Effluenttreatmentplant 130216073503 Phpapp01

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water
Jaidev Singh
M S! "hemistry M M Modi "ollege, Patiala
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Contents
1. Introduction to Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) 1.1 Use of water in industries 1.2 Industrial waste water sources 1.3 Effluent Treatment Plant 1.4 National Standards for waste water 1. !"at do t"ese standards means# 1.$ !aste water treatment 1.% Plannin& an Effluent Treatment Plant ' (actors to Consider
2. Treatment )et"ods 2.1 P"*sical Unit +,erations 2.2 C"emical Unit Processes 2.3 -iolo&ical Unit Processes 3. +,eration and control 3.1 )i.ed li/uor sus,ended solids 3.2 Slud&e 0olume Inde. and Slud&e 1ensit* Inde. 3.3 Slud&e 2&e3 )ean Cell 4esidence Time ()C4T) 3.4 (ood5)ass 4atio 3. Constant )6SS 3.$ 4eturn 2cti7ated Slud&e Control (42S) 4. C"oosin& an Effluent Treatment Plant 4.1 -iolo&ical Treatment 4.2 P"*sico8C"emical Treatment 4.3 P"*sico8C"emical and -iolo&ical Treatment 4.4 2rea 4e/uirement Com,arison 4. Cost Com,arison . C"emical 2nal*sis of !aste !ater .1 Commonl* used c"emicals .2 C"emical Tests and ,rocedures
1. Introduction to Effluent Treatment Plant

1.1 Use of water in industries !ater is t"e main com,onent w"ic" is used in all t*,e of t"e Industries. !ater is used for different ,rocesses in t"e industries. It ma* 9e used for was"in&: dilution: formation and condensin& t"e steam. -ut all water used in t"e different industr* is not totall* consumed. ;enerall*: almost all t"e industries &enerate waste water t"at needs ur&ent attention. !ater use in industr* is a dou9le8ed&ed sword. +n one "and it ,uts immense ,ressure on local water resources. +n t"e ot"er: wastewater disc"ar&ed from t"e industr* ,ollutes t"e local en7ironment. !ater is re/uired: often in lar&e 7olumes: 9* industries as ,rocess in,uts in most industries. In ot"er cases: li<e food and 9e7era&e and c"loro8al<ali industr*: water is used as a raw material' turned into a manufactured ,roduct and e.,orted out of t"e local water s*stem. =owe7er: in most industries it is essentiall* used as in,ut and mass and "eat transfer media. In t"ese industries a 7er* small fraction of water is actuall* consumed and lost. )ost of t"e water is actuall* meant for non8consum,ti7e ,rocess uses and is ultimatel* disc"ar&ed as Effluent. 1.2 Industrial waste water sources
&ron and steel industry T"e ,roduction of iron from its ores in7ol7es ,owerful reduction reactions in 9last furnaces. Coolin& waters are ine7ita9l* contaminated wit" ,roducts es,eciall* ammonia and c*anide. Production of co<e from coal in co<in& ,lants also re/uires water coolin& and t"e use of water in 9*8,roducts se,aration. Contamination of waste streams includes &asification ,roducts suc" as 9en>ene: na,"t"alene: ant"racene: c*anide: ammonia: ,"enols: cresols to&et"er wit" a ran&e of more com,le. or&anic com,ounds <nown collecti7el* as ,ol*c*clic aromatic "*drocar9ons (P2=). T"e con7ersion of iron or steel into s"eet: wire or rods re/uires "ot and cold mec"anical transformation sta&es fre/uentl* em,lo*in& water as a lu9ricant and coolant. Contaminants include "*draulic oils: tallow and ,articulate solids. (inal treatment of iron and steel ,roducts 9efore onward sale into manufacturin& includes ,ic<lin& in stron& mineral acid to remo7e rust and ,re,are t"e surface for tin or c"romium ,latin& or for ot"er surface treatments suc" as &al7ani>ation or ,aintin&. T"e two acids commonl* used are "*droc"loric acid and sulfuric acid. !astewaters include acidic rinse waters to&et"er wit" waste acid. 2lt"ou&" man* ,lants o,erate acid reco7er* ,lants: (,articularl* t"ose usin& =*droc"loric acid): w"ere t"e mineral acid is 9oiled awa* from t"e iron salts: t"ere remains a lar&e 7olume of "i&"l* acid ferrous sulfate or ferrous c"loride to 9e dis,osed of. )an* steel industr* wastewaters are contaminated 9* "*draulic oil also <nown as solu9le oil.
'ood industry !astewater &enerated from a&ricultural and food o,erations "as distincti7e c"aracteristics t"at set it a,art from common munici,al wastewater mana&ed 9* ,u9lic or ,ri7ate sewa&e treatment ,lants t"rou&"out t"e world' it is 9iode&rada9le and nonto.ic: 9ut t"at "as "i&" concentrations of 9ioc"emical o.*&en demand (-+1) and sus,ended solids (SS). T"e constituents of food and a&riculture wastewater are often com,le. to ,redict due to t"e differences in -+1 and ,= in effluents from 7e&eta9le: fruit: and meat ,roducts and due to t"e seasonal nature of food ,rocessin& and ,ost "ar7estin&. Processin& of food from raw materials re/uires lar&e 7olumes of "i&" &rade water. 0e&eta9le was"in& &enerates waters wit" "i&" loads of ,articulate matter and some dissol7ed or&anics. It ma* also contain surfactants. 2nimal slau&"ter and ,rocessin& ,roduces 7er* stron& or&anic waste from 9od* fluids: suc" as 9lood: and &ut contents. T"is wastewater is fre/uentl* contaminated 9* si&nificant le7els of anti9iotics and &rowt" "ormones from t"e animals and 9* a 7ariet* of ,esticides used to control e.ternal ,arasites. Insecticide residues in fleeces is a ,articular ,ro9lem in treatin& waters &enerated in wool ,rocessin&. Processin& food for sale ,roduces wastes &enerated from coo<in& w"ic" are often ric" in ,lant or&anic material and ma* also contain salt: fla7ourin&s: colourin& material and acids or al<ali. 0er* si&nificant /uantities of oil or fats ma* also 9e ,resent. "omple( organi! !hemi!als industry 2 ran&e of industries manufacture or use com,le. or&anic c"emicals. T"ese include ,esticides: ,"armaceuticals: ,aints and d*es: ,etro8c"emicals: deter&ents: ,lastics: ,a,er ,ollution: etc. !aste waters can 9e contaminated 9* feed8stoc< materials: 9*8,roducts: ,roduct material in solu9le or ,articulate form: was"in& and cleanin& a&ents: sol7ents and added 7alue ,roducts suc" as ,lasticisers. Treatment facilities t"at do not need control of t"eir effluent t*,icall* o,t for a t*,e of aero9ic treatment: i.e. 2erated 6a&oons. Water treatment !ater treatment for t"e ,roduction of drin<in& water is dealt wit" elsew"ere. )an* industries "a7e a need to treat water to o9tain 7er* "i&" /ualit* water for demandin& ,ur,oses. !ater treatment ,roduces or&anic and mineral slud&es from filtration and sedimentation. Ion e.c"an&e usin& natural or s*nt"etic resins remo7es calcium: ma&nesium and car9onate ions from water: re,lacin& t"em wit" "*dro&en and "*dro.*l ions. 4e&eneration of ion e.c"an&e columns wit" stron& acids and al<alis ,roduces a wastewater ric" in "ardness ions w"ic" are readil* ,reci,itated out: es,eciall* w"en in admi.ture wit" ot"er wastewater. 1.3 Effluent Treatment Plant
Industrial wastewater treatment co7ers t"e mec"anisms and ,rocesses used to treat waters t"at "a7e 9een contaminated in some wa* 9* ant"ro,o&enic industrial or commercial acti7ities ,rior to its release into t"e en7ironment or its re8use. )ost industries ,roduce some wet waste alt"ou&" recent trends in t"e de7elo,ed world "a7e 9een to minimi>e suc" ,roduction or rec*cle suc" waste wit"in t"e ,roduction ,rocess. =owe7er: man* industries remain de,endent on ,rocesses t"at ,roduce wastewaters. So: industries ,roduce wastewater: ot"erwise <nown as effluent: as a 9i8,roduct of t"eir ,roduction. T"e effluent contains se7eral ,ollutants: w"ic" can 9e remo7ed wit" t"e "el, of
an effluent treatment ,lant (ETP). T"e ?clean@ water can t"en 9e safel* disc"ar&ed into t"e en7ironment. Advantages of )aste )ater systems )anufacturers face strict re&ulations on disc"ar&e and waste. Non8com,liance can lead to e.,ensi7e fees and o,erations interference. 2 wastewater treatment s<id will "el, *ou' Sta* in com,liance 4educe "aulin& and off8site treatment costs Eliminate munici,al fees 4educe su,,l* costs 9* reco7erin& ,roduction materials out of t"e waste8stream for re8use Eliminate unnecessar* water usa&e durin& ,rocessin& 1.4 National Standards for waste water Effluent from industries must meet t"e national effluent disc"ar&e /ualit* standards set 9* t"e ;o7ernment. Conse/uentl* an* ETP must 9e desi&ned and o,erated in suc" a wa* t"at it treats t"e wastewater to t"ese standards. T"e re&ulations state t"at t"ese /ualit* standards must 9e ensured from t"e moment of &oin& into trial ,roduction for industrial units. T"e* also state t"at t"e 1e,artment of En7ironment can underta<e s,ot c"ec<s at an* time and t"e ,ollution le7els must not e.ceed t"ese /ualit* standards. (urt"ermore: t"e /ualit* standards ma* 9e enforced in a more strin&ent manner if considered necessar* in 7iew of t"e en7ironmental conditions of a ,articular situation. T"e waste disc"ar&e /ualit* standards differ accordin& to t"e ,oint of dis,osal. So: t"e standards are different for inland surface water (,onds: tan<s: water 9odies: water "oles: canals: ri7er: s,rin&s or estuaries)3 ,u9lic sewers (an* sewer connected wit" full* com9ined ,rocessin& ,lant includin& ,rimar* and secondar* treatment)3 and irri&ated land defined as an a,,ro,riatel* irri&ated ,lantation area of s,ecified cro,s 9ased on /uantit* and /ualit* of wastewater.
