MAHMOUD AYOUB

RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND THE LAW OF APOSTASY IN ISLAM

Courtesy: Islamochristian = Islamiyat Masihiyat, Vol. 2 , !""#, $$. %&'"! SUMMARY: After determining what constitutes apostasy (riddah), defined as "all act of re ection of faith committed !y a Muslim whose "slam had !een affirmed without any coercion", the Author loo#s at the understanding of riddah in the $ur%an and &radition' (rom this study he concludes that there is no real !asis for the riddah law in either of these sources' )hen he turns to Shi%i hadith tradition the A' finds greater se*erity on the part of the "mams after% Ali' &his he would attri!ute to the fact that they were dealing with theoretical +uestions, since they did not wield political authority' &he attitude to apostasy grew harsher as relations !etween different faith communities worsened' "n the final section of his essay the Author e,amines uristic rulings (ah#am)' -e touches on the conditions for apostasy (sound reason, freedom of choice), opportunity for repentance, and the special situation of women' -e shows that the measure of uncertainly in truly esta!lishing the crime acts as a protection against application of the ma,imum penalty' "n conclusion the Author affirms that apostasy !ecame a political pro!lem with the ad*ent of colonialism and the rise of .hristian missionary acti*ity' (ree)om o* reli+ion is a recent $henomenon in human history. Until recently, an) in many nations till the $resent, social an) i)eolo+ical $ressures ha,e ren)ere) reli+ious noncon*ormity a social sti+ma or a crime. -eli+ious *ree)om has .een narro/ly con*ine) to certain li.erties /ithin a society0s )ominant reli+ion, sect or .elie* system, an) )e,iation /as consi)ere) un+o)ly, $er*i)ious, or un$atriotic. It may in *act .e ar+ue) that *ree)om o* reli+ion as an i)eal is the chil) o* the t/in'$henomena o* the )ecline o* reli+ion an) the rise o* in)i,i)ualism in 1estern culture. In most tra)itional *aith'communities, $articularly those o* 2u)aism, Christianity an) Islam, social, $olitical an) reli+ious con*ormity remains the un3uestione) norm. Althou+h the main concern o* this essay is reli+ious *ree)om an) the $ro.lem o* a$ostasy in Islam. it must .e o.ser,e) that the social an) reli+ious $ro.lems o* a$ostasy are not uni3ue to Islam an) the Muslim community. -ather, the ne+ati,e attitu)es to/ar)s a$ostates an) the harsh la/s )ealin+ /ith them ha,e much in common in the three A.rahamic tra)itions. (or all three, a$ostasy is a $u.lic act o* reli+ious an) social )issent /hich cuts its $er$etrator o** *rom the community socially an) s$iritually, i* not $hysically. 4en) o* $. %&5 In their *ormati,e $erio), all three tra)itions sa/ a$ostasy as an a$ocaly$tic mani*estation o* social an) reli+ious )isor)er $resa+in+ the cornin+ o* the messiah or the en) o* the /orl). But as the 2e/ish $eo$le, the Church an) the ummah achie,e) le+al an) $olitical $o/er, a$ostasy /as )eclare) a $u.lic o**ense $unisha.le .y la/. ! 6his essay /ill e7amine the issue o* reli+ious *ree)om an) a$ostasy in Islam an) the /ays it /as )ealt /ith throu+h the riddah la/. 1e shall stu)y the Islamic ,ie/ o* a$ostasy in the 8ur0an an) 9ro$hetic tra)ition an) its )e,elo$ment in :uris$ru)ence. 6he $olitical, social an) interreli+ious

Mahmou) M. Ayou., .orn in !";& at Ayn 8ana <=outh >e.anon?, is $ro*essor o* Islamic =tu)ies at the De$artment o* -eli+ion, 6em$le Uni,ersity <U.=.A.?. Amon+ his many /or@s are: Redempti*e Suffering in "slam ' A Study of /e*otional Aspect in Ashura in &wel*er Shi%ism, an) the *irst ,olume o* &he $ur%an and its lnterpreters <a $ro:ecte) ten ,olume series?. Dr. Ayou. has a s$ecial interest in Muslim'Christian issues.
1

Mircea Eliade, ed. The Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1987), s.v. "A os!as"", #" $.%. &i en#er'.

reactions to the la/ o* a$ostasy in Islam an) its im$lications *or the i)eal o* reli+ious *ree)om in the mo)em /orl) are .eyon) the sco$e o* this stu)y. Riddah: its Nature and Scope Be*ore )iscussin+ the $ro.lem o* a$ostasy in the 8ur0an an) early tra)ition, it may .e hel$*ul to )iscuss .rie*ly its +eneral sco$e an) nature. (ollo/in+ the 8ur0anic characteriAation o* a$ostasy as a /ill*ul act o* re:ection o* *aith (0ufr), later :urists )e*ine) riddah so .roa)ly as to inclu)e any statement, action or .elie* that may contra)ict Islam or )e*ame any o* its sacre) .oo@s or $ersona+es. More .roa)ly, any )isres$ect*ul .eha,ior or )e,iant statement re+ar)in+ Islam an) its sacre) tra)ition may constitute an act o* a$ostasy an) thus set its $er$etrator theolo+ically, socially an) $olitically outsi)e the acce$te) norms o* Islam an) the Muslim community. 2uristically, a$ostasy is an act o* re:ection o* *aith committe) .y a Muslim /hose Islam ha) .een a**irme) /ithout any coercion .y the t/o shahadahs that there is no +o) e7ce$t Bo) an) that Muhamma) is the messen+er o* Bo). A$ostasy may .e e7$resse) une3ui,ocally in the )eclaration, CI ascri.e $artners to Bo)C, or the assertion that Bo) is a cor$oreal *orm li@e all other .o)ies. >i@e/ise, .elie* in the eternity o* the /orl), in as much as it im$lies )enial o* the creator, is an act o* a$ostasy. (urthermore, .elie* in reincarnation or the transmi+ration o* souls is an act o* a$ostasy. 6his is .ecause it im$lies )enial o* the )ay o* -esurrection an) :u)+ment, /hich contra)icts the e7$ress teachin+ o* the 8ur0an. A$ostasy coul) as /ell .e committe) throu+h a callus act /hich may si+ni*y re:ection o* *aith. 6hus )is)ain*ully )is$osin+ o* a co$y o* the 8ur0an, $art o* a co$y, or e,en a scra$ o* $a$er containin+ one /or) o* the sacre) Boo@ may .e re+ar)e) as an act o* a$ostasy. Burnin+ a co$y or a $a+e o* the 8ur0an, not /ith the intention o* $rotectin+ it *rom .ein+ soile) or ren)ere) im$ure, or *or the $ur$ose o* usin+ it as a cure *or a sic@ $erson, may also si+ni*y a$ostasy. 6his .roa) rulin+ a$$lies as /ell to .oo@s o* -adith an) :uris$ru)ence (fi+h) i* the intention .ehin) such acts o* )isres$ect is to )is$ara+e the tra)ition o* Islam an) its sacre) la/. 2 4en) o* $. %D5 Riddah in the Quran and Exegetical Tradition 6he 8ur0an treats the 3uestions o* *aith (1man) an) re:ection o* *aith (#ufr) not as le+al or $olitical issues, .ut as $rinci$les o* *ree choice .et/een a.solute su.mission (islam) to the /ill o* Bo) an) /ill*ul re.ellion a+ainst Him. Hence, the controllin+ $rinci$le o* acce$tin+ or re:ectin+ *aith is uncon)itional *ree)om .ase) on reason an) the innate )is$osition (firah) to @no/ Bo) an) rationally .elie,e in Him. 6he 8ur0an cate+orically re$u)iates reli+ious coercion an) a**irms that *aith an) re:ection o* *aith, ri+ht +ui)ance an) mis+ui)ance ultimately rest /ith Bo) to +i,e or /ithhol) as He /ill. 6his $rinci$le is clearly state) in the /or)s a))resse) to the 9ro$het Muhamma), $erha$s to 3uell his e7cessi,e missionary Aeal: CHa) your >or) so /ille), all the inha.itants o* the earth /oul) ha,e acce$te) *aith alto+ether. 1oul) you then coerce $eo$le to .ecome $eo$le o* *aith <8. ! :""?EC. 6he $rinci$le o* *ree'choice in the matter o* $ersonal *aith is ultimately con)itione) .y Bo)0s a.solute an) eternal $o/er an) @no/le)+e, re,elation o* the truth an) human un)erstan)in+. 6his, ho/e,er, is not to say /ith classical Mu0taAilite theolo+y that Bo)0s a.solute so,erei+nty is limite) .y the )eman)s o* His :ustice /hich im$ly a.solute human *ree)om o* choice. -ather, the 8ur0an .alances human *ree'/ill /ith a.solute )i,ine so,erei+nty, omniscience an) omni$otence, at times a**irmin+ one an) at times the other. Fe,ertheless, human .ein+s remain *ree to acce$t or re:ect *aith, an) hence to choose eternal re/ar) or eternal $unishment. 6he 8ur0an cate+orically states: C=ay, the truth is *rom your >or)G let him there*ore /ho so /ill acce$t *aith,
(

