..D $2, (hilip took a fifth 9ife, 2leopatra )urydice" While AlexanderB mother 7lympia 9a from )piru , 2leopatra )urydice 9a a true %acedonianH thi led to political machination over 9hether Alexander 9a the !e t heir for the Agead throne" +uring the 9edding fea t, Attalu , the uncle of the !ride, uppo edly gave a toa t for the marriage to re ult in a legitimate heir to the throne of %acedon" Alexander re ponded !y hurling hi go!let at Attalu , houting CWhat am #, a !a tard thenNC #n re pon e, (hillip dre9 hi 9ord and moved to9ard Alexander, !ut fell in a drunken tupor over the drinking couche " Alexander then famou ly remarked: C&ere i the man planning on conAuering from Greece to A ia, and he cannot even move from one ta!le to another"C Follo9ing thi epi ode, Alexander and hi mother left %acedonH hi i ter (al o named 2leopatra) remained" )ventually (hilip and Alexander 9ould reconcileH the on returned home, !ut 7lympia remained in )piru " #n ..< $2 Alexander fought under hi father at the deci ive $attle of 2haeronea again t the city0 tate of Athen and >he!e " (hillip entru ted Alexander 9ith the left 9ing of hi army, 9hich entailed facing the *acred $and of >he!e , an elite hoplite corp hitherto regarded a invinci!le" >hough fe9 detail of the !attle urvive to u , 9hat i kno9n i that Alexander annihilated thi corp " After the !attle, (hilip led a 9ild cele!rationH Alexander i nota!ly a! ent from the account de cri!ing it" #t i peculated that Alexander per onally treated +emade , a nota!le orator of Athen , 9ho had oppo ed Athenian alignment again t (hilip" &e 9ent on to dra9 up and pre ent a peace plan, 9hich the a em!led Athenian army voted on and approved" (hilip 9a content to deprive >he!e of it dominion over $oeotia and leave a %acedonian garri on in the citadel" A fe9 month later, the 'eague of 2orinth 9a formed, and (hillip 9a acclaimed &egemon of the &ellene "

#n ../ $2 (hilip 9a a a inated at the 9edding of hi daughter 2leopatra to her uncle Ging Alexander of )piru " >heorie a!ound regarding the motive !ehind the killing, !ut a common tory pre ented the a a in a a di graced former lover of the king00the young no!leman (au ania of 7re ti " &e held a grudge again t (hilip !ecau e the king had ignored hi grievance regarding an outrage on hi per on" *ome !elieved that (hilipB murder 9a planned 9ith the kno9ledge and involvement of Alexander, 7lympia , or !oth" *till other theorie pointed to +ariu ###, the recently cro9ned Ging of (er ia" Regardle , after (hilipB death, the army proclaimed Alexander, then aged 13, a the ne9 king of %acedon" Greek citie like Athen and >he!e , 9hich had !een forced to pledge allegiance to (hilip, a9 in the relatively unte ted ne9 king an opportunity to regain full independence" Alexander moved 9iftly and >he!e , 9hich had !een mo t active again t him, u!mitted 9hen he appeared at it gate " >he a em!led Greek at the # thmu of 2orinth, 9ith the exception of the *partan , elected him to the command again t (er ia, 9hich had previou ly !een !e to9ed upon hi father" >he next year (..4 $2), Alexander felt free to engage the >hracian and the #llyrian in order to ecure the +anu!e a the northern !oundary of the %acedonian kingdom" While he 9a triumphantly campaigning north, the >he!an and Athenian re!elled once again" Alexander reacted immediately and 9hile the other citie once again he itated, >he!e decided thi time to re i t 9ith the utmo t vigor" >he re i tance 9a u ele H in the end, the city 9a conAuered 9ith great !lood hed" >he!e 9a ra-ed to the ground and it territory divided !et9een the other $oeotian citie " %oreover, the >he!an them elve 9ere old into laveryH Alexander pared only the prie t , the leader of the pro0%acedonian party, and the de cendant of (indar, 9ho e hou e 9a the only one left tanding" >he end of >he!e co9ed Athen into u!mi ion" According to (lutarch, a pecial Athenian em!a y led !y (hocion, an opponent of the anti0%acedonian faction, 9a a!le to per uade Alexander to give up hi demand for the exile of leader of the anti0%acedonian party, mo t particularly +emo thene "85.:

(eriod of conAue t Fall of the Achaemenid (er ian )mpire %ap of AlexanderB empire"AlexanderB army cro ed the &elle pont 9ith approximately ?1,333 oldier from %acedon, variou Greek city0 tate , and mercenarie and tri!ute oldier from >hrace, (aionia, and #llyria" After an initial victory again t (er ian force at the $attle of the Granicu , Alexander accepted the urrender of the (er ian provincial capital and trea ury of *ardi and proceeded do9n the #onian coa t" At &alicarna u , Alexander ucce fully 9aged the fir t of many iege , eventually forcing hi opponent , the mercenary captain %emnon of Rhode and the (er ian atrap of 2aria, 7ronto!ate , to 9ithdra9 !y ea" Alexander left 2aria in the hand of Ada, 9ho 9a ruler of 2aria !efore !eing depo ed !y her !rother (ixodaru " From &alicarna u , Alexander proceeded into mountainou 'ycia and the (amphylian plain, a erting control over all coa tal citie and denying them to hi enemy" From (amphylia on9ard, the coa t held no maLor port and o Alexander moved inland" At >erme o , Alexander hum!led !ut did not torm the (i idian city" At the ancient (hrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander CundidC the hitherto un olva!le Gordian Gnot, a feat aid to a9ait the future Cking of A ia"C According to the mo t vivid tory, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter ho9 the knot 9a undone, and he hacked it apart 9ith hi 9ord" Another ver ion claim that he did not u e the 9ord, !ut imply reali-ed that the imple t 9ay to undo the knot 9a to imply remove a central peg from the chariot00around 9hich the knot 9a tied"

Alexander %o aic, ho9ing $attle of # u , from the &ou e of the Faun, (ompeiiAlexanderB army cro ed the 2ilician Gate , met and defeated the main (er ian army under the command of +ariu ### at the $attle of # u in ... $2" +ariu 9a forced to flee the !attle after hi army !roke, and in doing o left !ehind hi 9ife, hi t9o daughter , hi mother *i ygam!i , and a fa!ulou amount of trea ure" &e after9ard offered a peace treaty to Alexander, the conce ion of the land he had already conAuered, and a ran om of 53,333 talent for hi family" Alexander replied that ince he 9a no9 king of A ia, it 9a he alone 9ho decided territorial divi ion " (roceeding do9n the %editerranean coa t, he took >yre and Ga-a after famou iege