Parameter Inland surface waters Public sewers Land for Irrigation
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8 A.2 1AA 2 8 8 $AA 8 8 A.2 8 8 8 8 1A 8 . 8B.A
Ammoniacal nitrogen Arsenic Biological oxygen demand (for 5 days at 20 0 c) Boron Cadmium C emical oxygen demand C lorides C romium ( exa!alent) Co""er Cyanides #luorides Lead $ercury %ic&el 'il and grease Pesticides "( P enolic com"ounds
A A.2 3A 2 2 2 A 1AAA A.1 3 A.2 2 A.1 A.A1 3 1A 8 . 8B.A 1
A A.2 3 A 2 1 8 1AAA 2.A 3 2 1 1.A A.A1 3 2A 8 . 8B.A 8
Parameter
Inland surface waters A.A 8 1AAA 2 1AA 21AA 1 _
Public sewers
Land for Irrigation
)elenium )odium (*) )ul" ates )ul" ides )us"ended solids +otal dissol!ed solids (inorganic) +otal residual c lorine ,inc iron
A.A $A 1AAA 8 $AA 21AA 8 1 _
8 $A 1AAA 8 2AA 21AA 8 8 3
Sour!e: % "entral Pollution "ontrol *oard, Pollution "ontrol A!ts, +ules, and ,otifi!ations issued thereunder 'ourth edition pp -./0-.1 ,e) Delhi, "P"*, Ministry of Environ0 ment and 'orests /12 pp # TE+& Energy Data Dire!tory 3 4ear5oo6, #$$.0$7, Tata Energy +esear!h &nstitute, ,e) Delhi .
1.
!"at do t"ese Standards )ean#
Some of t"e main ,arameters listed in t"e water /ualit* disc"ar&e standards are 9riefl* discussed "ere to &i7e a wor<in& <nowled&e of w"at t"e* are and w"* t"e* are im,ortant. "olor It is an issue in d*e "ouse effluent 9ecause unli<e ot"er ,ollutants it is so 7isi9le. 4educin& color is t"erefore im,ortant for t"e ,u9lic ,erce,tion of a factor*. Conse/uentl*: international te.tile 9u*ers are increasin&l* settin& disc"ar&e standards for color. =owe7er: as a "ealt" and en7ironmental issue color is less of a concern t"an man* of t"e ot"er ,arameters. *OD and "OD )easurement of t"e o.idisa9le or&anic matter in wastewater is usuall* ac"ie7ed t"rou&" determinin& t"e 8da* 9iolo&ical o.*&en demand (-+1 ): t"e c"emical o.*&en demand (C+1) and total or&anic car9on (T+C). -+1 is a measure of t"e /uantit* of dissol7ed o.*&en used 9* microo&anisms in t"e 9ioc"emical o.idation of t"e or&anic matter in t"e wastewater o7er a 8da* ,eriod at 2AAC. T"e test "as its limitations 9ut it still used e.tensi7el* and is useful for determinin& a,,ro.imatel* "ow muc" o.*&en will 9e remo7ed from water 9* an effluent or "ow muc" ma* 9e re/uire for treatment and is t"erefore im,ortant w"enestimatin& t"e si>e of t"e ETP needed. C+1 is often used as a su9stitute for -+1 as it onl* ta<es a few "ours not fi7e da*s to determine. C+1 is a measure of t"e o.*&en e/ui7alent of t"e or&anic material c"emicall* o.idised in t"e reaction and is determined 9* addin& dic"romate in an acid solution of t"e wastewater. TDS and TSS !astewater can 9e anal*sed for total sus,ended solids (TSS) and total dissol7ed solids (T1S) after remo7al of coarse solids suc" as ra&s and &rit. 2 sam,le of wastewater is filtered t"rou&" a standard filter and t"e mass of t"e residue is used to calculate TSS. Total solids (TS) is found 9* e7a,oratin& t"e water at a s,ecified tem,erature. T1S is t"en calculated 9* su9tractin& TSS from TS. Metals 2 num9er of metals are listed in t"e national en7ironmental /ualit* standards for industrial wastewater: includin& cadmium: c"romium: co,,er: iron: lead: mercur*: nic<el and >inc. )an* metals: w"ic" are usuall* onl* a7aila9le naturall* in trace /uantities in t"e en7ironment: can 9e to.ic to "umans: ,lants: fis" and ot"er a/uatic life. P"os,"orus: Total Nitro&en: Nitrate and 2mmonia. T"ese ,arameters are all used as a measure of t"e nutrients ,resent in t"e wastewater: as a "i&" nutrient content can result in e.cessi7e ,lant &rowt" in recei7in& water 9odies: su9se/uent o.*&en remo7al and t"e deat" of a/uatic life. p8 ,= is a measure of t"e concentration of "*dro&en ions in t"e wastewater and &i7es an indication of "ow acid or al<aline t"e wastewater is. T"is ,arameter is im,ortant 9ecause a/uatic life suc" as most fis" can onl* sur7i7e in a narrow ,= ran&e 9etween rou&"l* ,= $. 8 C. Sulphur and Sulphide Te.tile d*ein& uses lar&e /uantities of sodium sul,"ate and some ot"er sul,"ur containin& c"emicals. Te.tile wastewaters will t"erefore contain 7arious sul,"ur com,ounds and once in
t"e en7ironment sul,"ate is easil* con7erted to sul,"ide w"en o.*&en "as 9een remo7ed 9* t"e -+1 of t"e effluents. T"is is a ,ro9lem 9ecause "*dro&en sul,"ide can 9e formed w"ic" is a 7er* ,oisonous &as: it also "as an un,leasant smell of rotten e&&s. T"e ,resence of sul,"ides in effluents can interfere wit" 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses. Oil and 9rease T"is includes all oils: fats and wa.es: suc" as <erosene and lu9ricatin& oils. +il and &rease cause un,leasant films on o,en water 9odies and ne&ati7el* affect a/uatic life. T"e* can also interfere wit" 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses and cause maintenance ,ro9lems as t"e* coat t"e surfaces of com,onents of ETPs. 1.$ Treatment of industrial wastewater T"e 7arious t*,es of contamination of wastewater re/uire a 7ariet* of strate&ies to remo7e t"e contamination. *rine treatment -rine treatment in7ol7es remo7in& dissol7ed salt ions from t"e waste stream. 2lt"ou&" similarities to seawater or 9rac<is" water desalination e.ist: industrial 9rine treatment ma* contain uni/ue com9inations of dissol7ed ions: suc" as "ardness ions or ot"er metals: necessitatin& s,ecific ,rocesses and e/ui,ment. -rine treatment s*stems are t*,icall* o,timi>ed to eit"er reduce t"e 7olume of t"e final disc"ar&e for more economic dis,osal (as dis,osal costs are often 9ased on 7olume) or ma.imi>e t"e reco7er* of fres" water or salts. -rine treatment s*stems ma* also 9e o,timi>ed to reduce electricit* consum,tion: c"emical usa&e: or ,"*sical foot,rint. -rine treatment is commonl* encountered w"en treatin& coolin& tower 9low down: ,roduced water from steam assisted &ra7it* draina&e (S2;1): ,roduced water from natural &as e.traction suc" as coal seam &as: frac flow9ac< water: acid mine or acid roc< draina&e: re7erse osmosis reDect: c"loro8al<ali wastewater: ,ul, and ,a,er mill effluent: and waste streams from food and 9e7era&e ,rocessin&. -rine treatment tec"nolo&ies ma* include' mem9rane filtration ,rocesses: suc" as re7erse osmosis3 ion e.c"an&e ,rocesses suc" as electro8dial*sis or wea< acid cation e.c"an&e3 or e7a,oration ,rocesses: suc" as 9rine concentrators and cr*stalli>ers em,lo*in& mec"anical 7a,or recom,ression and steam. 4e7erse osmosis ma* not 9e 7ia9le for 9rine treatment: due to t"e ,otential for foulin& caused 9* "ardness salts or or&anic contaminants: or dama&e to t"e re7erse osmosis mem9ranes from "*drocar9ons. E7a,oration ,rocesses are t"e most wides,read for 9rine treatment as t"e* ena9le t"e "i&"est de&ree of concentration: as "i&" as solid salt. T"e* also ,roduce t"e "i&"est ,urit* effluent: e7en distillate8/ualit*. E7a,oration ,rocesses are also more tolerant of or&anics: "*drocar9ons: or "ardness salts. =owe7er: ener&* consum,tion is "i&" and corrosion ma* 9e an issue as t"e ,rime mo7er is concentrated salt water. 2s a result: e7a,oration s*stems t*,icall* em,lo* titanium or du,le. stainless steel materials. Solids removal )ost solids can 9e remo7ed usin& sim,le sedimentation tec"ni/ues wit" t"e solids reco7ered as slurr* or slud&e .0er* fine solids and solids wit" densities close to t"e densit* of water ,ose s,ecial ,ro9lems. In suc" case filtration or ultra8filtration ma* 9e re/uired. 2lt"ou&": flocculation ma* 9e used: usin& alum salts or t"e addition of ,ol*8electrol*tes.