0A.) al'-ahman al'2aAiri, al2(i+h %ala al2Madhahi! al2Ar!a%ah, & ,ols. <Beirut: Dar al'Hutu. al'0Ilmiyah, n.).?, ,ol. &, $$. #22'#2;.

an) let him /ho so /ill re:ect *aith <8. !I:2"?C. 6he *ree)om to /ill*ully acce$t or re:ect *aith a*ter the truth has .ecome @no/n, im$lies reli+ious *ree)om an) $ersonal res$onsi.ility. 6his $rinci$le is une3ui,ocally enunciate) in the strict comman): C>et there .e no coercion in reli+ion <8. 2:2&D?C. But reli+ious *ree)om )oes not mean irres$onsi.le reli+ious anarchy. -ather, *ree)om is con)itione) .y @no/le)+e o* the truth. 6he ,erse :ust cite) continues, C*or ri+ht'+ui)ance has .ecome clearly )istin+uishe) *rom mani*est errorC. Moreo,er, the conse3uences o* this $ro,iso are ela.orate) in the conclu)in+ statement o* the ,erse: C6hus he /ho re:ects *aith in i)ols 4or =atan5 ; an) has *aith in Bo) shall ta@e hol) o* the *irm han)le /hich shall ne,er .e .ro@en, *or Bo) is All'hearin+, All'@no/in+C. 6his ,erse has ha) a lon+ an) contro,ersial e7e+etical history. Its s$ecial si+ni*icance lies in the le+al limitations it $laces on the harsh riddah le+islations. 6hus its in:unction a+ainst reli+ious coercion /as +ra)ually e7$laine) a/ay an) *inally a.an)one). One o* the earliest tra)itions concernin+ its occasion o* re,elation, re$orte) on the authority o* Mu:ahi), states that the ,erse /as re,eale) a+ainst a man o* the Ansar o* Ma)inah /ho ha) a .lac@ sla,e /hom he use) to com$el throu+h $hysical $unishment 4en) o* $. %%5 to $ractice Islam. Accor)in+ to another tra)ition, re$orte) on the authority o* al'=u))i, the ,erse /as re,eale) concernin+ a man o* Ma)inah /hose t/o sons /ere con,erte) .y =yrian oil merchants to Christianity. 6he t/o youths )eci)e) to mi+rate to =yria /ith their Christian mentors. An+ry an) )isa$$ointe), their *ather /ent to the 9ro$het an) as@e) i* he shoul) $ursue them an) *orce*ully .rin+ them .ac@. 6he ,erse /as re,eale), an) the 9ro$het sai): CMay Bo) remo,e them *ar a/ayG they are the *irst $eo$le to re:ect *aithC. 6he /ell'@no/n 8ur0an commentator 0AIi .. Ahma) al'1ahi)i, /ho re$orte) this tra)ition comments, C6his /as .e*ore the Messen+er of Bo) /as or)ere) to *i+ht the $eo$le o* the Boo@C. He then a))s that this ,erse /as a.ro+ate) .y the Surah of Dissociation 4Bara0ah5 <":2"?.# 6his ,ie/ has .een /i)ely hel) an) use) to ar+ue a+ainst the continue) a$$lica.ility of this ,erse as a normati,e statement of reli+ious *ree)om. Another ,ariant of this tra)ition relates that the t/o youn+ men /ere actually con,erte) to Christianity .e*ore Islam. One )ay they came to Ma)inah /ith other Christians as tra)ers. 6heir *ather too@ hol) o* them an) /oul) not lea,e them until they em.race) Islam, .ut they re*use). 6he man $roteste) to the 9ro$het: C=houl) I let $art of me enter Hell'*ire /hile I loo@ onJC But /hen the ,erse /as re,eale), the man let his t/o sons +o. By $lacin+ the con,ersion of the t/o youths .e*ore Islam, this ,ersion of the tra)ition ren)ers the le+al im$lications o* the ,erse totally ine**ectual.& It is a /ell'@no/n $henomenon in human reli+ious history that the hi+h moral an) s$iritual i)eals o* reli+ious tra)itions remain a challen+e for the *aith''communities concerne) /hich ha,e o*ten either *la+rantly ,iolate) these i)eals, or seriously un)ermine) them. -eli+ious *ree)om is no e7ce$tion. 6he a.solute im$erati,e o* reli+ious *ree)om :ust )iscusse), is .latantly contra)icte) in an e7e+etical o$inion attri.ute) to the *amous Com$anion an) hadith transmitter A.u Hurayrah.
)

6he /or) taghut im$lies arro+ance an) trans+ression, /hich are the t/o )istin+uishin+ characteristics o* =atan. &aghut has also .een ta@en to si+ni*y i)ols /hose /orshi$ necessarily lea)s to arro+ance an) trans+ression. =ee the commentary on this ,erse in my .oo@ &he $ur%an and its "nterpreters <Al.any: =tate Uni,ersity o* Fe/ Yor@ 9ress, !"ID?, ,ol. i, $. 2&&.
*

A#+ al,$asan -Ali #. A.mad al,/a.idi 0d. *18213714 wro!e one o5 !.e earlies! #ooks on !.e occasions o5 !.e revela!ion o5 !.e 6+r-an. 7" .is !ime, !.e hadith and fiqh !radi!ion o5 riddah was es!a#lis.ed. al,/a.idi, Asbab Nuzul al-Qur'an (8airo: 9ar al,&i!a# al,:adid, 1)8921919), . 77.
;

Ibid.,

. 77,78.

6he 8ur0an challen+es the Muslims to .e Cthe .est community .rou+ht *orth *or human@in)C throu+h en:oinin+ the +oo), )issua)in+ from e,il an) ha,in+ true *aith in Bo) <8. ;:!! ?. A.u Hurayrah commente) on the ,erse, sayin+, CYou are the .est $eo$le for human@in) as you .rin+ them in chains into IslamC.D It /as ar+ue) a.o,e that the 8ur0an treats the $ro.lem of a$ostasy in the conte7t of *aith an) the re:ection of *aith. In this conte7t, a$ostasy is a reli+ious an) moral )ecision su.:ect to Di,ine retri.ution or $ar)on on the )ay o* :u)+ment. A$ostasy, there*ore as a $ersonal inner moral )ecision, ultimately lies outsi)e the authority of the sacre) la/. Amon+ the ,erses of the 8ur0an a))uce) .y later :urists as a .asis for the con)emnation of a$ostasy an) )eath $enalty of a$ostates are ,erses ID'"5 of =urah ;. 6his surah /as re,eale) )urin+ a critical sta+e o* the or+aniAation o* the nascent Muslim state in Ma)inah, a*ter the t/o .attles of Ba)r an) Uhu). 6hese ,erses ar+ue: 4en) o* $. %I5 (irst, Bo) /oul) not +ui)e those /ho re:ect *aith a*ter they ha) con*esse) *aith in Bo) an) the a$ostleshi$ o* Muhamma). =uch $eo$le are /ron+)oers <ID?. =econ)ly, the recom$ense o* such $eo$le is that Bo)0s curse, that o* His an+els an) o* human@in) shall *ore,er .e u$on them, e7ce$t those /ho re$ent an) ma@e amen)s <I%?. (inally, ,erses " '"! assert that Bo) /oul) ne,er *or+i,e those /ho re:ect *aith an) )ie as re:ecters o* *aith. 6he lot o* such $eo$le /ill .e eternal torment, Cnor /ill they ha,e any hel$ersC. Ha) the 8ur0an consi)ere) a$ostasy a $u.lic o**ense )eser,in+ ma7imum $unishment (hadd) li@e the*t, a)ultery or mur)er, these ,erses /oul) ha,e .een the $ro$er $lace *or such a rulin+. In *act, tra)itions concernin+ the occasions o* the re,elation o* the ,erses )o not mention that the $ersons /ho ha) turne) a/ay *rom the *aith an) later returne) $enitent /ere re3uire) to ma@e a $u.lic con*ession o* their re$entance. For /as a$ostasy an issue o* ma:or concern *or classical commentators on these ,erses. Most commentators )iscuss ,erses " '"! in $articular in the conte7t o* Muslim $olemics a+ainst 2e/s an) Christians /ho re:ecte) Muhamma)0s claim to $ro$hethoo). 6he /ell'@no/n me)ie,al commentator I.n Hathir mentions a$ostasy as an occasion o* re,elation. 6he :uristKcommentator al'8urtu.i limits true reli+iosity to Islam, /hich means that any non'Muslim /ho @no/s a.out Islam .ut still re*uses to em.race it is an a$ostate. He ar+ues, CBo) /oul) not acce$t re$entance outsi)e the reli+ion o* IslamC.% But .oth men li,e) at a time o* +reat con*lict .et/een 1estern Christen)om an) the /orl) o* Islam. Muslim $o/er in =$ain, /here al'8urtu.i li,e), /as .ein+ se,erely un)ermine) .y the recon3uista an) in =yria, /here I.n Hathir *lourishe), .y the Crusa)es. 6he 8ur0an *re3uently asserts that the $ur$ose o* all creation is to /orshi$ Bo). In the case o* human .ein+s, /orshi$ is not only a $ersonal commitment, .ut also a social acti,ity. 6here*ore, anyone /ho a.an)ons cor$orate /orshi$, /hich is the mani*est islam o* the community o* Muslims, his entire li*e in this /orl) an) e,en in the /orl) to come loses its $ur$ose an) meanin+. It in *act .ecomes a li*e o* total *ailure, an) thus all his actions /oul) come to nou+ht. In one o* the most im$ortant 8ur0anic ,erses )ealin+ /ith a$ostasy, this harsh :u)+ment is a+ain $lace) in the conte7t o* stea)*ast *aith an) re:ection o* *aith /hich /ill .e re/ar)e) or re3uite) .y Bo) on the )ay o* :u)+ment. 6he ,erse in 3uestion .elon+s to the early Ma)inan $erio) an) re*ers to the challen+es $ose) .y Ma@@an o$$osition to the ne/ *aith. It rea)s:

Mahmou) Ayou., &he $ur%an and its "nterpreter' &he -ouse of %"mran <,ol. ii? <Al.any: =tate Uni,ersity o* Fe/ Yor@ 9ress, !""2?, $. !"!.
7

A"o+#. The Qur'an and its Interpreter. vol, ii. . (*7< see also

. (*),(*7.

6hey 4the Ma@@ans5 /ill not )esist *rom *i+htin+ /ith you 4Muslims5 until they turn you a/ay *rom your reli+ion, i* they can. But /hoe,er amon+ you turns a/ay *rom his l' reli+ion an) )ies as a re:ecter o* *aith, these, their /or@s /ill come to nou+ht in this /orl) an) the herea*ter. 6hey shall .e the inmates o* the (ire to )/ell therein *ore,er <8. 2:2!%?. 6he $hrase: Ctheir /or@s /ill come to nou+ht in this /orl) an) the herea*terC has .een inter$rete) .y most commentators an) tra)itionists to mean that such $eo$le are as +oo) as )ea). =ome too@ the /or) ha!uta <*ail or come to nou+ht? literally to mean .ein+ in a state o* corru$tion, )isease, or )eath,I Base) on this inter$retation, al'=ha*i0i 4en) o* $. %"5 a))uce) the ,erse un)er )iscussion as ar+ument *or the )eath $enalty o* the a$ostate. 6he mo)ernist re*ormer -ashi) -i3a commente) on the ,erse as *ollo/s: 6hese are the a$ostates /hose /or@s /ill come to nou+ht in .oth /orl)s. It is as i* such a $erson ha) ne,er $er*orme) a +oo) )ee). 6his is .ecause turnin+ a/ay *rom *aith to re:ection o* *aith is li@e a )isease /hich a**licts the .rain an) the heal!, an) thus )estroys li*e alto+ether. 2ust as a $erson /ho is )isease) in his min) an) heart /ill .e a,aile) o* nothin+, a $erson /ho *alls into the )ar@ness o* re:ection o* *aith a*ter .ein+ +ui)e) to the li+ht o* *aith, his s$irit /oul) .ecome corru$te) an) his heart /oul) +ro/ )ar@, an) there*ore his soul /oul) lose all traces o* $ast +oo) )ee). =uch a $erson /oul) .e )e$ri,e) o* all the ri+hts an) $ri,ile+es o* the Muslims, an) thus he /oul) lose this /orl) an) the ne7t. -i)a then )iscusses at some len+th the harsh riddah la/s in li+ht o* this inter$retation." Our )iscussion o* the 8ur0an0s treatment o* a$ostasy has so *ar .een theoretical. L,en /here actual occasions o* re,elation are cite), these are, *or the most $art, le+al *ictions meant to esta.lish a .asis *or a :uristic rulin+ in the 8ur0an an) 9ro$hetic tra)ition. An inci)ent o* a$ostasy on /hich there has .een unanimous a+reement is that o* 0Ammar .. Yasir. Un)er torture .y the men o* the 8uraysh, 0Ammar renounce) Islam an) )enounce) the 9ro$het. But as soon as he /as release), he ran to the 9ro$het to e7$ress his remorse an) see@ *or+i,eness. 6he 9ro$het as@e): CHo/ )o you *in) your heartJC 0Ammar assure) him that his heart /as stea)*ast in *aith. 6he *ollo/in+ ,erse /as re,eale) concernin+ this inci)ent: CAnyone /ho re:ects *aith in Bo) a*ter ha,in+ acce$te) *aith, e7ce$t *or him /ho is coerce), /hile his heart remains at $eace in *aith...C. 6he en) o* the ,erse clari*ies this .asic 8ur0anic $rinci$le e,en *urther: C....ut anyone /ho o$ens a /illin+ .reast to re:ection o* *aith, u$on these shall .e Bo)0s /rath an) theirs shall .e a +reat torment <8. !D: ! D?C ! Here too, the criterion is not a ,er.al a**irmation or )enial o* *aith, .ut the state o* the heart /hich is ultimately @no/n to Bo) alone. Because li*e is the only conte7t o* human thou+ht an) action, li*e must .e $reser,e) at all cost short o* en)an+erin+ other li,es or incurrin+ an un*or+i,a.le sin. On the .asis of this an) other 8ur0anic ,erses there*ore, Islamic la/ allo/e) )issimulation (ta+iyah) o* one0s *aith or actual .elie* in or)er to sa*e+uar) his li*e an) the li*e o* his $eo$le. Dissimulation may also .e $ractice) to sa*e+uar) the inte+rity o* the *aith, an) e,en maintain +oo) relations /ithin the community. In this case, concealin+ one0s true .elie* concernin+ a contro,ersial issue in Muslim *aith or history is no more than a sho/ o* social, $olitical or reli+ious
8

6he /or) ha!uta /as tra)itionally use) to )escri.e cattle that cat +rass until their stomachs .ecome )isease), an) may )ie. =ee A.u MA.) Allah Muhamma) .. Ahma) al'8urtu.i, al23ami% li2 ah#am al2$ur%an, 2 ,ols. <Cairo, Dar al'Hati. aI'0Ara.i, !;I%K!"D%?, ,ol. ;, $. #D.
9

M+.ammad =as.id =ida, Tafsir a!-"anar# ; vols. (7eir+!: 9ar al,Ma-ri5a., n.d.) vol. ii, . )18. >>.
al'8urtu.i, 3ami%, ,ol. ! , $. !I .