( ee *iege of >yre)" #n ..1 $2 Alexander attempted to lead hi army into ,u!ia" &e 9a confronted 9ith the !rilliant military formation devi ed !y their 9arrior Aueen, 2andace of %eroO" *he led her army in the oppo ition from on top of an elephant" +aunted !y the pro pect of defeat 9hile engaging 9ith her oppo ing army, he concluded it 9ould !e !e t to 9ithdra9 hi force and he cho e to enter )gypt in tead"85?: +uring ..1=..5 $2, Alexander 9a 9elcomed a a li!erator in (er ian0occupied )gypt and 9a pronounced the on of Ieu !y )gyptian prie t of the deity Amun at the 7racle of *i9a 7a i in the 'i!yan de ert" &enceforth, Alexander often referred to Ieu 0Ammon a hi true father, and u! eAuent currency depicted him, adorned 9ith ram horn a a ym!ol of hi divinity" &e founded Alexandria in )gypt, 9hich 9ould !ecome the pro perou capital of the (tolemaic dyna ty after hi death" 'eaving )gypt, Alexander marched ea t9ard into A yria (no9 northern #raA) and defeated +ariu once more at the $attle of Gaugamela" 7nce again, +ariu 9a forced to leave the field, and Alexander cha ed him a far a Ar!ela" While +ariu fled over the mountain to )c!atana (modern &amedan), Alexander marched to $a!ylon"

*tatuette of a Greek oldier, from a ?th=.rd century $2 !urial ite north of the >ian *han, at the maximum extent of AlexanderB advance in the )a t (PrQmAi, RinLiang %u eum, 2hina) (dra9ing)From $a!ylon, Alexander 9ent to *u a, one of the Achaemenid capital , and captured it legendary trea ury" *ending the !ulk of hi army to the (er ian capital of (er epoli via the Royal Road, Alexander tormed and captured the (er ian Gate (in the modern Iagro %ountain ), then printed for (er epoli !efore it trea ury could !e looted" #t 9a here that Alexander 9a aid to have tared at the crum!led tatue of Rerxe and decided to leave it on the ground00a ym!olic ge ture of vengeance" +uring their tay at the capital, a fire !roke out in the ea tern palace of Rerxe and pread to the re t of the city" >heorie a!ound a to 9hether thi 9a the re ult of a drunken accident, or a deli!erate act of revenge for the !urning of the Acropoli of Athen during the *econd (er ian War" >he $ook of Arda Wira-, a Ioroa trian 9ork compo ed in the .rd or ?th century A+, al o peak of archive containing Call the Ave ta and Iand, 9ritten upon prepared co90 kin , and 9ith gold inkC that 9ere de troyedH !ut it mu t !e aid that thi tatement i often treated !y cholar 9ith a certain mea ure of keptici m, !ecau e it i generally thought that for many centurie the Ave ta 9a tran mitted mainly orally !y the %agi" Alexander then et off in pur uit of +ariu ane9" >he (er ian king 9a no longer in control of hi de tiny, having !een taken pri oner !y $e u , hi $actrian atrap and kin man" A Alexander approached, $e u had hi men murder the Great Ging and then declared him elf +ariu B ucce or a Artaxerxe 6 !efore retreating into 2entral A ia to launch a guerrilla campaign again t Alexander" With the death of +ariu , Alexander declared the 9ar of vengeance over, and relea ed hi Greek and other allie from ervice in the 'eague campaign (although he allo9ed tho e that 9i hed to re0enli t a mercenarie in hi army)" &i three0year campaign, fir t again t $e u and then again t *pitamene , the atrap of *ogdiana, took Alexander through %edia, (arthia, Aria (We t Afghani tan), +rangiana, Aracho ia (*outh and 2entral Afghani tan), $actria (,orth and 2entral Afghani tan), and *cythia" #n the proce of doing o, he captured and refounded &erat and %aracanda" %oreover, he founded a erie of ne9 citie , all called Alexandria, including modern Gandahar in Afghani tan, and Alexandria ) chate (C>he Furthe tC) in modern >aLiki tan" #n the end, !oth of hi opponent 9ere defeated after having !een !etrayed !y their men00$e u in .1D $2, and *pitamene the year after"

&o tility +uring thi time, Alexander adopted ome element of (er ian dre and cu tom at hi court, nota!ly the cu tom of pro kyne i , a ym!olic ki ing of the hand that (er ian paid to their ocial uperior , !ut a practice that the Greek di approved" >he Greek regarded the ge ture a the province of deitie and

!elieved that Alexander meant to deify him elf !y reAuiring it" >hi co t him much in the ympathie of many of hi countrymen" &ere, too, a plot again t hi life 9a revealed, and one of hi officer , (hilota , 9a executed for failing to !ring the plot to hi attention" >he death of the on nece itated the death of the father, and thu (armenion, 9ho had !een charged 9ith guarding the trea ury at )c!atana, 9a a a inated !y command of Alexander, o he might not make attempt at vengeance" %o t infamou ly, Alexander per onally le9 the man 9ho had aved hi life at Granicu , 2leitu the $lack, during a drunken argument at %aracanda" 'ater in the 2entral A ian campaign, a econd plot again t hi life 9a revealed, thi one in tigated !y hi o9n royal page " &i official hi torian, 2alli thene of 7lynthu (9ho had fallen out of favor 9ith the king !y leading the oppo ition to hi attempt to introduce pro kyne i ), 9a implicated in the plotH there ha never !een a con en u a to hi actual involvement in the con piracy"