Oils and grease removal )an* oils can 9e reco7ered from o,en water surfaces 9* s<immin& de7ices. Considered a de,enda9le and c"ea, wa* to remo7e oil: &rease and ot"er "*drocar9ons from water: oil s<immers can some times ac"ie7e t"e desired le7el of water ,urit*. 2t ot"er times: s<immin& is also a cost8efficient met"od to remo7e most of t"e oil 9efore usin& mem9rane filters and c"emical ,rocesses. S<immers will ,re7ent filters from 9lindin& ,rematurel* and <ee, c"emical costs down 9ecause t"ere is less oil to ,rocess. -ecause &rease s<immin& in7ol7es "i&"er 7iscosit* "*drocar9ons: s<immers must 9e e/ui,,ed wit" "eaters ,owerful enou&" to <ee, &rease fluid for disc"ar&e. If floatin& &rease forms into solid clum,s or mats: a s,ra* 9ar: aerator or mec"anical a,,aratus can 9e used to facilitate remo7al.=owe7er: "*draulic oils and t"e maDorit* of oils t"at "a7e de&raded to an* e.tent will also "a7e a solu9le or emulsified com,onent t"at will re/uire furt"er treatment to eliminate. 1issol7in& or emulsif*in& oil usin& surfactants or sol7ents usuall* e.acer9ates t"e ,ro9lem rat"er t"an sol7in& it: ,roducin& wastewater t"at is more difficult to treat. T"e wastewaters from lar&e8 scale industries suc" as oil refineries: ,etroc"emical ,lants: c"emical ,lants: and natural &as ,rocessin& ,lants commonl* contain &ross amounts of oil and sus,ended solids. T"ose industries use a de7ice <nown as an 2PI oil8water se,arator w"ic" is desi&ned to se,arate t"e oil and sus,ended solids from t"eir wastewater effluents. T"e name is deri7ed from t"e fact t"at suc" se,arators are desi&ned accordin& to standards ,u9lis"ed 9* t"e 2merican Petroleum Institute (2PI).
2 t*,ical 2PI oil8water se,arator used in man* industries
10
T"e 2PI se,arator is a &ra7it* se,aration de7ice desi&ned 9* usin& Sto<es 6aw to define t"e rise 7elocit* of oil dro,lets 9ased on t"eir densit* and si>e. T"e desi&n is 9ased on t"e s,ecific &ra7it* difference 9etween t"e oil and t"e wastewater 9ecause t"at difference is muc" smaller t"an t"e s,ecific &ra7it* difference 9etween t"e sus,ended solids and water. T"e sus,ended solids settles to t"e 9ottom of t"e se,arator as a sediment la*er: t"e oil rises to to, of t"e se,arator and t"e cleansed wastewater is t"e middle la*er 9etween t"e oil la*er and t"e solids. T*,icall*: t"e oil la*er is s<immed off and su9se/uentl* re8,rocessed or dis,osed of: and t"e 9ottom sediment la*er is remo7ed 9* a c"ain and fli&"t scra,er (or similar de7ice) and a slud&e ,um,. T"e water la*er is sent to furt"er treatment consistin& usuall* of a Electro flotation module for additional remo7al of an* residual oil and t"en to some t*,e of 9iolo&ical treatment unit for remo7al of undesira9le dissol7ed c"emical com,ounds. Parallel ,late se,arators are similar to 2PI se,arators 9ut t"e* include tilted ,arallel ,late assem9lies (also <nown as ,arallel ,ac<s). T"e ,arallel ,lates ,ro7ide more surface for sus,ended oil dro,lets to coalesce into lar&er &lo9ules. Suc" se,arators still de,end u,on t"e s,ecific &ra7it* 9etween t"e sus,ended oil and t"e water. =owe7er: t"e ,arallel ,lates en"ance t"e de&ree of oil8water se,aration. T"e result is t"at a ,arallel ,late se,arator re/uires si&nificantl* less s,ace t"an a con7entional 2PI se,arator to ac"ie7e t"e same de&ree of se,aration.
2 t*,ical ,arallel ,late se,arator
+emoval of 5iodegrada5le organi!s -iode&rada9le or&anic material of ,lant or animal ori&in is usuall* ,ossi9le to treat usin& e.tended con7entional sewa&e treatment ,rocesses suc" as acti7ated slud&e or tric<lin& filter. Pro9lems can arise if t"e wastewater is e.cessi7el* diluted wit" was"in& water or is "i&"l* concentrated suc" as undiluted 9lood or mil<. T"e ,resence of cleanin& a&ents: disinfectants: ,esticides: or anti9iotics can "a7e detrimental im,acts on treatment ,rocesses. A!tivated sludge pro!ess
11
2cti7ated slud&e is a 9ioc"emical ,rocess for treatin& sewa&e and industrial wastewater t"at uses air (or o.*&en) and microor&anisms to 9iolo&icall* o.idi>e or&anic ,ollutants: ,roducin& a waste slud&e (or floc) containin& t"e o.idi>ed material. In &eneral: an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess includes' E 2n aeration tan< w"ere air (or o.*&en) is inDected and t"orou&"l* mi.ed into t"e wastewater. E 2 settlin& tan< (usuall* referred to as a FclarifierF or FsettlerF) to allow t"e waste slud&e to settle. Part of t"e waste slud&e is rec*cled to t"e aeration tan< and t"e remainin& waste slud&e is remo7ed for furt"er treatment and ultimate dis,osal. Tri!6ling filter pro!ess 2 tric<lin& filter consists of a 9ed of roc<s: &ra7el: sla&: ,eat moss: or ,lastic media o7er w"ic" wastewater flows downward and contacts a la*er (or film) of micro9ial slime co7erin& t"e 9ed media. 2ero9ic conditions are maintained 9* forced air flowin& t"rou&" t"e 9ed or 9* natural con7ection of air. T"e ,rocess in7ol7es adsor,tion of or&anic com,ounds in t"e wastewater 9* t"e micro9ial slime la*er: diffusion of air into t"e slime la*er to ,ro7ide t"e o.*&en re/uired for t"e 9ioc"emical o.idation of t"e or&anic com,ounds. T"e end ,roducts include car9on dio.ide &as: water and ot"er ,roducts of t"e o.idation. 2s t"e slime la*er t"ic<ens: it 9ecomes difficult for t"e air to ,enetrate t"e la*er and an inner anaero9ic la*er is formed. T"e fundamental com,onents of a com,lete tric<lin& filter s*stem are'
E 2 9ed of filter medium u,on w"ic" a la*er of micro9ial slime is ,romoted and de7elo,ed. E 2n enclosure or a container w"ic" "ouses t"e 9ed of filter medium. E 2 s*stem for distri9utin& t"e flow of wastewater o7er t"e filter medium. E 2 s*stem for remo7in& and dis,osin& of an* slud&e from t"e treated effluent. T"e treatment of sewa&e or ot"er wastewater wit" tric<lin& filters is amon& t"e oldest and most well c"aracteri>ed treatment tec"nolo&ies.2 tric<lin& filter is also often called a tric<le filter: tric<lin& 9iofilter: 9iofilter: 9iolo&ical filter or 9iolo&ical tric<lin& filter.