13

courtesy.!! 4en) o* $. I 5 Apostasy in Sunni and Shii Hadith Tradition In contrast /ith the numerous 8ur0anic re*erences to a$ostasy, there are only *e/ tra)itions that are )irectly rele,ant to this issue, an) e,en *e/er 9ro$hetic hadiths /hich contain s$eci*ic le+islation re+ar)in+ the status o* a$ostates an) the $enalty *or a$ostasy. As /e shall see, =hiNi hadith tra)ition $ro,i)es a more e7tensi,e treatment o* the su.:ect, .ut this is no )ou.t )ue to the *act that =hiNi hadith an) le+al tra)ition has ha) a lon+er *ormati,e $erio) than its =unni counter$art. Larly tra)itions )ealin+ /ith a$ostasy +enerally *all into t/o cate+ories: anec)otal, an) hence in*erentially le+islati,e narrati,es, an) )irect le+islati,e comman)ments. 6hese tra)itions, ho/e,er, are not only ,ery *e/ in num.er, .ut also they $resent internal $ro.lems /hich cast serious )ou.t on their le+islati,e authority. Yet in s$ite o* the $aucity an) $ro.lematic nature o* these tra)itions, they ha,e $laye) a crucial role in sha$in+ the harsh le+islations concernin+ a$ostasy, as /ell as the social an) $olitical attitu)es to/ar)s a$ostates. One o* the $rimary te7ts for riddah le+islation is the story o* the men o* the )istrict o* 0Uraynah. 6hese men came to the 9ro$het as Muslims an) /ere /ell recei,e). Because they su**ere) a serious stomach )isor)er, the 9ro$het sent them /ith his she$her) to the countrysi)e *or con,alescence. But /hen they reco,ere), they @ille) the she$her) an) ran a/ay /ith the *loc@s. 6he 9ro$het ha) them ca$ture) an) .rou+ht .ac@, an) or)ere) that their han)s an) *eet .e se,ere) on o$$osite si)es an) their eyes +ou+e) /ith hot iron. Commentin+ on this re$ort in Sahih Muslim, the tra)itionistK:urist al'Fa/a/i consi)ere) this inci)ent a $rimary source *or the le+islation o* the $unishment o* those /ho /a+e /ar a+ainst Bo) an) His 9ro$het an), .y e7tension, a+ainst the Muslim community. He cites as a $roo*'te7t the *ollo/in+ ,erse: =urely. the recom$ense o* those /ho /ar a+ainst Bo) an) His Messen+er an) s$rea) corru$tion in the lan) is that they .e @ille) or cruci*ie), or their han)s an) *eet .e se,ere) on o$$osite si)es. or that they .e .anishe) *rom the lan)... <8. &:;;?. 6he ,erse :ust cite) re*ers to hi+h/ay ro..ers in contrast to thie,es, /hose $unishment is *ar less se,ere. 6his is .ecause thie,es may only steal .ut not cause $hysical in:ury or commit mur)er, /hi!e hi+h/ay ro..ers may commit all three o**enses simultaneously. 6hey are there*ore a +reater threat to $u.lic or)er an) sa*ety. But the ,erse, in any case, )oes not re*er s$eci*ically to a$ostates. Co+niAant o* this *act, Fa/a/i ar+ues that the men0s criminal acts o* the*t an) mur)er im$ly a$ostasy from Islam.!2 A+ainst this reasonin+ it may .e ar+ue) that no account o* this inci)ent mentions that the men actually renounce) IslamG hence they /ere $unishe) not *or a$ostasy .ut *or hi+h/ay ro..ery an) mur)er. (urthermore, since, as /e shall see, a$ostates must .e 4en) o* $. I!5 +i,en time to re$ent an) return to the community an) yet the men /ere )enie) this ri+ht, then the tra)ition cannot .e sai) to le+islate *or a$ostasy. It shoul) not there*ore .e use) as a source *or such le+islation. In *act, this inci)ent has .een use) .y :urists only as an ar+ument *rom
11

(or a .rie* )iscussion o* ta+iyah ' /hich is a sort o* a$ostasy ' see Ayou., &he $ur%an and its "nterpreter' ii, $$. %D'I!. 1( Muslim .. al'Ha::a: al'Fisa.uri, Sahih Muslim !i2Sharh al2Fa/a/i, ;r) e)., !I ,ols. <Beirut: Dar al'(i@r, !;I"K!"%I?, ,ol. D, $$. !&;'!&%. =ee also 0Ali .. Ha:ar aI'0As3alani, (ath al24ari fi sharh Sahih al24u#hari, !D ,ols. <Beirut: Dar al'Ma0ri*ah, n).?, ,ol. !2, $$. ! " **.

$rece)ent, not as $rimary source'material *or the riddah la/. Another anec)ote use) .y :urists *or the )eath $enalty o* a$ostates has only a ,a+ue re*erence to a 9ro$hetic sunnah' (ollo/in+ the con3uest o* the Yaman, the 9ro$het a$$ointe) as +o,ernor o* the re+ion the Yamanite com$anion A.u Musa al'Ash0ari. =oon, ho/e,er, he )is$atche) Mu0a)h .. 2a.al, a Ma)inan com$anion /ell @no/n *or his :uristic acumen to assist A.u Musa in his a)ministrati,e )uties. As he arri,e) at the +o,ernor0s resi)ence, Mu0a)h sa/ a man in *etters, an) /as tol) that the man /as a 2e/ /ho em.race) Islam, .ut later returne) to his *ormer *aith. As@e) to )ismount an) sit )o/n, Mu0a)h re*use) an) retorte): CFo .y Bo), I /ill not sit until he is @ille), *or this is the :u)+ment o* Bo) an) o* His Messen+erC. 6he man /as .rou+ht *orth an) .ehea)e) .e*ore Mu0a)h /oul) sit )o/n. !; It is im$ortant to o.ser,e that Mu0)h cites no s$eci*ic 9ro$hetic :u)+ment as a .asis *or his insistence on the imme)iate e7ecution o* the a$ostate. (urthermore, as /e alrea)y sa/, the 8ur0an no/here )ecrees any $hysical $unishment *or a$ostasy, let alone the )eath $enalty. (inally, Mu0a)h0s sentence is ,ehemently o$$ose) .y a no less im$ortant authority than the cali$h 0Umar .. al'Hhatta.. 0Umar is sai) to ha,e as@e) a man comin+ *rom the Yam an *or ne/s o* any a$ostates, 6he man ans/ere), C6here /as a man /ho re:ecte) *aith a*ter he ha) acce$te) IslamC. 0Umar as@e), C1hat )i) you )o to himCJ 6he man ans/ere), C1e .rou+ht him *orth an) cut o** his hea)C, 0Umar sai): 1hy )i) you not loc@ him u$ *or three )ay, an) *ee) him on each )ay a loa* o* .rea) an) ur+e him to re$entJ 9erha$s he /oul) ha,e re$ente) an) returne) to Bo)0, comman). 0Umar then sai): C Bo), I /as not $resent, nor )i) I comman) it, an) /hen the ne/s reache) me I )i) not a$$ro,eC.!# 6he t/o tra)itions :ust )iscusse) clearly contra)ict one another. 6his, an) the *act that neither a$$ears to ha,e a cre)i.le historical or le+al conte7t, lea)s one to .elie,e that they are le+al *ictions meant to su$$ort t/o mutually e7clusi,e :uristic $ositions. Mu0a)h0s account has .een use) to ar+ue *or a summary e7ecution o* a$ostates, /hile that o* 0Umar is meant to su$$ort the more /i)ely hel) ,ie/ that an a$ostate shoul) .e +i,en a three')ay res$ite to re$ent. Althou+h a +eneral consensus has emer+e) on the si)e o* +i,in+ the a$ostate an o$$ortunity to re$ent, the $ractice a$$ears to ha,e .e+un as a moral e7$e)ient .ase) on the 8ur0anic $rinci$les o4 human re$entance an) )i,ine *or+i,eness, rather than a s$eci*ic hadith le+islation. 0Umar0s alle+e) shar$ re$roach *or /hat he consi)ere) a +ra,e act, his )issociation o* himsel* *rom it an) his insistence on the three')ay res$ite, all ser,e to hi+hli+ht the $ersistent )i,ision o* later :urists on this issue. 4en) o* $. I25 Moreo,er, .ecause o* the lac@ o* clear 9ro$hetic )irecti,e, in .oth tra)itions the authority o* a Com$anion an) not that o* the 9ro$het is in,o@e) in su$$ort o* either course o* action. 6his is $erha$s the reason /hy t/o ,ery $rominent com$anions are chosen to re$resent t/o o$$osin+ le+al $ositions. An im$ortant ar+ument *or re+ar)in+ .oth tra)itions as re*lectin+ later :uristic )e,elo$ments rather than earlier historical e,ents, is the *act that 0Umar0s account i+nores Mu0a)h0s )ecision com$letely. 6his is im$ortant in ,ie/ o* the *act that Mu0a)h in,o@e) 9ro$hetic authority, .ut since there /as no s$eci*ic hadith to .ac@ u$ his ar+ument, it carrie) little /ei+ht in the )e,elo$ment o* the riddah la/. (inally, it is note/orthy that .oth inci)ents are $lace) in the Yaman, a re+ion /ith
1)

A#+ -A#d Alla. M+.ammad i#n >smail al,7+k.ari, ?a.i. al,7+k.ari, 8 vols. (7eir+!: 9ar al,@ikr, 1*3121981), vol. 8, . ;3.
1*

Mali@ .. Anas, al'Mu/attaN, Muhamma) (u0a) MA.) al'Ba3i <Cairo: Hita. al'=ha0.?, $. #&".