#nva ion of #ndia *ee al o: AlexanderB 2onflict 9ith the Gam!oLa and $attle of the &yda pe River 2ampaign and landmark of AlexanderB inva ion of *outhern A ia"After the death of *pitamene and hi marriage to Roxana (Ro hanak in $actrian) to cement hi relation 9ith hi ne9 2entral A ian atrapie , in .1/ $2 Alexander 9a finally free to turn hi attention to the #ndian u!continent" Alexander invited all the chieftain of the former atrapy of Gandhara, in the north of 9hat i no9 (aki tan, to come to him and u!mit to hi authority" Am!hi (Greek: 7mphi ), ruler of >axila, 9ho e kingdom extended from the #ndu to the Jhelum (Greek:&yda pe ), complied" $ut the chieftain of ome hilly clan including the, A pa ioi and A akenoi ection of the Gam!oLa (cla ical name ), kno9n in #ndian text a A hvayana and A hvakayana (name referring to the eAue trian nature of their ociety from the *an krit root 9ord A hva meaning hor e), refu ed to u!mit" Alexander per onally took command of the hield0!earing guard , foot0companion , archer , Agrianian and hor e0Lavelin0men and led them again t the Gam!oLa clan Sthe A pa ioi of GunarFAli hang valley , the Guraean of the Guraeu ((anLkora) valley, and the A akenoi of the *9at and $uner valley " Write one modern hi torian: C>hey 9ere !rave people and it 9a hard 9ork for Alexander to take their tronghold , of 9hich %a aga and Aornu need pecial mention"C854: A fierce conte t en ued 9ith the A pa ioi in 9hich Alexander him elf 9a 9ounded in the houlder !y a dart !ut eventually the A pa ioi lo t the fightH ?3,333 of them 9ere en laved" >he A akenoi faced Alexander 9ith an army of .3,333 cavalry, .<,333 infantry and .3 elephant "85/: >hey had fought !ravely and offered tu!!orn re i tance to the invader in many of their tronghold like citie of 7ra, $a-ira and %a aga" >he fort of %a aga could only !e reduced after everal day of !loody fighting in 9hich Alexander him elf 9a 9ounded eriou ly in the ankle" When the 2hieftain of %a aga fell in the !attle, the upreme command of the army 9ent to hi old mother 2leophi (A"v") 9ho al o tood determined to defend her motherland to the la t extremity" >he example of 2leophi a uming the upreme command of the military al o !rought the entire 9omen of the locality into the fighting"85@: Alexander could only reduce %a aga !y re orting to political trategem and action of !etrayal" According to 2urtiu : C,ot only did Alexander laughter the entire population of %a aga, !ut al o did he reduce it !uilding to ru!!le "C A imilar man laughter then follo9ed at 7ra, another tronghold of the A akenoi"

A painting !y 2harle 'e $run depicting Alexander and (oru ((uru) during the $attle of the &yda pe "#n the aftermath of general laughter and ar on committed !y Alexander at %a aga and 7ra, numerou A akenian people fled to a high fortre called Aorno " Alexander follo9ed them clo e !ehind their heel and captured the trategic hill0fort !ut only after the fourth day of a !loody fight" >he tory of %a aga 9a repeated at Aorno and a imilar carnage on the tri!al0people follo9ed here too" Writing on AlexanderB campaign again t the A akenoi, 6ictor &an on comment : CAfter promi ing the urrounded A aceni their live upon capitulation, he executed all their oldier 9ho had urrendered" >heir tronghold at 7ra and Aornu 9ere al o imilarly tormed" Garri on 9ere pro!a!ly all laughtered"T85<:

*i ikotto , 9ho had helped Alexander in thi campaign, 9a made the governor of Aorno " After reducing Aorno , Alexander cro ed the #ndu and fought and i !elieved to have 9on an epic !attle again t a local ruler (oru (original #ndian name RaLa (uru), 9ho ruled a region in the (unLa!, in the $attle of &yda pe in .1/ $2"

*ilver coin of Alexander (../0.1. $2))" $riti h %u eum"After the !attle, Alexander 9a greatly impre ed !y (oru for hi !ravery in !attle, and therefore made an alliance 9ith him and appointed him a atrap of hi o9n kingdom, even adding ome land he did not o9n !efore" Alexander then named one of the t9o ne9 citie that he founded, $ucephala, in honor of the hor e 9ho had !rought him to #ndia, 9ho had died during the $attle of &yda pe " Alexander continued on to conAuer all the head9ater of the #ndu River" )a t of (oru B kingdom, near the Gange River (original #ndian name Ganga), 9a the po9erful empire of %agadha ruled !y the ,anda dyna ty" Fearing the pro pect of facing another po9erful #ndian army and exhau ted !y year of campaigning, hi army mutinied at the &ypha i River (the modern $ea River) refu ing to march further ea t" >hi river thu mark the ea ternmo t extent of AlexanderB conAue t : A for the %acedonian , ho9ever, their truggle 9ith (oru !lunted their courage and tayed their further advance into #ndia" For having had all they could do to repul e an enemy 9ho mu tered only t9enty thou and infantry and t9o thou and hor e, they violently oppo ed Alexander 9hen he in i ted on cro ing the river Gange al o, the 9idth of 9hich, a they learned, 9a thirty0t9o furlong , it depth a hundred fathom , 9hile it !ank on the further ide 9ere covered 9ith multitude of men0at0arm and hor emen and elephant " For they 9ere told that the king of the Ganderite and (rae ii 9ere a9aiting them 9ith eighty thou and hor emen, t9o hundred thou and footmen, eight thou and chariot , and ix thou and fighting elephant " S(lutarch , 6ita Alexandri, /185D: (tolemy coin 9ith Alexander 9earing an elephant calp, ym!ol of hi conAue t in #ndia"Alexander, after the meeting 9ith hi officer 2oenu , 9a convinced that it 9a !etter to return" Alexander 9a forced to turn outh" Along the 9ay hi army ran into the %alli clan (in modern day %ultan)" >he %alli 9ere the mo t 9arlike clan in *outh A ia during that period" AlexanderB army challenged the %alli, and the en uing !attle led them to the %alli citadel" +uring the a ault, Alexander him elf 9a 9ounded eriou ly !y a %allian arro9"813:"815: &i force , !elieving their king dead, took the citadel and unlea hed their fury on the %alli 9ho had taken refuge 9ithin it,perpetrating a ma acre, paring neither man,9oman nor child" 811: Follo9ing thi , the urviving %alli urrendered to AlexanderB force , and hi !eleaguered army moved on"&e ent much of hi army to 2armania (modern outhern #ran) 9ith hi general 2rateru , and commi ioned a fleet to explore the (er ian Gulf hore under hi admiral ,earchu , 9hile he led the re t of hi force !ack to (er ia !y the outhern route through the Gedro ian +e ert (no9 part of outhern #ran and %akran no9 part of (aki tan)" Alexander left force in #ndia ho9ever" #n the territory of the #ndu , he nominated hi officer (eithon a a atrap, a po ition he 9ould hold for the next ten year until .5/ $2, and in the (unLa! he left )udemu in charge of the army, at the ide of the atrap (oru and >axile " )udemu !ecame ruler of a part of the (unLa! after their death" $oth ruler returned to the We t in .5/ $2 9ith their armie " #n .15 $2), 2handragupta %aurya founded the %aurya )mpire in #ndia and overthre9 the Greek atrap "