2 sc"ematic cross8section of t"e contact face of t"e 9ed media in a tric<lin& filter
12
2 t*,ical com,lete tric<lin& filter s*stem
Treatment of other organi!s S*nt"etic or&anic materials includin& sol7ents: ,aints: ,"armaceuticals: ,esticides: co<in& ,roducts and so fort" can 9e 7er* difficult to treat. Treatment met"ods are often s,ecific to t"e material 9ein& treated. )et"ods include 2d7anced +.idation Processin&: distillation: adsor,tion: 7itrification: incineration: c"emical immo9ilisation or landfill dis,osal. Some materials suc" as some deter&ents ma* 9e ca,a9le of 9io8 lo&ical de&radation and in suc" cases: a modified form of wastewater treatment can 9e used. Treatment of a!ids and al6alis 2cids and al<alis can usuall* 9e neutralised under controlled conditions. Neutralisation fre/uentl* ,roduces a ,reci,itate t"at will re/uire treatment as a solid residue t"at ma* also 9e to.ic. In some cases: &asses ma* 9e e7ol7ed re/uirin& treatment for t"e &as stream. Some ot"er forms of treatment are usuall* re/uired followin& neutralisation. !aste streams ric" in "ardness ions as from de8ionisation ,rocesses can readil* lose t"e "ardness ions in a 9uildu, of ,reci,itated calcium and ma&nesium salts. T"is ,reci8,itation ,rocess can cause se7ere furrin& of ,i,es and can: in e.treme cases: cause t"e 9loc<a&e of dis,osal ,i,es. Treatment is 9* concentration of de8ionisation waste waters and dis,osal to landfill or 9* careful ,= mana&ement of t"e released wastewater. Treatment of to(i! materials To.ic materials includin& man* or&anic materials: metals (suc" as >inc: sil7er: cadmium: t"allium: etc.) acids: al<alis: non8metallic elements (suc" as arsenic or selenium) are &enerall* resistant to 9iolo&ical ,rocesses unless 7er* dilute. )etals can often 9e ,reci8 ,itated out 9* c"an&in& t"e ,= or 9* treatment wit" ot"er c"emicals. )an*: "owe7er: are resistant to treatment or miti&ation and ma* re/uire concentration followed 9* land fillin& or rec*clin&. 1issol7ed or&anics can 9e incinerated wit"in t"e wastewater 9* 2d7anced +.idation Process. 1.$ Plannin& an Effluent Treatment Plant' (actors to Consider Certain factories are re/uired 9* law to install an ETP 9ut decidin& w"at t*,e of ETP to install: w"at com,onents it s"ould contain and "ow it is 9est mana&ed can 9e /uite com,licated. T"is c"a,ter aims to ,resent some sim,le ideas a9out treatment ,lants and offers ,ractical ad7ice on "ow to c"oose t"e most suita9le one for a ,articular factor*.
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2n* factor* needin& to install an ETP "as to consider se7eral factors. (or e.am,le: information a9out t"e wastewater from t"e factor* is re/uired: includin& /uantit* and /ualit*. To &et t"is information t"e factor* will "a7e to ta<e sam,les and "a7e t"em anal*sed at a re,uta9le la9orator*. Some of t"e factors to 9e considered are ,resented as follows'
What national or international standards must you !omply )ith:
;
"hoosing an Effluent Treatment Plant
;
What volume of effluent do you have:
;
What !hemi!als does it !ontain:
;
At )hat !on!entrations: e g -$m-<hour )ith "OD of .$$ppm, and p8 of %% .
;
Do you plan to in!rease produ!tion:
;
Will this in!rease the amount of effluent to 5e treated:
;
8o) mu!h !an you afford to spend on !onstru!ting an ETP:
;
8o) mu!h !an you afford to spend on running an ETP:
;
8o) mu!h land do you have availa5le, or !an you 5uy, on )hi!h to 5uild the ETP:
;
Whi!h ETP e(pert or designer should 5e used:
;
What type of plant )ill 5est suit your re=uirements: >the ans)ers that you give to the a5ove =uestions )ill help you and the designers to de!ide this?
14
;
What !apa!ity do you have in your fa!tory to manage the ETP: Do you need to hire more staff or train e(isting staff:
Treatment Methods
Effluent can 9e treated in a num9er of different wa*s de,endin& on t"e le7el of treatment re/uired. T"ese le7els are <nown as ,reliminar*: ,rimar*: secondar* and tertiar* (or ad7anced). T"e mec"anisms for treatment can 9e di7ided into t"ree 9road cate&ories' ,"*sical: c"emical and 9iolo&ical: w"ic" all include a num9er of different ,rocesses (Ta9le 1). )an* of t"ese ,rocesses will 9e used to&et"er in a sin&le treatment ,lant.
15
Ta9le 1' !astewater Treatment 6e7els and Processes
Treatment 6e7el Preliminar*
1escri,tion 4emo7al of lar&e solids suc" as ra&s: stic<s: &rit and &rease t"at ma* dama&e e/ui,ment or result in o,erational ,ro9lems
Process P"*sical
Primar*
4emo7al of floatin& and settlea9le materials suc" as sus,ended solids and or&anic matter
P"*sical and c"emical
Secondar* Tertiar*5ad7anced
4emo7al of 9iode&rada9le or&anic matter and sus,ended solids 4emo7al of residual sus,ended solids 5 dissol7ed solids
-iolo&ical and c"emical P"*sical: c"emical and 9iolo&ical
2.1 P"*sical Unit +,erations Common ,"*sical unit o,erations include amon& ot"er ,rocesses screenin&: flow e/ualisation: sedimentation: clarification and aeration. S!reening 2 screen wit" o,enin&s of uniform si>e is used to remo7e lar&e solids suc" as ,lastics: clot": ,ol*t"ene etc w"ic" ma* dama&e ,rocess e/ui,ment: reduce t"e effecti7eness of t"e ETP or contaminate waterwa*s.
'lo) E=ualisation T"ere are se7eral different ste,s in t"e industrial ,rocesses and t"erefore wastewater /ualit* and /uantit* 7aries o7er time. ETPs are usuall* desi&ned to treat wastewater t"at "as a more or less constant flow and a /ualit* t"at onl* fluctuates wit"in a narrow ran&e. T"e e/uali>ation tan< o7ercomes t"is 9* collectin& and storin& t"e waste: allowin& it to mi. and 9ecome a re&ular /ualit* 9efore it is ,um,ed to t"e treatment units at a constant rate. To determine t"e re/uired 7olume of an e/uali>ation tan< t"e "ourl* 7ariation of flow needs to 9e determined. Sedimentation and 'iltration
16
T"e flocs formed in flocculation are lar&e enou&" to 9e remo7ed 9* &ra7itational settlin&: also <nown as sedimentation. T"is is ac"ie7ed in a tan< referred to as t"e sedimentation tan<: settlin& tan< or clarifier. Sedimentation is also used to remo7e &rit and sus,ended solids: to ,roduce clarified effluent: and to t"ic<en t"e slud&e ,roduced in 9iolo&ical treatment. (locculation and sedimentation s"ould remo7e most of t"e sus,ended solids and a ,ortion of t"e -+1. Aeration 2eration is re/uired in 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses to ,ro7ide o.*&en to t"e micro8 or&anisms t"at 9rea<down t"e or&anic waste. Two main met"ods are used for t"is: eit"er mec"anical a&itation of t"e water so t"at air from t"e atmos,"ere enters t"e water: or 9* introducin& air into t"e tan< t"rou&" diffusers. 2.2 C"emical Unit Processes C"emical unit ,rocesses are alwa*s used wit" ,"*sical o,erations and ma* also 9e used wit" 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses: alt"ou&" it is ,ossi9le to "a7e a ,urel* ,"*sico8c"emical ,lant wit" no 9iolo&ical treatment. C"emical ,rocesses use t"e addition of c"emicals to t"e wastewater to 9rin& a9out c"an&es in its /ualit*. T"e* include ,= control: coa&ulation: c"emical ,reci,itation and o.idation. p8 "ontrol !aste from te.tile industries is rarel* ,= neutral. Certain ,rocesses suc" as reacti7e d*ein& re/uire lar&e /uantities of al<ali 9ut ,retreatments and some was"es can 9e acidic. It is t"erefore necessar* to adDust t"e ,= in t"e treatment ,rocess to ma<e t"e wastewater ,= neutral. T"is is ,articularl* im,ortant if 9iolo&ical treatment is 9ein& used: as t"e microor&anisms used in 9iolo&ical treatment re/uire a ,= in t"e ran&e of $8C and will 9e <illed 9* "i&"l* acidic or al<ali wastewater. 0arious c"emicals are used for ,= control. (or acidic wastes (low ,=) sodium "*dro.ide: sodium car9onate: calcium car9onate or calcium "*dro.ide: ma* 9e added amon& ot"er t"in&s. (or al<ali wastes ("i&" ,=) sul,"uric acid or "*droc"loric acid ma* 9e added. 2cids can cause corrosion of e/ui,ment and care must 9e ta<en in c"oosin& w"ic" acid to use. =*droc"oloric acid is ,ro9a9l* 9etter from an en7ironmental 7iew ,oint 9ut can corrode stainless steel t"erefore ,lastic or a,,ro,riatel* coated ,um,s and ,i,es must 9e used.