nota.le 2e/ish an) Christian communities. 6his too re*lects later )e,elo$ments, as the $olitical, reli+ious an) social relations o* Muslims /ith Christians an) 2e/s calle) *or the *ormulation o* la/s ' inclu)in+ the la/ o* a$ostasy ' to +o,ern these s$ecial relations. 6he tra)itions )iscusse) so *ar either )o not relate )irectly to the issue o* a$ostasy ' as in the case o* the account o* the men o* 0Uraynah ' or lac@ 9ro$hetic le+islati,e authority ' as in those o* Mu0a)h .. 2a.al an) 0Umar .. al'Hhatta.. 6here*ore, e,en i* these accounts are +enuine, they cannot ser,e as material sources *or the riddah la/. In contrast, the three tra)itions /e shall ne7t consi)er contain 9ro$hetic hadiths clearly sti$ulatin+ the )eath $enalty *or a$ostasy. 6he *irst is the /i)ely acce$te) 9ro$hetic hadith: CHe /ho chan+es his reli+ion, @ill himC. It is re$orte) on the authority o* 0I@rimah that some )ualists 5anadi+ah67 /ere .rou+ht to 0AIi /ho .urnt them ali,e. 1hen I.n 0A..as learnt o* this he sai): Ha) I .een in his $lace. I /oul) not ha,e .urnt them, in com$liance /ith thc Messen+er o* Bo)0s $rohi.ition: C9unish not /ith the $unishment o* Bo). I /oul) ha,e rather @ille) them in accor)ance /ith his sayin+, CHe /ho chan+es his reli+ion, @ill himC. !D 6/o $oints shoul) .e note) /ith re+ar) to this tra)ition. 6he *irst is that the a$ostates in,ol,e) /ere neither Christians nor 2e/s. -ather, they coul) only ha,e .een 9ersian or other non'Ara. $olitical con,erts /hose Islam coul) not .e ascertaine). Mali@ .. Anas says concernin+ them: 1hen these are ca$ture), they shoul) .e @ille) /ithout .ein+ as@e) to re$ent, .ecause their re$entance cannot .e ascertaine), Because they are use) to mani*est Islam an) conceal their re:ection o* *aith, their /or) shoul) not he acce$te). !% 6he secon) $oint is that the hadith is too ,a+ue to ser,e as la/. It is also note/orthy that the hadith is not in the Sahih o* Muslim. A ,ariant is relate) on the authority o* a /ell'@no/n com$anion, Oay) .. Aslam. But e,en this ,ersion lac@s a $ro$er chain o* transmissionG it is a hadith mursal' It rea)s: Cthe Messen+er o* Bo) sai), Che /ho chan+es his reli+ion, stri@e o** his nec@C.!I 4en) o* $. I;5 6he inci)ent o* 0Ali an) I.n 0A..as is re$orte) on the authority o* 0I@rimah /ho /as the sla,e an) )isci$le o* I.n 0A..as. 6he tra)ition a$$ears to .e $art o* the conscious e**ort o* the0 A..asi) )ynasty to +i,e itsel* +reater le+itimacy .y e7altin+ its 0A..asi) ancestors o,er those o* their 0Ali) o$$onents. 6his may ha,e le) later :urists to in,ent a similar tra)ition, .ut /ith a more cre)i.le authority. Both tra)itions, ho/e,er, a$$ear to .e a le+al *iction, .ut /ith an e7traneous $olitical aim. 6hese t/o hadiths ha,e .een the su.:ect o* much )isa+reement amon+ :urists. Mali@ .. Anas, the :urist o* Ma)inah an) *oun)er o* the Mali@i school, inter$rete) the 9ro$hetic comman) thus: 6he meanin+ o* the 9ro$het0s sayin+ ' in our ,ie/. .ut Bo) @no/s .est ' is that anyone /ho a.an)ons Islam *or another reli+ion. such as the )ualists an) their li@es ,,0 these shoul) not .e ma)e to re$ent. nor shoul) their /or) .e acce$te). As *or 4those5 /ho $u.licly lea,e Islam *or another reli+ion, I say that 4they5 shoul) .e in,ite) ane/ to Islam an) en:oine) to re$ent. I* they re$ent, it shoul) .e acce$te) *rom them, .ut i* they )o not,
1;

" A.e !erm zindiq 0s. o5 zanadiqa$ was ori'inall" +sed !o descri#e !.e Boroas!rian d+alis!s. Ca!er, .owever, i! came !o re5er !o an"one w.o .eld #elie5s no! consonan! wi!. mains!ream ?+nni >slam.
11

Bu@hari, Sahih, ,ol, I, $. & , Mali@ ., Anas, al2Muwatta8, 4a! al2+a+a%, hadith P!&, 9 #&I' >#id.

17 18

they shoul) .e @ille). Mali@ clari*ies his ,ie/ *urther: 1e )o not thin@ this 1hadilh9 refers to those /ho lea,e 2u)aism *or Christianity or Christianity for 2u)aism, nor those /ho chan+e their reli+ion o* the $eo$le o* all reli+ions other than Islam.C!" It shoul) .e note) that the +reat Ma)inan :urist sim$ly e7$resses his o/n o$inion, .ut still remains circums$ect. 6hus he 3uali*ies e,ery statement /ith the $hrases Cin our ,ie/C an) C.ut Bo) @no/s .estC. 6his caution no )ou.t in)icates the con*usion this tra)ition an) its ,ariant create) at this early sta+e o* the )e,elo$ment o* Islamic :uris$ru)ence. One *inal 9ro$hetic hadith /hich a$$ears to .e *ar more le+ally $recise than all the tra)itions so *ar )iscusse), shoul) .e e7amine). 6he tra)ition is re$orte) on the authority o* the /ell're+ar)e) com$anion an) tra)itionist I.n Mas0u). 6he 9ro$het sai): Any Muslim man /ho .ears /itness that there is no +o) e7ce$t Bo) an) that I am the Messen+er o* Bo), his .loo) is unla/*ul to she) e7ce$t un)er one o* three circumstances: a marrie) man /ho commits a)ultery, a man /ho @ills an innocent $erson un:ustly, an) he /ho a.an)ons his reli+ion an) thus se$arates himseI* *rom the community.2 6he te7t o* this hadith clearly in)icates its late ori+in an) $ur$ose. It :s one o* many tra)itions attri.ute) to the 9ro$het a+ainst the Hhari:ites /ho re+ar)e) anyone /ho is not in their cam$ to .e a non'Muslim /hose li*e an) $ro$erty are la/*ul to ta@e. 6he $ur$ose o* this hadith is to .ase the *aith'i)entity o* a Muslim, an) hence the sanctity o* his li*e an) $ro$erty, on the minimum re3uirements o* *aith an) morality. 6he clause, Che /ho a.an)ons his reli+ion an) thus se$arates himsel* *rom the communityC is inten)e) not as le+islation a+ainst a$ostasy, .ut as a re$u)iation o* e7tremism an) )isunity. (rom the *ore+oin+ )iscussion it may .e conclu)e) that there is no real .asis *or the riddah la/ in either the 8ur0an or 9ro$hetic tra)ition. (urthermore, the *e/ tra)itions 4en) o* $. I#5 that e7ist a$$ear to .e late an) con*use). It is $ossi.le, *or instance, to re+ar) the accounts o* Mu0a)h an) 0Umar as t/o narrati,es centerin+ aroun) one sin+le inci)ent. In this case they may .e re+ar)e) as t/o ,ariants o* one tra)ition. 6he same is true o* the t/o alle+e) 9ro$hetic tra)itions relate) to the account o* 0Ali an) I.n 0A..as. 6here*ore, /e ha,e in reality not si7, .ut *our tra)itions, only t/o o* /hich contain 9ro$hetic in:unctions. But e,en these cannot, as /e ha,e seen, ser,e as material sources *or the harsh la/ a+ainst a$ostasy. It /as o.ser,e) earlier that in contrast /ith =unni tra)ition, =hi0i hadith an) le+al tra)ition ha) a lon+ *ormati,e $erio). 6his is .ecause, /hile the 9ro$hetic sunnah *or =unni Muslims is coterminous /ith the li*e o* the 9ro$het, =hiNis e7ten) the sunnah *or nearly three centuries to inclu)e the li,es o* the ele,en Imams an) the lesser occultation (a:2ghay!ah a:2sughra) o* the t/el*th. =ince, moreo,er, the Imams are themsel,es the $rimary le+al authorities *or their community, an) their /or) is synonymous /ith that o* the 9ro$het, there is in reality no )istinction .et/een hadith an) le+al tra)ition. =i+ni*icantly, =hiNi tra)itions on a$ostasy contain neither 9ro$hetic hadiths nor any re*erence to the actions an) o$inions o* the 9ro$het0s imme)iate com$anions. Instea), re$orts o* 0AIi0s treatment o* a$ostates )urin+ his short cali$hate are use) as material sources *or the riddah la/. As in =unni tra)ition, =hiNi hadith an) le+al materials on a$ostasy *all into t/o cate+ories, re$orts
19
(3

Malik, "u%atta# ., *;8.