After #ndia *tatuette of the young Alexander a tride a hor e, $egram, Afghani tan"+i covering that many of hi atrap and military governor had mi !ehaved in hi a! ence, Alexander executed a num!er of them a example

on hi 9ay to *u a" A a ge ture of thank , he paid off the de!t of hi oldier , and announced that he 9ould end tho e over0aged and di a!led veteran !ack to %acedonia under 2rateru , !ut hi troop mi under tood hi intention and mutinied at the to9n of 7pi , refu ing to !e ent a9ay and !itterly critici-ing hi adoption of (er ian cu tom and dre and the introduction of (er ian officer and oldier into %acedonian unit " Alexander executed the ringleader of the mutiny, !ut forgave the rank and file" #n an attempt to craft a la ting harmony !et9een hi %acedonian and (er ian u!Lect , he held a ma marriage of hi enior officer to (er ian and other no!le9omen at *u a, !ut fe9 of tho e marriage eem to have la ted much !eyond a year" &i attempt to merge (er ian culture 9ith hi Greek oldier al o included training a regiment of (er ian !oy in the 9ay of %acedonian " %o t hi torian !elieve that Alexander adopted the (er ian royal title of *hahan hah (meaning: C>he Ging of Ging C)" #t i claimed that Alexander 9anted to overrun or integrate the Ara!ian penin ula, !ut thi theory i 9idely di puted" #t 9a a umed that Alexander 9ould turn 9e t9ard and attack 2arthage and #taly, had he conAuered Ara!ia" After traveling to )c!atana to retrieve the !ulk of the (er ian trea ure, hi clo e t friend and po i!ly lover81.: &ephae tion died of an illne , or po i!ly of poi oning" Alexander mourned !y &ephae tionB ide for ix month "

+eath )a tern &emi phere, .1. $2"7n the afternoon of June 53=55, .1. $2, Alexander died in the palace of ,e!uchadre--ar ## of $a!ylon" &e 9a Lu t one month hort of attaining .. year of age" 6ariou theorie have !een propo ed for the cau e of hi death 9hich include poi oning !y the on of Antipater or other , ickne that follo9ed a drinking party, or a relap e of the malaria he had contracted in ../ $2" #t i kno9n that on %ay 1D, Alexander participated in a !anAuet organi-ed !y hi friend %ediu of 'ari a" After ome heavy drinking, immediately !efore or after a !ath, he 9a forced into !ed due to evere illne " >he rumor of hi illne circulated 9ith the troop cau ing them to !e more and more anxiou " 7n June D, the general decided to let the oldier ee their king alive one la t time" >hey 9ere admitted to hi pre ence one at a time" $ecau e the king 9a too ill to peak, he confined him elf to moving hi hand" >he day after, Alexander 9a dead"

2au e >he poi oning theory derive from the tory held in antiAuity !y Ju tin and 2urtiu " >he original tory tated that 2a ander, on of Antipater, viceroy of Greece, !rought the poi on to Alexander in $a!ylon in a muleB hoof, and that AlexanderB royal cup!earer, #olla , !rother of 2a ander, admini tered it" %any had po9erful motivation for eeing Alexander gone, and 9ere none the 9or e for it after hi death" +eadly agent that could have killed Alexander in one or more do e include helle!ore and trychnine" #n R" 'ane FoxB opinion, the tronge t argument again t the poi on theory i the fact that t9elve day had pa ed !et9een the tart of hi illne and hi death and in the ancient 9orld, uch long0acting poi on 9ere pro!a!ly not availa!le"

2oin of Alexander the Great, depicting Athena in profile, and a tanding ,ike">he 9arrior culture of %acedon favoured the 9ord over trychnine, and many ancient hi torian , like (lutarch and Arrian, maintained that Alexander 9a not poi oned, !ut died of natural cau e " #n tead, it i likely that Alexander died of malaria or typhoid fever, 9hich 9ere rampant in ancient $a!ylon" 7ther illne e could have al o !een the culprit, including acute pancreatiti or the We t ,ile viru "81?: Recently, theorie have !een advanced tating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the di ea e" &elle!ore, !elieved to

have !een 9idely u ed a a medicine at the time !ut deadly in large do e , may have !een overu ed !y the impatient king to peed hi recovery, 9ith deadly re ult " +i ea e0related theorie often cite the fact that AlexanderB health had fallen to dangerou ly lo9 level after year of heavy drinking and uffering everal appalling 9ound (including one in #ndia that nearly claimed hi life), and that it 9a only a matter of time !efore one ickne or another finally killed him" ,o tory i conclu ive" AlexanderB death ha !een reinterpreted many time over the centurie " What i certain i that Alexander died of a high fever on June 53 or 55 of .1. $2"

*ucce or A diary from the year .1.=.11 $2 that record the death of Alexander" 'ocated at the $riti h %u eum, 'ondon7n hi death !ed, hi mar hal a ked him to 9hom he !eAueathed hi kingdom" *ince Alexander had no o!viou and legitimate heir (hi on Alexander #6 9ould !e !orn after hi death, and hi other on 9a !y a concu!ine, not a 9ife), it 9a a Aue tion of vital importance" >here i ome de!ate to 9hat Alexander replied" *ome !elieve that Alexander aid, CGrati toC (that i , C>o the tronge tUC) or CGratBeroiC (to the tronger)" Alexander may have aid, CGraterBoiC (to 2rateru )" >hi i po i!le !ecau e the Greek pronunciation of Cthe trongerC and C2rateru C differ only !y the po ition of the accented ylla!le" %o t cholar !elieve that if Alexander did intend to choo e one of hi general , hi o!viou choice 9ould have !een 2rateru !ecau e he 9a the commander of the large t part of the army (infantry), !ecau e he had proven him elf to !e an excellent trategi t, and !ecau e he di played trait of the CidealC %acedonian" $ut 2rateru 9a not around, and the other may have cho en to hear CGratBeroiC S the tronger" Regardle of hi reply, 2rateru doe not appear to have pre ed the i ue" >he empire then plit among t hi ucce or (the +iadochi)" $efore long, accu ation of foul play 9ere !eing thro9n a!out !y hi general at one another, and no contemporaneou ource can !e fully tru ted"