"hemi!al "oagulation and 'lo!!ulation Coa&ulation is a com,le. ,rocess 9ut &enerall* refers to collectin& into a lar&er mass t"e minute solid ,articles dis,ersed in a li/uid. C"emical coa&ulants suc" as aluminium sul,"ate (alum) or ferric sul,"ate ma* 9e added to wastewater to im,ro7e t"e attraction of fine ,articles so t"at t"e* come to&et"er and form lar&er ,articles called flocs. 2 c"emical flocculent: usuall* a ,ol*electrol*te: en"ances t"e flocculation ,rocess 9* 9rin&in& to&et"er ,articles to form lar&er flocs: w"ic" settle out more /uic<l* (locculation is aided 9* &entle mi.in& w"ic" causes t"e ,articles to collide.
Dissolved air flotation
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1issol7ed air flotation (12() is a water treatment ,rocess t"at clarifies wastewaters (or ot"er waters) 9* t"e remo7al of sus,ended matter suc" as oil or solids. T"e remo7al is ac"ie7ed 9* dissol7in& air in t"e water or wastewater under ,ressure and t"en releasin& t"e air at atmos,"eric ,ressure in a flotation tan< or 9asin. T"e released air forms tin* 9u99les w"ic" ad"ere to t"e sus,ended matter causin& t"e sus,ended matter to float to t"e surface of t"e water w"ere it ma* t"en 9e remo7ed 9* a s<immin& de7ice. 1issol7ed air flotation is 7er* widel* used in treatin& t"e industrial wastewater effluents from oil refineries: ,etroc"emical and c"emical ,lants: natural &as ,rocessin& ,lants: ,a,er mills: &eneral water treatment and similar industrial facilities. 2 7er* similar ,rocess <nown as induced &as flotation is also used for wastewater treatment. (rot" flotation is commonl* used in t"e ,rocessin& of mineral ores. In t"e oil industr*: dissol7ed &as flotation (1;() units do not use air as t"e flotation medium due to t"e e.,losion ris<. Natural &as is used instead to create t"e 9u99les.
Pro!ess des!ription T"e feed water to t"e 12( float tan< is often (9ut not alwa*s) dosed wit" a coa&ulant (suc" as ferric c"loride or aluminum sulfate) to flocculate t"e sus,ended matter. 2 ,ortion of t"e clarified effluent water lea7in& t"e 12( tan< is ,um,ed into a small ,ressure 7essel (called t"e air drum) into w"ic" com,ressed air is also introduced. T"is results in saturatin& t"e ,ressuri>ed effluent water wit" air. T"e air8saturated water stream is rec*cled to t"e front of t"e float tan< and flows t"rou&" a ,ressure reduction 7al7e Dust as it enters t"e front of t"e float tan<: w"ic" results in t"e air 9ein& released in t"e form of tin* 9u99les. T"e 9u99les ad"ere to t"e sus,ended matter: causin& t"e sus,ended matter to float to t"e surface and form a frot" la*er w"ic" is t"en remo7ed 9* a s<immer. T"e frot"8free water e.its t"e float tan< as t"e clarified effluent from t"e 12( unit. Some 12( unit desi&ns utili>e ,arallel ,late ,ac<in& material: lamellas: to ,ro7ide more se,aration surface and t"erefore to en"ance t"e se,aration efficienc* of t"e unit. 12( s*stems can 9e cate&ori>ed as circular (more efficient) and rectan&ular (more residence time). T"e former t*,e re/uires Dust 3 minutes3 an e.am,le is a !oc<oli7er 12( s*stem. T"e rectan&ular t*,e re/uires 2A to 3A minutes3 a t*,ical e.am,le is a S*s<ill 12( s*stem. +ne of t"e 9i&&er ad7anta&es of t"e circular t*,e is its s,iral scoo,. Drin6ing )ater treatment 1rin<in& water su,,lies t"at are ,articularl* 7ulnera9le to unicellular al&al 9looms: and su,,lies wit" low tur9idit* and "i&" colour often em,lo* 12(. 2fter coa&ulation and flocculation ,rocesses: water flows to 12( tan<s w"ere air diffusers on t"e tan< 9ottom
18
create fine 9u99les t"at attac" to floc resultin& in a floatin& mass of concentrated floc. T"e floatin& floc 9lan<et is remo7ed from t"e surface and clarified water is wit"drawn from t"e 9ottom of t"e 12( tan<. 2.3 -iolo&ical Unit Processes -iolo&ical treatment is an im,ortant and inte&ral ,art of an* wastewater treatment ,lant t"at treats wastewater from eit"er munici,alit* or industr* "a7in& solu9le or&anic im,urities or a mi. of t"e two t*,es of wastewater sources. T"e o97ious economic ad7anta&e: 9ot" in terms of ca,ital in7estment and o,eratin& costs: of 9iolo&ical treatment o7er ot"er treatment ,rocesses li<e c"emical o.idation3 t"ermal o.idation etc. "as cemented its ,lace in an* inte&rated wastewater treatment ,lant. -iolo&ical treatment usin& aero9ic acti7ated slud&e ,rocess "as 9een in ,ractice for well o7er a centur*. Increasin& ,ressure to meet more strin&ent disc"ar&e standards or not 9ein& allowed to disc"ar&e treated effluent "as led to im,lementation of a 7ariet* of ad7anced 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses in recent *ears. T"e o9Decti7e of 9iolo&ical treatment of industrial wastewater is to remo7e: or reduce t"e concentration of: or&anic and inor&anic com,ounds. -iolo&ical treatment ,rocess can ta<e man* forms (Ta9le 2) 9ut all are 9ased around microor&anisms: mainl* 9acteria. Ta9le 2' -iolo&ical Treatment Processes Treatment Processes Sus,ended8&rowt" ,rocesses e.&. acti7ated slud&e 1efinition T"e micro8o&anisms are maintained in sus,ension in t"e li/uid
2ttac"ed8&rowt" ,rocesses or fi.ed8film ,rocesses
T"e micro8o&anisms are attac"ed to some inert medium suc" as roc< or inert ,lastics
Com9ined ,rocesses
2 com9ination of sus,ended8&rowt" and fi.ed8film
T"ese microor&anisms use com,onents of t"e effluent as t"eir ?food@ and in doin& so 9rea< t"em down to less com,le. and less "a>ardous com,ounds. In t"e ,rocess t"e microor&anisms increase in num9er. T"ere are two main t*,es of ,rocesses: t"ese in7ol7e sus,ended micro9ial &rowt" (e.&. acti7ated slud&e) and attac"ed micro9ial &rowt" (e.&. fi.ed film). !it" 9ot" a,,roac"es lar&e ,o,ulations of microor&anisms are 9rou&"t into contact wit" effluent in t"e ,resence of an e.cess of o.*&en. In 9ot" s*stems t"e micro9ial ,o,ulation "as to 9e retained in a tan< referred to as t"e reactor. !it" sus,ended &rowt" s*stems micro9es &row in small a&&re&ates or ?flocs@ (t"is is <nown as acti7ated slud&e).
19
2cti7ated slud&e (2S) lea7es t"e reactor wit" t"e treated effluent 9ut is settled out in a clarifier and returned to t"e aeration unit to rec*cle t"e 9acteria. If t"e amount of 2S is e.cessi7e some ma* 9e dis,osed of rat"er t"an 9ein& rec*cled. In fi.ed film s*stems t"e micro9ial ,o,ulation &rows as a t"in la*er (a ?9io8film@) on t"e surface of an inert su,,ort medium. T"e classical fi.ed film s*stem is <nown as a ,ercolatin& or 9iolo&ical filter and uses small stones as a medium to su,,ort micro9ial &rowt". In t"e more modern s*stem micro9es &row on ,lastic su,,orts. In t"e traditional ,ercolatin& filters effluent is s,ra*ed o7er t"e medium and tric<les t"rou&" a ,ac<ed 9ed wit" o.*&en enterin& from t"e air. In more recent reactor desi&ns: t"e medium (usuall* ,lastic) is su9mer&ed in effluent and air is 9lown into t"e 9ase of t"e reactor. Su9mer&ed fi.ed film reactors usin& ,lastic media re/uire muc" less land. (i.ed film s*stems re/uire a final clarifier to remo7e ,articles of 9iofilm t"at 9ecome detac"ed from t"e medium. =owe7er: t"is material is not rec*cled to t"e reactor. !"ile most of t"e acti7ated slud&e is rec*cled some ma* 9e sur,lus to re/uirements and needs to 9 dis,osed of: as does detac"ed 9iofilm from fi.ed film reactors. T"is material must 9e dis,osed of a,,ro,riatel* so t"at t"e ,ollutants now ,resent in t"is slud&e do not enter t"e water c*cle. T"e treated li/uid is disc"ar&ed to t"e en7ironment or ta<en for furt"er treatment de,endin& on t"e desired standard of effluent /ualit* or t"e re/uired use of t"e wastewater. -iolo&ical treatment ,lants must 9e carefull* mana&ed as t"e* use li7e microor&anisms to di&est t"e ,ollutants. (or e.am,le some of t"e com,ounds in t"e wastewater ma* 9e to.ic to t"e 9acteria used: and ,re8treatment wit" ,"*sical o,erations or c"emical ,rocesses ma* 9e necessar*. It is also im,ortant to monitor and control ,= as ad7erse ,= ma* result in deat" of t"e microor&anisms. T"e ETP must 9e ,ro,erl* aerated and must 9e o,erated 24 "ours a da*: 3$ da*s a *ear to ensure t"at t"e 9acteria are ,ro7ided wit" sufficient ?food@ (i.e. wastewater) and o.*&en to <ee, t"em ali7e. 6i<e "umans: microor&anisms need a ?9alanced diet@ wit" sources of car9on: nitro&en: ,"os,"orus and sul,"ur. !"ile te.tile wastes "a7e enou&" car9on and sul,"ur (sul,"ate) t"e* are &enerall* lac<in& in nitro&en and ,"os,"orous containin& com,ounds. If t"e microor&anisms are to &row and wor< effecti7el* t"e* are li<el* to need addition of nutrients. Normall* materials suc" as urea and ammonium ,"os,"ate are added. It is ,ossi9le to re,lace t"ese nutrients 9* su9stitutin& t"e li/uid ,ortion of effluent from toilets: w"ic" is ric" in nitro&en and ,"os,"orus containin& c"emicals (t"e solid ,ortion ma* cause ,ro9lems). -ot" acti7ated slud&e and fi.ed film s*stems can ,roduce "i&" /ualit* effluent 9ut 9ot" "a7e ad7anta&es and disad7anta&es. In t"e 2S ,rocess: t"e settlin& and rec*clin& of 2S to t"e aero9ic reactor is 7ital: and t"e settlin& ,rocess can 9e difficult to accom,lis". (i.ed film s*stems do not re/uire rec*clin& of 9iomass and so do not "a7e t"is ,ro9lem.