0A.u 0Isa Muhamma) .. 0Isa .. =a/rah al'6irmi)hi, Sunan al2&irmidi, e). Muhamma) MA.) al' -ahman 0Uthman, & ,ols. <Beirut: Dar al'(i@r, !"%#?, ,ol. 2, $. #2"

o* 0Ali0s attitu)e to/ar)s a$ostasy an) his harsh treatment o* a$ostates, an) )irect le+al $ronouncements .y su.se3uent Imams. It is relate) on the authority o* the si7th Imam 2a0*ar al'=a)i3 that a Muslim man /ho /as con,erte) to Christianity /as .rou+ht to 0Ali, the Comman)er o* the (aith*ul. 0An ur+e) the man to re$ent an) return to Islam, .ut he re*use). 0Ali then seiAe) the man .y the hair, thre/ him to the +roun) an) or)ere) the men $resent to tram$le him to )eath. 6he man in this narrati,e /as a Muslim /ho a$ostatiAe) *rom Islam, hence he /as @ille) /ithout .ein+ as@e) to re$ent or +i,en time to thin@ thin+s o,er an) $erha$s chan+e his min). Another man is re$orte) to ha,e .een .rou+ht to 0Ali on the char+e o* a$ostasy. 6he man /as o* the Christian tri.e o* the Banu 6ha0la.ahG he em.race) Islam, .ut later /ishe) to return to his *ormer reli+ion. A*ter hearin+ the testimony o* /itnesses a+ainst him, 0All as@e), C1hat are these /itnesses sayin+JC the man ans/ere), C6hey tell the truth, as *or me, I shall return to IslamC. 0Ali sai): Ha) you )enie) /hat the /itnesses sai), I /oul) ha,e cut o** your hea). I /ill acce$t your /or) no/. .ut i* you a+ain re,o@e your /or), I /ill ne,er acce$t it *rom youC. 2! 6he *ormati,e $erio) o* Imami =hi0ism /as *rau+ht /ith $olitical an) reli+ious $ro.lems. 6he Imams, *rom 0Ali to the ele,enth Imam Hasan al'MAs@ari ha) to .e continuously on their +uar) a+ainst internal e7tremist reli+io'$olitical mo,ements. Many non'Ara. mawali con,erts claime) )i,inity not only *or the Imams, .ut *or themsel,es as /ell. =uch claims, o* course, constitute) the /orst *orm o* a$ostasy. 6hus =hiNi tra)ition $ro,i)es an interestin+ conte7t *or the account o*0 Ali0s .urnin+ o* a$ostates. 4en) o* $. I&5 Hisham .. =alim, one o* the chie* )isci$les o* the Imam 2a0*ar al'=a)i3, relate) that a +rou$ o* men came to the Comman)er o* the (aith*ul0 Ali an) a))resse) him /ith the /or)s, C9eace .e u$on you, O our >or)C. 0AII en:oine) them to recant, .ut to no a,ail. He then )u+ *or them a trench in /hich he @in)le) a .laAin+ *ire. As they /oul) still not re$ent o* their .las$hemy, he cast them into the *ire an) .urnt them to )eath.22 Imami =hiNi :uris$ru)ence )istin+uishes .et/een t/o ty$es o* a$ostasy, fitri an) milli res$ecti,ely. 6he *irst is a$ostasy o* a Muslim .orn to t/o Muslim $arents. 6his is .ase) on the notion o* e3uatin+ thc reli+ion o* Islam /ith the innate )is$osition (fitrah) to @no/ Bo) an) ha,e *aith in Him, /ith /hich e,ery human .ein+ is .orn. 6he secon) is a$ostasy o* a Muslim /ho came to Islam *rom another reli+ion (millah), nota.ly 2u)aism or Christianity. 6he a$ostate o* the *irst @in) shoul) .e @ille) /ithout an o$$ortunity to re$ent, /hile that o* the secon) shoul) .e +i,en three )ays, a*ter /hich he shou!) .e @ille) i* he )oes not re$ent. 2; 6he Imams a*ter 0Ali, /ho e7ercise) no ci,il authority, +a,e le+al $ronouncements to hy$othetical 3uestions $ose) .y their *ollo/ers. 6his *act, as /ell as the e,er'$resent s$ecter o* =hiNi e7tremism ren)ere) the Imams0 rulin+s on a$ostasy .oth theoretically systematic an) unusually se,ere. 6hese $ronouncements, althou+h numerically +reater than those o* =unni tra)ition, are limite) to a *e/ Imams.

(1

M+.ammad #. al,$asan al,$+rr al,Amili, &asail al-'hi'ah ila tahsil (asa)il al* shari)ah# (3 vols. (7eir+!: 9ar >."a- al,A+ra!. al,-Ara#i, 1)87), vol. 18, . ;*; and ;*8.
((

A.u 2a0*ar Muhamma) .. al'Hasan al'6usi, 0=hay@h al'60i*ah0, &ahdhi! al2Ah#am, e). Hasan al' Musa/i al'Hhurasani, ! ,ols <6ehran: Dar al'Hutu. al'Islamiyah, !;" ?, ,ol. #, $. 2&;.
()

=ee aI'Hurr aI'0Amili, )asa%il, $ &#I, the cha$ter entitle): Ca Milli a$ostate shoul) .e +i,en three )ays to re$ent, an) i* he )oes not, he shoul) .e @ille).C

In ans/er to a 3uestion concernin+ true *aith an) re:ection o* *aith, the *i*th Imam Muhamma) al' Ba3ir sai): Anyone /ho )enies, the $ro$hethoo) o* a $ro$het sent .y Bo) an) re$u)iates him, his .loo) is la/*ul to she). 6he Imam /as *urther as@e), C1hat a.out him /ho )enies an imam *rom amon+ you, /hat is his con)itionC: 6he Imam ans/ere): Anyone /ho )enies an Imam a$$ointe) .y Bo) an) )issociates himsel* *rom him an) his reli+ion, is an a$ostate *rom Islam 6his is .ecause the Imam is a$$ointe) .y Bo), an) his reli+ion is the reli+ion o* Bo). Hence, anyone /ho )issociates himsel* *rom the reli+ion o* Bo), is a re:ecter o* *aith (#afir)' His .loo) /oul) .e la/*ul to she), unless he returns to Bo) re$entant o* /hat he sai)C.2# 6his tra)ition is meant not so much to )e*ine a$ostasy, .ut to )e*ine the =hiNi )octrine o* the Imam, accor)in+ to /hich the Imamate is an inte+ral $art o* $ro$hethoo). 6here*ore, to deny one is to )eny the other. In a more ela.orate $ronouncement s$eci*ically concernin+ a$ostasy, the si7th Imam 2a0*ar al' =a)i3 sums u$ the main elements o* Imami =hiNi riddah le+islation. He sai): Any Muslim man, .orn to t/o Muslim $arents, /ho a$ostatiAes *rom Islam, )enies Muhamma)0s $ro$hethoo) an) .elies his messa+e, his .loo) is la/*ul to she) *or anyone /ho hears this *rom him. 6he /i*e of such a man /oul) .e unla/*ul *or him *rom the )ay he ha) a$ostatiAe). His $ro$erty 4en) o* $. ID5 /oul) .e )i,i)e) amon+ his Muslim heirs, an) his /i*e shoul) o.ser,e the same $erio) o* a.stinence .e*ore contractin+ another marria+e 4that is one year5 an) one /hose hus.an) ha) )ie). 6he Imam must e7ecute such a man /ithout en:oinin+ him to re$ent.Q 2& It is assume) here that the $erson inten)e) is a fitri a$ostate. 6he )istinction .et/een fitri an) milli a$ostasy is une3ui,ocally clari*ie) .y the se,enth Imam Musa al'HaAim /ho /as as@e) .y his .rother0 Ali .. 2a0*ar a.out a Muslim man /ho em.races Christianity. 6he Imam ans/ere), CHe shoul) .e @ille) an) not as@e) to re$entC. 0Ali then as@e) his .rother a.out a Christian man /ho acce$ts IsIam then a$ostatiAes, the Imam ans/ere), CHe shoul) .e as@e) to re$ent, an) i* he )oes not return to Islam, he shoul) .e @ille)C. 2D An im$ortant le+al $oint relate) to the one :ust )iscusse) is that o* a chil) o* a mi7e) marria+e. 6his issue is not entirely hy$othetical, .ecause the 8ur0an allo/s marria+e .et/een Muslim men an) Christian or 2e/ish /omen.2% It is, ho/e,er, assume) that the chil)ren o* such marria+es /oul) .e .rou+ht u$ Muslims. 6he Imam 2a0*ar al'=a)i3 /as as@e) concernin+ a chil) o* a Muslim *ather an) a Christian mother. He rule) that such a chil) shoul) .e com$elle) throu+h .eatin+ to .e a Muslim. But i* attainin+ the a+e o* ma:ority the youth $ersists, then he shoul) .e @ille).2I It /as ar+ue) at the start o* this )iscussion that a$ostasy has .een re+ar)e) as a $u.lic o**ense, $unisha.le .y la/. (or Islamic la/, this means that a$ostasy is not only a crime a+ainst Bo), .ut also $otentially it is an act o* treachery a+ainst the Islamic state an) society. Because a$ostasy is consi)ere) as )an+erous to social or)er an) security as mur)er, *ornication an) hi+h/ay
(* (;