$ody AlexanderB !ody 9a placed in a gold anthropoid arcophagu , 9hich 9a in turn placed in a econd gold ca ket and covered 9ith a purple ro!e" AlexanderB coffin 9a placed, together 9ith hi armour, in a gold carriage that had a vaulted roof upported !y an #onic peri tyle" >he decoration of the carriage 9a very lavi h and i de cri!ed in great detail !y +iodoro "

A rare coin of (tolemy #, ho9ing him elf on the o!ver e at the !eginning of hi reign, and on the rever e Alexander the Great triumphantly riding a chariot dra9n !y elephant , a reminder of hi ucce ful campaign 9ith Alexander in #ndia"According to one legend, Alexander 9a pre erved in a clay ve el full of honey (9hich can act a a pre ervative) and interred in a gla coffin" According to Aelian (6aria &i toria 51"/?), (tolemy tole the !ody and !rought it to Alexandria, 9here it 9a on di play until 'ate AntiAuity" #t 9a here that (tolemy #R, one of the la t ucce or of (tolemy #, replaced AlexanderB arcophagu 9ith a gla one, and melted the original do9n in order to trike emergency gold i ue of hi coinage" >he citi-en of Alexandria 9ere outraged at thi and oon after, (tolemy #R 9a killed" >he Roman emperor 2aligula 9a aid to have looted the tom!, tealing AlexanderB !rea tplate, and 9earing it" Around 133 A+, )mperor *eptimiu *everu clo ed AlexanderB tom! to the pu!lic" &i on and ucce or, 2aracalla, 9a a great admirer of Alexander, and vi ited the tom! in hi o9n reign" After thi , detail on the fate of the tom! are ketchy" >he o0called CAlexander *arcophagu ,C di covered near *idon and no9 in the # tan!ul Archaeology

%u eum, i no9 generally thought to !e that of A!dylonymu , 9hom &ephae tion had appointed a the king of *idon !y AlexanderB order" >he arcophagu depict Alexander and hi companion hunting and in !attle 9ith the (er ian "

>e tament *ome cla ical author , uch a +iodoru , relate that Alexander had given detailed 9ritten in truction to 2rateru ome time !efore hi death" Although 2rateru had already tarted to implement AlexanderB order , uch a the !uilding of a fleet in 2ilicia for expedition again t 2arthage, AlexanderB ucce or cho e not to further implement them, on the ground that they 9ere impractical and extravagant"814: >he te tament, de cri!ed in +iodoru R6###, called for military expan ion into the *outhern and We tern %editerranean, monumental con truction , and the intermixing of )a tern and We tern population " #t mo t remarka!le item 9ere: >he completion of a pyre to &ephae tion >he !uilding of Ca thou and 9ar hip , larger than trireme , in (hoenicia, *yria, 2ilicia, and 2ypru for the campaign again t the 2arthaginian and the other 9ho live along the coa t of 'i!ya and #!eria and the adLoining coa tal region a far a *icilyC >he !uilding of a road in northern Africa a far a the (illar of &eracle , 9ith port and hipyard along it" >he erection of great temple in +elo , +elphi, +odona, +ium, Amphipoli , 2yrnu and #lium" >he con truction of a monumental tom! for hi father (hilip, Cto match the greate t of the pyramid of )gyptC >he e ta!li hment of citie and the Ctran plant of population from A ia to )urope and in the oppo ite direction from )urope to A ia, in order to !ring the large t continent to common unity and to friend hip !y mean of intermarriage and family tie "C (+iodoru *iculu , $i!liotheca hi toria, R6###) (er onal life %ain article: Alexander the GreatB per onal relation hip AlexanderB lifelong companion 9a &ephae tion, the on of a %acedonian no!le" &ephae tion al o held the po ition of econd0in0command of AlexanderB force until hi death, 9hich deva tated Alexander" >he full extent of hi relation hip 9ith &ephae tion i the u!Lect of much hi torical peculation" Alexander married t9o 9omen: Roxana, daughter of a $actrian no!leman, 7xyarte , and *tateira, a (er ian prince and daughter of +ariu ### of (er ia" >here i al o an accepted tradition of a third 9ife0 (ary ati 9hom he i uppo ed to have married in (er ia though nothing i kno9n a!out her" Another per onage from the court of +ariu ### 9ith 9hom he 9a intimate 9a the male eunuch $agoa " &i on !y Roxana, Alexander #6 of %acedon, 9a killed after the death of hi father, !efore he reached adulthood" Alexander 9a admired during hi lifetime for treating all hi lover humanely"81/:81@:

'egacy and divi ion of the empire %ain article: +iadochi 2oin of Alexander !earing an Aramaic language in cription" >he &elleni tic 9orld vie9 after Alexander: ancient 9orld map of )rato thene (1@/05D? $2), incorporating information from the campaign of Alexander and hi ucce or "81<:After AlexanderB death, in .1. $2, the rule of hi )mpire 9a given to AlexanderB half0!rother (hilip Arridaeu and AlexanderB on Alexander #6" &o9ever, ince (hilip 9a mentally ill and the on of Alexander till a !a!y, t9o regent 9ere named in (erdicca (9ho had received AlexanderB ring at hi death) and 2rateru (9ho may have !een the one mentioned a ucce or !y Alexander), although (erdicca Auickly managed to take ole po9er"