Aero5i! 3 Anaero5i! -efore we &o in to t"e discussions of 7arious aero9ic 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses: it is im,ortant to 9riefl* discuss t"e terms aero9ic and anaero9ic. 2ero9ic: as t"e title su&&ests: means in t"e ,resence of air (o.*&en)3 w"ile anaero9ic means in t"e a9sence of air (o.*&en). T"ese two terms are directl* related to t"e t*,e of 9acteria or micro or&anisms t"at are in7ol7ed in t"e de&radation of or&anic im,urities in a &i7en waste water and t"e o,eratin& conditions of t"e 9ioreactor. T"erefore: aero9ic treatment ,rocesses ta<e ,lace in t"e ,resence of air and utili>e t"ose microor&anisms (also called aero9es): w"ic" use molecular5free o.*&en to assimilate or&anic im,urities i.e. con7ert t"em in to car9on dio.ide:
20
water and 9iomass. T"e anaero9ic treatment ,rocesses: on ot"er "and ta<e ,lace in t"e a9sence of air (and t"us molecular5free o.*&en) 9* t"ose microor&anisms (also called anaero9es) w"ic" do not re/uire air (molecular5free o.*&en) to assimilate or&anic im,urities. T"e final ,roducts of or&anic assimilation in anaero9ic treatment are met"ane and car9on dio.ide &as and 9iomass. Ma@or Differen!es in Aero5i! and Anaero5i! Treatment: 2ero9ic Treatment Process Princi,le' )icro9ial reactions ta<e ,lace in t"e ,resence of molecular5 free o.*&en: 4eactions ,roducts are car9on dio.ide: water and e.cess 9iomass 2,,lications' !astewater wit" low to medium or&anic im,urities (C+1 G 1AAA ,,m) and for wastewater t"at are difficult to 9iode&rade e.&. munici,al sewa&e: refiner* wastewater etc. Net Slud&e Hield' 4elati7el* "i&" Post Treatment ' T*,icall* direct disc"ar&e or filtration5disinfection E.am,le Tec"nolo&ies' 2cti7ated Slud&e e.&. E.tended 2eration: +.idation 1itc": )-4: (i.ed (ilm Processes e.&. Tric<lin& (ilter5-iotower: -2(: )--4 or =*9rid Processes e.&. I(2S 2naero9ic Treatment Process Princi,le' )icro9ial reactions ta<e ,lace in t"e a9sence of molecular5 free o.*&en : 4eactions ,roducts are car9on dio.ide: met"ane and e.cess 9iomass 2,,lications' !astewater wit" medium to "i&" or&anic im,urities (C+1 I 1AAA ,,m) and easil* 9iode&rada9le wastewater e.&. food and 9e7era&e wastewater ric" in starc"5su&ar5alco"ol Net Slud&e Hield' 4elati7el* low (&enerall* one fift" to one tent" of aero9ic treatment ,rocesses) Post Treatment ' In7aria9l* followed 9* aero9ic treatment E.am,le Tec"nolo&ies' Continuousl* stirred tan< reactor5di&ester: U,flow 2naero9ic slud&e -lan<et (U2S-): Ultra =i&" 4ate (luidi>ed -ed reactors e.&. E;S-T): ICT) etc. It is not anaero9ic or aero9ic treatment: 9ut a com9ination of t"e two t*,es of t"e tec"nolo&ies t"at &i7e an o,timum confi&uration for t"ose wastewater treatment a,,lications w"ere t"e or&anic im,urities are at a relati7el* "i&"er concentration.
Aero5i! *iologi!al Treatment Te!hnologies T"ere are multitudes of aero9ic 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocesses and tec"nolo&ies in literature and ,ractice3 "owe7er: for t"e ,ur,ose of t"is article: followin& four 9iolo&ical treatment tec"nolo&ies are descri9ed. 2fter descri,tion of eac" ,rocess and corres,ondin& ad7anta&es5"i&"li&"ts: a /ualitati7e com,arison of t"ese tec"nolo&ies is ta9ulated. T"is com,arison is 9ased on an actual wastewater treatment a,,lication for a refiner* ,roDect: w"ere t"e treatment re/uirement was meant for disc"ar&e of treated effluent to t"e sea.
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A "onventional A!tivated Sludge Pro!ess >ASP? 2cti7ated slud&e is a 9ioc"emical ,rocess for treatin& sewa&e and industrial wastewater t"at uses air (or o.*&en) and microor&anisms to 9iolo&icall* o.idi>e or&anic ,ollutants: ,roducin& a waste slud&e (or floc) containin& t"e o.idi>ed material. In &eneral: an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess includes' E 2n aeration tan< w"ere air (or o.*&en) is inDected and t"orou&"l* mi.ed into t"e wastewater. E 2 settlin& tan< (usuall* referred to as a FclarifierF or FsettlerF) to allow t"e waste slud&e to settle. Part of t"e waste slud&e is rec*cled to t"e aeration tan< and t"e remainin& waste slud&e is remo7ed for furt"er treatment and ultimate dis,osal.
T"is is t"e most common and oldest 9io8treatment ,rocess used to treat munici,al and industrial wastewater. T*,icall* wastewater after ,rimar* treatment i.e. sus,ended im,urities remo7al is treated in an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess 9ased 9iolo&ical treatment s*stem com,risin& aeration tan< followed 9* secondar* clarifier. T"e aeration tan< is a com,letel* mi.ed or a ,lu& flow (in some cases) 9ioreactor w"ere s,ecific concentration of 9iomass (measured as mi.ed li/uor sus,ended solids ()6SS) or mi.ed li/uor 7olatile sus,ended solids ()60SS)) is maintained alon& wit" sufficient dissol7ed o.*&en (1+) concentration (t*,icall* 2 m&5l) to effect 9iode&radation of solu9le or&anic im,urities measured as 9ioc"emical o.*&en demand (-+1 ) or c"emical o.*&en demand (C+1). T"e aeration tan< is ,ro7ided wit" fine 9u99le diffused aeration ,i,e wor< at t"e 9ottom to transfer re/uired o.*&en to t"e 9iomass and also ensure com,letel* mi.ed reactor. 4oots t*,e air 9lower is used to su,,l* air to t"e diffuser ,i,e wor<. In se7eral older installations: mec"anical surface aerators "a7e 9een used to meet t"e aeration re/uirement. T"e aerated mi.ed li/uor from t"e aeration tan< o7erflows 9* &ra7it* to t"e secondar* clarifier unit to se,arate out t"e 9iomass and allow clarified: treated water to t"e downstream filtration s*stem for finer remo7al of sus,ended solids. T"e se,arated 9iomass is returned to t"e aeration tan< 9* means of return acti7ated slud&e (42S) ,um,. E.cess 9iomass (,roduced durin& t"e 9iode&radation ,rocess) is wasted to t"e slud&e "andlin& and dewaterin& facilit*. * "y!li! A!tivated Sludge System >"ASSTM?:
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C*clic 2cti7ated Slud&e S*stem (C2SST)) as t"e name su&&ests is one of t"e most ,o,ular se/uencin& 9atc" reactor (S-4) ,rocesses em,lo*ed to treat munici,al wastewater and wastewater from a 7ariet* of industries includin& refineries and ,etroc"emical ,lants. 2/uatec" "as an a&reement wit" 2EC+) (erstw"ile Eart" Tec"): UJ: t"e licensor of t"is tec"nolo&* to su,,l* C2SSK tec"nolo&* in India on e.clusi7e 9asis to 9ot" munici,al and industrial mar<ets. T"is tec"nolo&* offers se7eral o,erational and ,erformance ad7anta&es o7er t"e con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. T"e C2SSK S-4 ,rocess ,erforms all t"e functions of a con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,lant (9iolo&ical remo7al of ,ollutants: solids5li/uid se,aration and treated effluent remo7al) 9* usin& a sin&le 7aria9le 7olume 9asin in an alternatin& mode of o,eration: t"ere9* dis,ensin& wit" t"e need for final clarifiers and "i&" return acti7ated slud&e ,um,in& ca,acit*.