"!id', $. &##. >#id., . **;. (1 >#id., . ;*1. (7 ?ee 6. ;:;.

(8

al,$+rr al,DAmili, &asa)il# . ;*7.

ro..ery, li@e them it is $unisha.le .y )eath. =ince /omen an) chil)ren are less li@ely to $artici$ate in /ar a+ainst Islam an) its community, the ma7imum $enalty (hadd) o* riddah )oes not a$$ly to them. Both =hiNi an) =unni :urists are +enerally a+ree) that a /oman a$ostate shoul) not .e @ille), .ut shoul) .e im$risone) until she returns to Islam or )ies. Accor)in+ to a num.er o* tra)itions *rom the Imams, a /oman a$ostate shoul) not he @ille). -ather, she shoul) .e su.:ecte) to harsh ser,itu)e an) )e$ri,e) o* *oo) an) )rin@, e7ce$t /hat is necessary to @ee$ her ali,e. =he shoul) /ear the coarsest o* clothes, an) shoul) .e .eaten at the times o* the *i,e )aily $rayers she misse).2" I*, ho/e,er, a /oman a$ostate in any /ay assists the enemies o* the Muslims, then she /oul) .e consi)ere) as .elon+in+ to the s$here o* /ar, an) thus her .loo) /oul) .e la/*ul to she). It is re$orte) that0 Ali @ille) a Christian /oman /ho em.race) Islam, +ot marrie) an) ha) a chil). A*ter the )eath o* her Muslim hus.an), she returne) to Christianity an) marrie) a Christian an) ha) chil)ren .y him. 6he /oman0s Christian hus.an) also )ie) /hile she /as $re+nant /ith his thir) chil). A*ter she )eli,ere), 0Ali ha) her e7ecute) on the +roun) that she ren)ere) hel$ to the enemies o* the Muslims throu+h her chil)ren. He also rule) that her Christian chil)ren .e sla,es to their Muslim .rother.; 4en) o* $. I%5 A care*ul stu)y o* the early sources o* Islamic tra)ition re,eals an increasin+ly har)enin+ attitu)e to/ar)s a$ostasy. 6his attitu)e is re*lecte) in the harsh la/s /hich +re/ harsher as the $olitical, economic an) reli+ious interrelations amon+ the three communities o* the .oo@ /orsene). 6he remainin+ $ara+ra$hs o* this stu)y /ill attem$t to analyAe this $rocess throu+h a .rie* in,esti+ation o* the :uristic rulin+s (ah#am) o* a$ostasy. Ahkam al-Riddah in Sunni urisprudence 2urists are unanimous in re+ar)in+ a$ostasy a crime )eser,in+ the )eath $enalty. ;! 6his unanimity is .ase) on .oth 9ro$hetic tra)ition <Sunnah) an) consensus (i ma%) o* the 9ro$het0s com$anions. 6he $rimary =unnah is the hadith, alrea)y )iscusse), CHe /ho chan+es his reli+ion, @ill himC. As *or the consensus o* the Com$anions, A.u Ba@r0s so'calle) riddah /ars are cite) .esi)e the accounts o* Mu0a)h, 0Umar an)0 Ali, alrea)y )iscusse). But it is ho$e) that the *ore+oin+ )iscussion has su**iciently sho/n that the a,aila.le tra)itions )emonstrate neither sunnah nor i ma%' 6here is, ho/e,er, no )ou.t that there has e7iste) *rom the .e+innin+ a .roa) consensus amon+ :urists on this issue. 1e ha,e alrea)y )iscusse) the +eneral sco$e an) nature o* a$ostasy. 1e shall no/ consi)er the 3uestions: 1ho is an a$ostate, an) ho/ the char+e o* a$ostasy may .e esta.lishe). >e+ally, an a$ostate is a $erson /ho a.an)ons the reli+ion o* Islam throu+h /or) or )ee), re+ar)less o* /hether he )oes or )oes not em.race another reli+ion. 6/o $rimary con)itions arc re3uisite *or a$ostasy to .e consi)ere): soun) reason an) *ree)om o* choice. As *or soun) reason, the riddah $enalty cannot .e esta.lishe) a+ainst an insane $erson, or a youth .e*ore he reaches the a+e o* ma:ority. An insane $erson /oul) .e le+ally re+ar)e) a Muslim, e,en i* he a$ostasiAe, until he re+ains sanity. >i@e/ise, a youth /oul) remain a Muslim, e,en i* he mani*ests
(9 )3

>#id., . ;*9,;;3. A+si, Tahdhib, . (;;.

)1

A.e con!em orar" E'" !ian E+ris! Ma.m+d @+-ad :ad Alla. en!i!les !.e sec!ion on a os!as" in .is #ook, al-+udud fi al-'hari)ah al-Isla(iyah, 'uqubat -ari(at al-riddah . (8airo: al,$a"-a. al,-Amma. li,l,&i!a#, 198*), . 1*1.

a$ostasy, until he attains the a+e o* ma:ority. ;2 (urthermore, a $erson /ho is *orce) to mani*est a$ostasy a+ainst his /ill, remains a Muslim, as /as the case /ith0 Ammar .. Yasir. 6he char+e o* a$ostasy may .e esta.lishe) throu+h the testimony o* t/o :ust /itnesses. It is also necessary to s$eci*y the nature o* a$ostasy, /hether it /as throu+h /or) or )ee), Most early :urists, inclu)in+ the *oun)ers o* the *our =unni le+al schools are +enerally a+ree) that /hen a$ostasy is esta.lishe) /ithout )ou.t, it .ecomes incum.ent on the :u)+e or imam to carry out the )eath $enalty. 6here is, ho/e,er, a /i)e )i,er+ence o* o$inion /ith re+ar) to the issue o* re$entance. 1hile most early tra)itionists an) :urists a),ocate) +i,in+ the a$ostate a chance to re$ent, they )i**ere) as to the len+th o* time that shoul) .e allo/e), the nature o* 4en) o* $. II5 re$entance an) un)er /hat circumstances it shoul) .e acce$te) or re:ecte). Because contra)ictory ,ie/s ha,e .een attri.ute) to early tra)itionists, inclu)in+ the *oun)ers o* the le+al schools, Iater :urists ha,e .een *ree to inter$ret the classical tra)ition to *it their o/n tem$erament an) the time an) $olitical climate in /hich they li,e). Al'=ha*i0i is re$orte) to ha,e rule) in *a,or o* the three')ay res$ite *or re$entance. He is also sai) to ha,e rule) that an a$ostate shoul) .e en:oine) to re$ent, or .e imme)iately e7ecute). 6he /ell'@no/n tra)itionist al'Ouhro rule) that an a$ostate shoul) .e en:oine) to re$ent three times, .ut i* he re*uses, hc shoul) .e @ille). 0AI6, in contra)iction to =hiNi tra)ition, is sai) to ha,e rule) that an a$ostate shoul) .e +i,en a month to re$ent. 6he +reat tra)itionistKmysticKtheolo+ian Hasan al'Basri a),ocate) that an a$ostate shoul) .e en:oine) to re$ent a hun)re) times. 6his has .een ta@en .y some to mean in)e*initeIy. 6his ,ie/ has in *act .een attri.ute) to another /ell res$ecte) tra)itionist :urist I.rahim al'Fa@h0i, /ho /as a contem$orary o* Hasan al'Basri. Both ,ie/s im$ly that an a$ostate shoul) ne,er .e @ille), .ut shoul) .e en:oine) to re$ent till the en) o* his li*e. =ome :urists inter$rete) this to mean that an a$ostate shoul) .e +i,en an o$$ortunity to re$ent, no matter ho/ o*ten he may *all into a$ostasy. Many early :urists ' inclu)in+ Hasan al' Basri, al'=ha*i0i an) Ahma) .. Han.al ' hel) that en:oinin+ re$entance is commen)a.le, not man)atoryC.;; 1ith re+ar) to the e7ecution or re$entance o* a /oman a$ostate, .oth 9ro$hetic and fi+h tra)itions $resent contra)ictory rulin+s. Many Mali@i, =ha*i0i an) Han.ali :urists ha,e hcl) that a /oman a$ostate is su.:ect to the same rules as the man. =he is to .e +i,en three )ays to re$ent, )urin+ /hich she /oul) .e re$eate)ly ur+e) to return to Islam, .ut i* she re*uses, she must .e e7ecute). 6his :u)+ment is .ase) on a 9ro$hetic $rece)ent, /here as relate) on the authority o* 2a.ir .. 0A.) Allah aI'Ansari, the 9ro$het or)ere) the e7ecution o* an a$ostate /oman a*ter .ein+ ur+e) to return to Islam. 6he rationale .ehin) this )ecision is that, throu+h a$ostasy, a /oman .ecomes li@e one .elon+in+ to the s$here o* /ar. It is *urther ar+ue) that her crime is e,en /orse than that o* enemy'/omen, .ecause she ha) .een $re,iously a Muslim. =uch a /oman has also .een consi)ere) su.:ect to the +eneral rulin+, CHe /ho chan+es his reli+ion, @ill himC. ;# Mali@i :urists allo/e) the a$ostate /oman the same time to re$ent as that o* the menstrual a.stinence $erio) (%iddat al2haya), three months to *i,e years, or until she +i,es .irth. 6his is the case o* a /oman /ho is )i,orce) *or a$ostasy, .ut /ith a re,oca.le )i,orce (tala+ al2ra 8i)' As *or a /oman /ho is a.solutely )i,orce) (!a%inah), she /oul) .e en:oine) to re$ent, an) i* she re*uses, she /oul) .e imme)iately e7ecute).;& Hana*i :urists rule) a+ainst the @illin+ o* an a$ostate /oman, .ecause the 9ro$het *or.a)e the @illin+ o* /omen, an) .ecause /omen )o not en+a+e in *i+htin+ as men )o. 6hey cite a
)(