(erdicca oon eliminated everal of hi opponent , killing a!out .3 (+iodoru *iculu ), and at the (artition of $a!ylon named former general of Alexander a atrap of the variou region of hi )mpire" #n .15 $2 (erdicca 9a a a inated !y hi o9n troop during hi conflict 9ith (tolemy, leading to the (artition of >riparadi u , in 9hich Antipater 9a named a the ne9 regent, and the atrapie again hared !et9een the variou general " From that time, AlexanderB officer 9ere focu ed on the explicit formation of rival monarchie and territorial tate " Kltimately, the conflict 9a ettled after the $attle of #p u in (hrygia in .35 $2" AlexanderB empire 9a divided at fir t into four maLor portion : 2a ander ruled in %acedon, 'y imachu in >hrace, *eleucu in %e opotamia and (er ia, and (tolemy # *oter in the 'evant and )gypt" Antigonu ruled for a 9hile in Anatolia and *yria !ut 9a eventually defeated !y the other general at #p u (.35 $2)" 2ontrol over #ndian territory pa ed to 2handragupta %aurya, the fir t %aurya emperor, 9ho further expanded hi dominion after a ettlement 9ith *eleucu " $y 1@3 $2, the &elleni tic tate 9ere con olidated, 9ith >he Antigonid )mpire in %acedonia and GreeceH >he *eleucid )mpire in %e opotamia and (er iaH >he (tolemaic Gingdom in )gypt, (ale tine and 2yrenaica >he Greco0$actrian king +emetriu (reigned c" 13305<3 $2)), 9earing an elephant calp, took over AlexanderB legacy in the ea t !y again invading #ndia in 5<3 $2), and e ta!li hing the #ndo0Greek kingdom (5<3 $2 0 53 A+)"$y the 5 t century $2 though, mo t of the &elleni tic territorie in the We t had !een a! or!ed !y the Roman Repu!lic" #n the )a t, they had !een dramatically reduced !y the expan ion of the (arthian )mpire" >he territorie further ea t eceded to form the Greco0$actrian kingdom (14305?3 $2), 9hich further expanded into #ndia to form the #ndo0Greek kingdom (5<3 $2053 A+)" >he (tolemy dyna ty per i ted in )gypt until the epoch of the Aueen 2leopatra, !e t kno9n for her alliance 9ith Juliu 2ae ar and %ark Antony, Lu t !efore the Roman repu!lic officially !ecame the Roman )mpire" AlexanderB conAue t al o had long term cultural effect , 9ith the flouri hing of &elleni tic civili-ation throughout the %iddle )a t and 2entral A ia, and the development of Greco0$uddhi t art in the #ndian u!continent" Alexander and hi ucce or 9ere tolerant of non0Greek religiou practice , and intere ting yncreti m developed in the ne9 Greek to9n he founded in 2entral A ia" >he fir t reali tic portrayal of the $uddha appeared at thi timeH they are remini cent of Greek tatue of Apollo" *everal $uddhi t tradition may have !een influenced !y the ancient Greek religionH the concept of $oddhi atva i remini cent of Greek divine heroe 81D:, and ome %ahayana ceremonial practice (!urning incen e, gift of flo9er and food placed on altar ) are imilar to tho e practiced !y the ancient Greek " Ien $uddhi m dra9 in part on the idea of Greek toic , uch a Ieno 8.3:" Among other effect , the &elleni tic, or koine dialect of Greek !ecame the lingua franca throughout the o0 called civili-ed 9orld" For in tance the tandard ver ion of the &e!re9 *cripture u ed among the Je9 of the dia pora, e pecially in )gypt, during the life of Je u 9a the Greek *eptuagint tran lation, 9hich 9a compiled ca 133 $2 !y eventy0odd cholar under the patronage of the %acedonian ruler (tolemy ## (hiladelphu " >hu many Je9 from )gypt or Rome 9ould have trou!le under tanding the teaching of the cholar in the >emple in Jeru alem 9ho 9ere u ing the &e!re9 original text and an Aramaic tran lation, !eing them elve only acAuainted 9ith the Greek ver ion" >here ha !een much peculation on the i ue 9hether Je u poke Goine Greek a the Go pel09riter , them elve 9riting in Greek, donBt ay anything deci ive a!out the matter"

#nfluence on Ancient Rome

A mural in (ompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to $ar ine (*tateira) in .1? $2" >he couple are apparently dre ed a Are and Aphrodite"#n the late Repu!lic and early )mpire, educated Roman citi-en u ed 'atin only for legal, political, and ceremonial purpo e , and u ed Greek to di cu philo ophy or any other intellectual topic" ,o Roman 9anted to hear it aid that hi ma tery of the Greek language 9a 9eak" >hroughout the Roman 9orld, the one language poken every9here 9a AlexanderB Greek"8.5:

Alexander and hi exploit 9ere admired !y many Roman 9ho 9anted to a ociate them elve 9ith hi achievement , although very little i kno9n a!out Roman0%acedonian diplomatic relation of that time" Juliu 2ae ar 9ept in *pain at the mere ight of AlexanderB tatue and (ompey the Great rummaged through the clo et of conAuered nation for AlexanderB 1/30year0old cloak, 9hich the Roman general then 9ore a the co tume of greatne " &o9ever, in hi -eal to honor Alexander, Augu tu accidentally !roke the no e off the %acedonianB mummified corp e 9hile laying a 9reath at the heroB hrine in Alexandria, )gypt" >he un!alanced emperor 2aligula later took the dead kingB armor from that tom! and donned it for luck" >he %acriani, a Roman family that ro e to the imperial throne in the .rd century A"+", al9ay kept image of Alexander on their per on , either tamped into their !racelet and ring or titched into their garment " )ven their dinner9are !ore AlexanderB face, 9ith the tory of the kingB life di played around the rim of pecial !o9l "8.1: #n the ummer of 5DD4, during the archaeological 9ork of the ea on centered on excavating the remain of dome tic architecture of early0Roman date, a tatue of Alexander 9a recovered from the tructure, 9hich 9a richly decorated 9ith mo aic and mar!le pavement and pro!a!ly 9a con tructed in the 5 t century A+ and occupied until the .rd century"8..:

2haracter %odern opinion on Alexander ha run the gamut from the idea that he !elieved he 9a on a divinely0 in pired mi ion to unite the human race, to the vie9 that he 9a a megalomaniac !ent on 9orld domination" *uch vie9 tend to !e anachroni tic, and the ource allo9 for a variety of interpretation " %uch a!out AlexanderB per onality and aim remain enigmatic" >here 9ere no di intere ted commentator in AlexanderB o9n time or oon after9ard, o all account need to !e read 9ith keptici m" Alexander i remem!ered a a legendary hero in )urope and much of !oth *outh9e t A ia and 2entral A ia, 9here he i kno9n a # kander or # kandar Iulkarnain" >o Ioroa trian , on the other hand, he i remem!ered a the conAueror of their fir t great empire and a the de troyer of (er epoli " Ancient ource are generally 9ritten 9ith an agenda of either glorifying or denigrating the man, making it difficult to evaluate hi actual character" %o t refer to a gro9ing in ta!ility and megalomania in the year follo9ing Gaugamela, !ut it ha !een ugge ted that thi imply reflect the Greek tereotype of an orientali-ing king" >he murder of hi friend 2leitu , 9hich Alexander deeply and immediately regretted, i often cited a a ign of hi paranoia, a i hi execution of (hilota and hi general (armenion for failure to pa along detail of a plot again t him" >here i al o the vie9 that thi may have !een more prudence than paranoia" %odern Alexandri t continue to de!ate the e ame i ue , among other , in modern time " 7ne unre olved topic involve 9hether Alexander 9a actually attempting to !etter the 9orld !y hi conAue t , or 9hether hi purpo e 9a primarily to rule the 9orld" (artially in re pon e to the u!iAuity of po itive portrayal of Alexander, an alternate character i ometime pre ented 9hich empha i-e ome of AlexanderB negative a pect " *ome proponent of thi vie9 cite the de truction of >he!e , >yre, (er epoli , and Ga-a a example of atrocitie , and argue that Alexander preferred to fight rather than negotiate" #t i further claimed, in re pon e to the vie9 that Alexander 9a generally tolerant of the culture of tho e 9hom he conAuered, that hi attempt at cultural fu ion 9ere everely practical and that he never actually admired (er ian art or culture" >o thi 9ay of thinking, Alexander 9a , fir t and foremo t, a general rather than a tate man"