Con7entional 2SP S*stem
T"e C*clic 2cti7ated Slud&e S*stem (C2SS T)): incor,orates a "i&" le7el of ,rocess so,"istication in a confi&uration w"ic" is cost and s,ace effecti7e and offers a met"odolo&* t"at "as o,erational sim,licit*: fle.i9ilit* and relia9ilit* t"at is not a7aila9le in con7entionall* confi&ured acti7ated slud&e s*stems. Its uni/ue desi&n ,ro7ides an effecti7e means for t"e control of filamentous slud&e 9ul<in&: a common ,ro9lem wit" con7entional ,rocesses and ot"er acti7ated slud&e s*stems. T"e essential features of t"e C2SS T) S-4 tec"nolo&* are t"e ,lu&8flow initial reaction conditions and com,lete8mi. reactor 9asin. T"e reactor 9asin is di7ided 9* 9affle walls into t"ree sections (Lone 1' Selector: Lone 2' Secondar* 2eration: Lone 3' )ain 2eration). Slud&e 9iomass is intermittentl* rec*cled from Lone 3 to t"e Lone 1 to remo7e t"e readil* de&rada9le solu9le su9strate and fa7or t"e &rowt" of t"e floc8formin& microor&anisms. S*stem desi&n is suc" t"at t"e slud&e return rate causes an a,,ro.imate dail* c*clin& of 9iomass in t"e main aeration >one t"rou&" t"e selector >one. No s,ecial mi.in& e/ui,ment or formal ano.ic mi.in& se/uences are re/uired to meet t"e effluent disc"ar&e o9Decti7es.
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T"e 9asin confi&uration and mode of o,eration ena9les com9ined nitro&en and ,"os,"orous remo7al mec"anisms to ta<e ,lace t"rou&" a sim,le Mone8s"otN control of t"e aeration. C2SST) utili>es a sim,le re,eated time89ased se/uence w"ic" incor,orates' E (ill O 2eration (for 9iolo&ical reactions) E (ill O Settle (for solids8li/uid se,aration) E 1ecant (to remo7e treated effluent) Advantages of "ASSTM: T"e C2SST) S-4 ma.imi>es o,erational' sim,licit*: relia9ilit* and fle.i9ilit*. Im,ortant reasons for c"oosin& C2SST) S-4 o7er con7entional constant 7olume acti7ated slud&e aeration and clarifier ,rocess include' E +,erates under continuous reduced loadin& t"rou&" sim,le c*cle adDustment. E +,erates wit" feed8star7e selecti7it*: So5Po o,eration (control of limitin& su9strate to micro8or&anism ratio): and aeration intensit* to ,re7ent filamentous slud&e 9ul<in& and ensures endo&enous res,iration (remo7al of all a7aila9le su9strate): nitrification and denitrification to&et"er wit" en"anced 9iolo&ical ,"os,"orus remo7al. E Simultaneous (co8current) nitrification and denitrification 9* 7ariation of aeration intensit*. E Tolerates s"oc< load caused 9* or&anic and "*draulic load 7aria9ilit*. T"e s*stem is easil* confi&ured and adDusted for s"ort8term diurnal and lon&8term seasonal 7ariations.
Elimination of se!ondary !larifier
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E Elimination of se,arate load e/uali>ation. T"e C2SS T) S-4 9asin is in itself an e/uali>ation 9asin and a clarifier wit" a muc" lower solids flu.: com,ared to con7entional clarifier desi&n. E In"erent a9ilit* to remo7e nutrients wit"out c"emical addition: 9* controllin& t"e o.*&en demand and su,,l*. E Pro7ision for ener&* o,timi>ation t"rou&" nutrient remo7al mec"anisms. T"e feed water car9onaceous -+1 used in denitrification and en"anced 9iolo&ical ,"os,"orus remo7al reduces o7erall o.*&en demand and "ence ener&* re/uirement. E Ca,ital and o,eratin& cost ad7anta&es E )inimum foot,rint and reduced land re/uirement. E Pro7ision for eas* ,lant e.,ansion t"rou&" sim,le modular and common wall construction. C2SST) incor,orates a selector >one: w"ic" offers an o,erational fle.i9ilit* t"at is not o9taina9le in ot"er 7aria9le 7olume: and constant 7olume: acti7ated slud&e facilities. T"e selector ena9les a sim,le cost effecti7e measure for relia9le ,lant scale8u, wit"out encounterin& filamentous slud&e 9ul<in&. T"e selector o,erates efficientl* from ,lant start8u, to desi&n loadin& conditions. No adDustments to t"e return slud&e flow rate are necessar*. T"e incor,oration of a suita9l* si>ed "i&" rate ,lu&8flow selector in front of t"e com,lete8mi. unit com9ines t"e elements of t"e ,rocess w"ic" offer a sta9le and relati7el* uniform le7el of meta9olic acti7it* of t"e slud&e in t"e com,lete8mi. 7olume. +,eration is t"erefore insensiti7e to influent flow and concentration 7ariation. C2SST) S-4 desi&ns "a7e 9een a7aila9le in t"e mar<et,lace since 1BCAs. It is si&nificant t"at t"e de7elo,ment of 7aria9le 7olume ,rocesses "a7e incor,orated t"e selector tec"nolo&* to ena9le scale8u, in t"e 1BBAs to lar&e multi,le 9asin modules of around A );1 (2AA:AAA m35d). Toda*: it is a well8esta9lis"ed and ,ro7en tec"nolo&* for munici,al and industrial wastewater treatment. T"e cost effecti7eness of t"e facilities: t"eir com,actness and t"eir sim,licit* of o,eration ,ro7ide t"e consultin& en&ineer or contractor wit" a 7er* stron& ar&ument to ma<e t"e a7aila9le mone* for wastewater treatment s,read a lot furt"er. " &ntegrated 'i(ed 'ilm A!tivated Sludge >&'AS? System: T"ere are se7eral industrial installations w"ere two sta&e 9iolo&ical treatment com,risin& stone or ,lastic media tric<lin& filter (also <nown as ,ac<ed 9ed 9iotower) followed 9* acti7ated slud&e ,rocess 9ased aeration tan<: followed 9* secondar* clarifier "a7e 9een in o,eration. 2not"er modification of a9o7e confi&uration t"at "as 9een im,lemented in newer industrial wastewater treatment s*stems is fluidi>ed media 9ioreactor (also <nown as mo7in& 9ed 9ioreactor ()--4)) in lieu of 9iotower followed 9* acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. In some of t"e industries (e.&. refineries and ,etroc"emical ,lants: w"ere t"e e.istin& wastewater treatment s*stem was sin&le sta&e con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,rocess (9ased on aeration tan< and clarifier unit): t"at underwent ca,acit* e.,ansion and5or faced stricter disc"ar&e re&ulations: t"e u,8&radation of acti7ated lud&e ,rocess 9*
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Inte&rated (i.ed (ilm 2cti7ated S*stem (I(2S)
addition of fluidi>ed 9io8media "as 9een im,lemented to meet t"ese re/uirements.T"is "*9rid ,rocess of fluidi>ed media and acti7ated slud&e ,rocess ta<in& ,lace in a sin&le aeration tan< is <nown as Inte&rated (i.ed (ilm 2cti7ated Slud&e (I(2S) ,rocess. T"e common ad7anta&es of all of t"e a9o7e descri9ed confi&urations are as follows' E (i.ed film media ,ro7ides additional surface area for 9iofilm to &row on it and de&rade t"e or&anic im,urities t"at are resistant to 9iode&radation or ma* e7en 9e to.ic to some e.tent. E T"e o7erall efficienc* of two sta&e 9iotreatment s*stem is 9etter t"an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess alone. E (i.ed film ,rocesses are more effecti7e in nitrification of t"e wastewater t"an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. E T"e o7erall foot8,rint for a fi.ed film ,rocess 9ased s*stem is smaller t"an t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess s*stem. E 1ue to less slud&e wasta&e: t"e slud&e "andlin& and dewaterin& facilit* is smaller com,ared to t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. Com,arin& I(2S wit" ot"er confi&urations i.e. 9iotower followed 9* acti7ated slud&e or )--4 followed 9* acti7ated slud&e: followin& ad7anta&es for I(2S can 9e "i&"li&"ted' E It can 9e easil* incor,orated in t"e e.istin& acti7ated slud&e s*stem to meet additional ,rocessin& ca,acit* re/uirement and5or stricter disc"ar&e re&ulations wit"out t"e need of additional concrete tan<s. E (oot8,rint of I(2S is smaller. E Ca,ital and o,eratin& cost for I(2S is lower. D Mem5rane *iorea!tor >M*+?: )em9rane -ioreactor ()-4) is t"e latest tec"nolo&* for 9iolo&ical de&radation of solu9le or&anic im,urities. )-4 tec"nolo&* "as 9een in e.tensi7e usa&e for treatment of domestic sewa&e: 9ut for industrial waste treatment a,,lications: its use "as 9een somew"at limited or selecti7e. T"e )-4 ,rocess is 7er* similar to t"e con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,rocess: in t"at 9ot" "a7e mi.ed li/uor solids in sus,ension in an aeration tan<. T"e difference in t"e two ,rocesses lies in t"e met"od of se,aration of 9io8 solids. In t"e )-4 ,rocess: t"e 9io8solids are se,arated 9* means of a ,ol*meric mem9rane 9ased on microfiltration or ultrafiltration unit: as a&ainst t"e &ra7it* settlin& ,rocess in t"e secondar* clarifier in con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. T"erefore: t"e