Muhammacl . Muhamma) A.u =huh.ah, al2-udud fi ai2"slam wa2mu+aranatu2ha !i2l2+awanin al2wadiah <Cairo al'Hay0ah ai'0Ammah li'=hu0un al'Mata.i0 al'Amiriyah, !;"#K!"%#?, $$. 2"%'2"I. )) >#id., . )1(,)1). )* :ad Alla., al-+udud, . 1*9. ); Al,:aFiri, al-.iqh, . *(;.

$rohi.ition /hich the 9ro$het +a,e to Mu0a)h as one o* se,eral le+al instructions /hen he sent him to the Yaman. 6he 9ro$het sai): Any man /ho a$ostatiAes *rom Islam, ur+e him to return to Islam I* he re$ents acce$t his re$entance. 4en) o* $. I"5 .ut i* he )oes not, stri@e o** his nec@. >i@e/ise, i* any /oman a$ostatiAes, in,ite her to Islam. I* she re$ents, acce$t her re$entance, .ut i* she )oes not, then continue to ur+e her to re$ent.;D As in =hiNi tra)ition, Hana*i :urists )istin+uishe) .et/een ori+inal re:ection o* *aith (#ufr asli) o* a Christian or 2e/ish con,ert to Islam /ho returns to his $re,ious *aith, an) acci)ental re:ection o* *aith (#ufr tari 0? o* a Muslim /ho a$ostatiAes *rom Islam. 6he *ormer may, un)er certain circumstances, .e le*t to Bo) to re3uite on the )ay o* :u)+ment. By analo+y, .ecause /omen ha) no $olitical status in tra)itional Muslim society, the $unishment o* a /oman a$ostate shoul) .c le*t to Bo). Instea), she shoul) .e loc@e) u$ till she returns to Islam or )ies. A.u Hani*ah relate) *rom I.n 0A..as that /omen shoul) not .e @ille) i* they a$ostatiAe. 6hey shoul) rather .e loc@e) u$, in,ite) .ac@ to Islam, an) i* necessary, .e com$elle) to acce$t it. A similar o$inion is attri.ute) to 0Ali /ho sai), CA /oman a$ostate shoul) .e ma)e to re$ent, .ut must not .e @ille)C.;% !oncluding Remark Islamic :uris$ru)ence ma@es a *un)amental )istinction .et/een theoretical *ormulations o* la/ an) its $ractical a$$lications. 6hus /hile le+al :u)+ments may .e harsh an) uncom$romisin+. they remain some/hat tentati,e an) /i)ely )i,er+ent. 6his is es$ecially true /ith re+ar) to ma7imum or ultimate $enalties (-udud), such as those o* a)ultery, the*t, mur)er an) a$ostasy. 6his )istinction is .ase) on the im$ortant cautionary -adith: C+uar) a+ainst (idra%u) ma7imum $enalties (-udud) .y means o* uncertainties (shu!uhat)"' Most o* the ar+uments in *a,or o* re$entance are meant to remo,e any )ou.t re+ar)in+ an act o* a$ostasy that may .e .ase) on i+norance, mental or $sycholo+ical )e*ect or e,en im$ru)ence. 6he $rinci$le in all this is not to *in) a /ay to $unish a /oul) .e a$ostate, .ut rather to *in) a /ay out *or him or her. 6here*ore, anyone /hose a$ostasy is esta.lishe) throu+h either sel*' a)mission or clear e,i)ence, his re$entance shoul) .e limite) to utterin+ the t/o a**irmations o* *aith (shahadahs)' In this case, the :u)+e shoul) not in,esti+ate the truth o* the char+e .rou+ht a+ainst him. 6his is .ecause .y utterin+ the t/o shahadahs, an a$ostate or non'Muslim .ecomes a Muslim. Hence, re+ar)less o* /hat i)eas or .elie*s a $erson may $ri,ately hol), his a**irmation o* the oneness o* Bo) an) the a$ostleshi$ o* Muhamma) ma@es him or her a Muslim /hose li*e an) $ro$erty area in,iola.le. A 2e/ /ho .elie,es in the oneness o* Bo) nee) only a**irm the a$ostleshi$ o* Muhamma) to .e a Muslim.;I A$ostasy /as ne,er a $ro.lem *or the Muslim community. It remaine) a theoretical issue .ecause the $eo$le e7ecute) *or a$ostasy until the en) o* the0 A..asi) cali$hate in the thirteenth century /ere ,ery *e/. A$ostasy .ecame a $olitical issue /ith 4en) o* $. " 5 the rise o* 1estern colonialism an) conse3uent intensi*ication o* 1estern Christian missionary acti,ities in Muslim areas. 6hus the /ell'@no/n nineteenth century British missionary =amuel O/emer su.titles his .oo@ on the la/ o* a$ostasy in Islam: Cans/erin+ the 3uestion /hy there are so *e/ Muslim con,erts an) +i,in+ L7am$les o* 6heir Moral Coura+e an) Martyr)omC. ;" O/emer echoes the
)1 )7

>#id., . 1*9. Ibid, . *(1,*(7. )8 A#+ ?.+.#a., al-+udud, . )18,)(3. )9 ?am+el M. Bwemer, A.e Caw o5 A os!as" in >slam (Condon: Mars.all 7ro!.ers C!d., 19(*4

lon+hel) erroneous assum$tion that the lac@ o* success o* missionary /or@ amon+ the Muslims is )ue to the harshness o* the riddah 2a/. 1ith the ne/ ti)e o* resur+ent Islam as a reaction to the secular ti)e that has o,er/helme) the Muslim /orl) since the mi)'nineteenth century, as /ell as the contem$orary $olitical con*licts .et/een the Mi))le Last an) the 1est, a$ostasy has .ecome a thorny issue *or .oth 1estern missionaries an) secular humanists an) *or many 1estern'e)ucate) Muslim intellectual as /ell Muslims ha,e themsel,es $oliticiAe) a$ostasy .y usin+ it as an i)eolo+ical /ea$on a+ainst one another. 6hese an) other relate) issues, ho/e,er, are the su.:ect o* an in)e$en)ent in,esti+ation /hich I ho$e will .e soon un)erta@en as a se3uel to this stu)y.