AlexanderB character al o uffer from the interpretation of hi torian 9ho them elve are u!Lect to the !ia and ideali m of their o9n time" Good example are W" W" >arn, 9ho 9rote during the late 5Dth century and early 13th century, and 9ho a9 Alexander in an extremely good light, and (eter Green, 9ho 9rote after World War ## and for 9hom Alexander did little that 9a not inherently elfi h or am!ition0 driven" >arn 9rote in an age 9here 9orld conAue t and 9arrior0heroe 9ere accepta!le, even encouraged, 9herea Green 9rote 9ith the !ackdrop of the &olocau t and nuclear 9eapon "

Greek and 'atin ource #n addition to cuneiform evidence from $a!ylonia that i till !eing di covered and tran lated, there are numerou Greek and 'atin text a!out Alexander" >he primary ource , text 9ritten !y people 9ho actually kne9 Alexander or 9ho gathered information from men 9ho erved 9ith Alexander, are all lo t, apart from a fe9 in cription and ome letter0fragment of du!iou authenticity" 2ontemporarie 9ho 9rote full account of hi life include the hi torian 2alli thene , AlexanderB general (tolemy, Ari to!ulu , ,earchu , and 7ne icritu " Another influential account i !y 2leitarchu 9ho, 9hile not a direct 9itne of AlexanderB expedition, u ed ource 9hich had Lu t !een pu!li hed" &i 9ork 9a to !e the !ack!one of that of >imagene , 9ho heavily influenced many hi torian 9ho e 9ork till urvive " ,one of the e 9ork urvive , !ut 9e do have later 9ork !a ed on the e primary ource " >he five main urviving account are !y Arrian, 2urtiu , (lutarch, +iodoru , and Ju tin" Ana!a i Alexandri (>he 2ampaign of Alexander in Greek) !y the Greek hi torian Arrian of ,icomedia, 9riting in the 1nd century A+, and !a ed largely on (tolemy and, to a le er extent, Ari to!ulu and ,earchu " #t i con idered generally the mo t tru t9orthy ource" &i toriae Alexandri %agni, a !iography of Alexander in ten !ook , of 9hich the la t eight urvive, !y the Roman hi torian Euintu 2urtiu Rufu , 9ritten in the 5 t century A+, and !a ed largely on 2leitarchu through the mediation of >imagene , 9ith ome material pro!a!ly from (tolemyH 'ife of Alexander ( ee (arallel 'ive ) and t9o oration 7n the Fortune or the 6irtue of Alexander the Great ( ee %oralia), !y the Greek hi torian and !iographer (lutarch of 2haeronea in the econd century, !a ed largely on Ari to!ulu and e pecially 2leitarchu " $i!liotheca hi toria ('i!rary of 9orld hi tory), 9ritten in Greek !y the *icilian hi torian +iodoru *iculu , from 9hich $ook 5@ relate the conAue t of Alexander, !a ed almo t entirely on >imagene B 9ork" >he !ook immediately !efore and after, on (hilip and AlexanderB C*ucce or ,C thro9 light on AlexanderB reign" >he )pitome of the (hilippic &i tory of (ompeiu >rogu !y Ju tin, 9hich contain factual error and i highly compre ed" #t i difficult in thi ca e to under tand the ource, ince 9e only have an epitome, !ut it i thought that al o (ompeiu >rogu may have limited him elf to u e >imagene for hi 'atin hi tory" >o the e five main ource ome like to add the %et- )pitome, an anonymou late 'atin 9ork that narrate AlexanderB campaign from &yrcania to #ndia" %uch i al o recounted incidentally in other author , including *tra!o, Athenaeu , (olyaenu , Aelian, and other " >he Cpro!lem of the ource C i the main concern (and chief delight) of Alexander0hi torian " #n effect, each pre ent a different CAlexanderC, 9ith detail to uit" Arrian i mo tly intere ted in the military a pect , 9hile 2urtiu veer to a more private and darker Alexander" (lutarch canBt re i t a good tory, light or dark" All, 9ith the po i!le exception of Arrian, include a con idera!le level of fanta y, prompting *tra!o to remark, CAll 9ho 9rote a!out Alexander preferred the marvelou to the true"C ,everthele , the ource tell u much, and leave much to our interpretation and imagination" (erhap ArrianB 9ord are mo t appropriate: 7ne account ay that &ephae tion laid a 9reath on the tom! of (atroclu H another that Alexander laid one on the tom! of Achille , calling him a lucky man, in that he had &omer to proclaim hi deed and pre erve hi memory" And 9ell might Alexander envy Achille thi piece of good fortuneH for in hi o9n ca e there 9a no eAuivalent: hi one failure, the ingle !reak, a it 9ere, in the long chain of hi ucce e , 9a that

he had no 9orthy chronicler to tell the 9orld of hi exploit " 'egend +etail of Alexander on the Alexander *arcophagu "Alexander 9a a legend in hi o9n time" &i court hi torian 2alli thene portrayed the ea in 2ilicia a dra9ing !ack from him in pro kyne i " Writing after AlexanderB death, another participant, 7ne icritu , 9ent o far a to invent a try t !et9een Alexander and >hale tri , Aueen of the mythical Ama-on " When 7ne icritu read thi pa age to hi patron, AlexanderB general and later Ging 'y imachu reportedly Auipped, C# 9onder 9here # 9a at the time"C #n the fir t centurie after AlexanderB death, pro!a!ly in Alexandria, a Auantity of the more legendary material coale ced into a text kno9n a the Alexander Romance, later fal ely a cri!ed to the hi torian 2alli thene and therefore kno9n a ( eudo02alli thene " >hi text under9ent numerou expan ion and revi ion throughout AntiAuity and the %iddle Age , exhi!iting a pla ticity un een in ChigherC literary form " 'atin and *yriac tran lation 9ere made in 'ate AntiAuity" From the e, ver ion 9ere developed in all the maLor language of )urope and the %iddle )a t, including Armenian, Georgian, (er ian, Ara!ic, >urki h, &e!re9, *er!ian, *lavonic, Romanian, &ungarian, German, )ngli h, #talian, and French" >he CRomanceC i regarded !y many We tern cholar a the ource of the account of Alexander given in the EurBan (*ura >he 2ave)" #t i the ource of many incident in Ferdo9 iB C*hahnamaC" A %ongolian ver ion i al o extant" *ome !elieve that, excepting certain religiou text , it i the mo t 9idely0read 9ork of pre0 modern time " Alexander i al o a character of Greek folklore (and other region ), a the protagoni t of BapocryphalB tale of !ravery" A maritime legend ay that hi i ter i a mermaid and a k the ailor if her !rother i till alive" >he un u pecting ailor 9ho an 9er truthfully arou e the mermaidB 9rath and hi !oat peri he in the 9ave H a ailor mindful of the circum tance 9ill an 9er C&e live and reign , and conAuer the 9orldC, and the ea a!out hi !oat 9ill immediately calm" Alexander i al o a character of a tandard play in the Garagio-i repertory, CAlexander the Great and the Accur ed *erpentC" >he ancient Greek poet Adrianu compo ed an epic poem on the hi tory of Alexander the Great, called the Alexandriad, 9hich 9a pro!a!ly till extant in the 53th century, !ut 9hich i no9 lo t to u "

#n the $i!le +aniel <:40< and 15011 tate that a Ging of Greece 9ill conAuer the %ede and (er ian !ut then die at the height of hi po9er and have hi kingdom !roken into four kingdom " >hi i ometime taken a a reference to Alexander" Alexander 9a !riefly mentioned in the fir t $ook of the %acca!ee 2hapter 5, ver e 50@" &e 9a de cri!ed a Alexander on of (hilip the %acedonian" &e defeated +ariu , king of the (er ian and ucceeded him a king (Alexander previou ly !ecame king of Greece)" &e gathered a trong army and ruled over countrie and nation " &e fell ick and perceived that he 9a dying o he ummoned hi officer and divided hi kingdom among them" After Alexander reigned for t9elve year , he died"

#n the EurBan 54th cent" (er ian miniature painting from &erat depicting # kander, the (er ian name for Alexander the Great%ain article: Alexander in the EurBan (>heory) Alexander the Great ometime i identified in (er ian and Ara!ic tradition ource a +hul0Earnayn, Ara!ic for the C>9o0&orned 7neC, po i!ly a reference to the appearance of a horn0headed figure that appear on coin minted during hi rule and later imitated in ancient %iddle )a tern coinage" Account of +hul0Earnayn appear in the EurBan, and o may refer to Alexander"

Reference to Alexander may al o !e found in the (er ian tradition" >he ame tradition from the ( eudo0 2alli thene 9ere com!ined in (er ia 9ith *a anid (er ian idea a!out Alexander in the # kandarnamah" #n thi tradition, Alexander !uilt a 9all of iron and melted copper in 9hich Gog and %agog are confined" *ome %u lim cholar di agree that Alexander 9a +hul0Earnayn" >here are actually ome theorie that +hul0Earnayn 9a a (er ian Ging 9ith a va t )mpire a 9ell, po i!ly Ging 2yru the Great" >he rea on !eing i +hul0Earnayn i de cri!ed in the &oly Euran a a monothei t !eliever 9ho 9or hipped Allah (God)" >hi , it i claimed, remove Alexander a a candidate for +hul0Earnayn a Alexander 9a a polythei t" Jet contemporaneou (er ian no!le 9ould have practiced Iurvani m, thu di Aualifying them on the ame !a i "

#n the *hahnameh >he *hahnameh of Ferdo9 i, one of the olde t !ook 9ritten in modern (er ian, ha a chapter a!out Alexander" #t i a !ook of epic poetry 9ritten around 5333 A+, and i !elieved to have played an important role in the urvival of the (er ian language in the face of Ara!ic influence" #t tart 9ith a mythical hi tory of #ran and then give a tory of Alexander, follo9ed !y a !rief mention of the Ar acid " >he account after that, till in epic poetry, portray hi torical figure " Alexander i de cri!ed a a child of a (er ian king, +araaye +ara! (the la t in the li t of king in the !ook 9ho e name do not match hi torical king ), and a daughter of (hilip, a Roman king" &o9ever, due to pro!lem in the relation hip !et9een the (er ian king and (hilipB daughter, he i ent !ack to Rome" Alexander i !orn to her after9ard , !ut (hilip claim him a hi o9n on and keep the true identity of the child ecret"

,ame Alexander i al o kno9n in the Ioroa trian %iddle (er ian 9ork Arda Wira- ,mag as Alexander the accursed,[34][35]Persian language: Guzastag,[36] due to his conquest o the Persian !m"ire and the destruction o its ca"ital Perse"olis# $e is %no&n as !s%andar'e (aqduni8.@:(Alexander of %acedonia) in (er ian, al0# kandar al0 %akduni al0Junani8.<: (Alexander the %acedonian,the Greek) in Ara!ic, Alexander %okdon in &e!re9, and >re0Earnayia in Aramaic (the t9o0horned one, apparently due to an image on coin minted during hi rule that eemingly depicted him 9ith the t9o ramB horn of the )gyptian god Ammon), al0# kandar al0Ak!ar e0a-am (

( Alexander the Great) in Ara!ic, *ikandar0

)in Krdu and *kandar in (a hto" *ikandar, hi name in Krdu and &indi, i al o a

term u ed a a ynonym for CexpertC or Cextremely killedC"

#n ancient and modern culture %ain article: 2ultural depiction of Alexander the Great Around eventy to9n or outpo t are claimed to have !een founded !y Alexander"8.D: +iodoru *iculu credit Alexander 9ith planning citie on a grid plan"8?3: Alexander ha figured in 9ork of !oth ChighC and popular culture from hi o9n era to the modern day"