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ad7anta&es of )-4 s*stem o7er con7entional acti7ated slud&e s*stem are o97ious as listed 9elow' E )em9rane filtration ,ro7ides a ,ositi7e 9arrier to sus,ended 9io8solids t"at t"e* cannot esca,e t"e s*stem unli<e &ra7it* settlin& in acti7ated slud&e ,rocess: w"ere t"e 9io8solids continuousl* esca,e t"e s*stem alon& wit" clarified effluent and sometimes a total loss of solids is also encountered due to ,rocess u,sets causin& slud&e89ul<in& in t"e clarifier. 2s a result: t"e 9io8solids concentration measured as )6SS5)60SS can 9e maintained at 3 to 4 times in an )-4 ,rocess (Q 1A:AAA m&5l) in com,arison to t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess (Q2 AA m&5l). E 1ue to t"e a9o7e as,ect of )-4: aeration tan< si>e in t"e )-4 s*stem can 9e one8t"ird to one8fourt" t"e si>e of t"e aeration tan< in an acti7ated slud&e s*stem. (urt"er: instead of &ra7it* settlin& 9ased clarifier: a muc" more com,act tan< is needed to "ouse t"e mem9rane cassettes in case of su9mer&ed )-4 and s<id mounted mem9rane modules in case of non8su9mer&ed: e.ternal )-4 s*stem. E T"us: )-4 s*stem re/uires onl* 4A8$AR of t"e s,ace re/uired for acti7ated slud&e s*stem: t"erefore si&nificantl* reducin& t"e concrete wor< and o7erall foot8,rint.
Sc"ematic of con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,rocess (to,) and e.ternal (sidestream) mem9rane 9ioreactor (9ottom)
E 1ue to mem9rane filtration (micro5ultrafiltration): t"e treated effluent /ualit* in case of )-4 s*stem is far su,erior com,ared to con7entional acti7ated slud&e: so t"e treated effluent can 9e directl* reused as coolin& tower ma<e8u, or for &ardenin& etc. T*,ical treated water /ualit* from )-4 s*stem is' E -+1 G m&56 E Tur9idit* G A.2 NTU
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M*+ !onfigurations &nternal<su5merged T"e filtration element is installed in eit"er t"e main 9ioreactor 7essel or in a se,arate tan<. T"e mem9ranes can 9e flat s"eet or tu9ular or com9ination of 9ot": and can incor,orate an online 9ac<was" s*stem w"ic" reduces mem9rane surface foulin& 9* ,um,in& mem9rane ,ermeate 9ac< t"rou&" t"e mem9rane. In s*stems w"ere t"e mem9ranes are in a se,arate tan< to t"e 9ioreactor indi7idual trains of mem9ranes can 9e isolated to underta<e cleanin& re&imes incor,oratin& mem9rane soa<s: "owe7er t"e 9iomass must 9e continuousl* ,um,ed 9ac< to t"e main reactor to limit )6SS concentration increase. 2dditional aeration is also re/uired to ,ro7ide air scour to reduce foulin&. !"ere t"e mem9ranes are installed in t"e main reactor: mem9rane modules are remo7ed from t"e 7essel and transferred to an offline cleanin& tan<. E(ternal<sidestream T"e filtration elements are installed e.ternall* to t"e reactor: often in a ,lant room. T"e 9iomass is eit"er ,um,ed directl* t"rou&" a num9er of mem9rane modules in series and 9ac< to t"e 9ioreactor: or t"e 9iomass is ,um,ed to a 9an< of modules: from w"ic" a second ,um, circulates t"e 9iomass t"rou&" t"e modules in series. Cleanin& and soa<in& of t"e mem9ranes can 9e underta<en in ,lace wit" use of an installed cleanin& tan<: ,um, and ,i,e wor<. 2n e.ternal: non8su9mer&ed t*,e )-4 for industrial a,,lications es,eciall* in refineries and ,etroc"emical wastewater a,,lications: is t"e 2/ua8E)-4 (2/uatec"Ns En"anced )em9rane -ioreactor). 2/ua8E)-4 "as 9een successfull* ,iloted to treat wastewater from a ,etroc"emical ,lant in middle8East. 2/ua8E)-4 filtrate was furt"er ,rocessed t"rou&" =i&" Efficienc* 4e7erse +smosis (=E4+T)) ,rocess to reco7er BAR "i&" /ualit* ,ermeate. T"e ,ermeate /ualit* was suita9le for its rec*cle as feed to t"e deminerali>er s*stem. T"e ad7anta&es of 2/ua8E)-4 o7er su9mer&ed )-4 s*stems include' 2/ua8E)-4 s*stem (mem9rane modules) "as no mem9rane tan< En"anced )em9rane -ioreactor). 2/ua8E)-4 "as 9een successfull* ,iloted to treat wastewater from a ,etroc"emical ,lant in middle8East. 2/ua8E)-4 filtrate was furt"er ,rocessed t"rou&" =i&" Efficienc* 4e7erse +smosis (=E4+T)) ,rocess to reco7er BAR "i&" /ualit* ,ermeate. T"e ,ermeate /ualit* was suita9le for its rec*cle as feed to t"e deminerali>er s*stem. T"e ad7anta&es of 2/ua8E)-4 o7er su9mer&ed )-4 s*stems include' 2/ua8E)-4 s*stem (mem9rane modules) "as no mem9rane tan<: it can 9e 9uilt muc" /uic<er wit" less ris<s for contractors' Installed as s<id(s) on a flat concrete sla9: no com,le. ci7il wor<s re/uired. Ci7il wor<s and s<id assem9l* are inde,endent and ,arallel acti7ities. 6ess ris< for contractors 9ecause of dela*s in ci7il wor<s due to weat"er conditions: en7ironmental or ot"er local uncertainties.
T"e s*stem offers an o,erator friendl* wor<in& en7ironment as o,,osed to o9no.ious en7ironment in case of su9mer&ed s*stems' +,erators donNt see: smell or come in contact wit" t"e 9io8slud&e.
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+,erators do not wor< on to, of o,en mem9rane tan<s w"ere t"e air could contain "armful aerosols.
In case of an* maintenance issue: t"e mem9rane modules in 2/ua8E)-4 can 9e remo7ed or re,laced wit"out an* contact wit" t"e 9ioslud&e: w"ereas su9mer&ed mem9rane modules contaminated wit" slud&e: "a7e to 9e lifted out of tan<s ,osin& ,otential contact wit" t"e slud&e. E T"e flu. is Q AR "i&"er w"ic" e/uates to AR less surface area of mem9rane needed ,er unit 7olume ,ermeate ,roduction. T"is results in' 6owest mem9rane cost ,er unit 7olume filtrate: resultin& in lower ca,ital and o,eratin& costs. Smallest foot,rint (a9out 2AR less). 6owest maintenance costs (c"emicals: man8"ours etc.). E Electrical ,ower consum,tion is 1A to 1 R lower com,ared to su9mer&ed s*stems due to t"e use of airlift ,um, effect. E 2/ua8E)-4 "as t"e ti&"test mem9rane ,ore si>e' Pore si>e nominal 5 ma.imum' 3A nm 5 A nm Tur9idit* of ,ermeate' G A.2 NTU TSS le7els' G A. m&5l =i&"est effluent /ualit* is an im,ortant factor for re8use ,ur,oses and future re&ulations.
2/ua8E)-4 S*stem
Ma@or !onsiderations in M*+ 'ouling and fouling !ontrol T"e )-4 filtration ,erformance ine7ita9l* decreases wit" filtration time. T"is is due to t"e de,osition of solu9le and ,articulate materials onto and into t"e mem9rane: attri9uted to t"e interactions 9etween acti7ated slud&e com,onents and t"e mem9rane. T"is maDor draw9ac< and ,rocess limitation "as 9een under in7esti&ation since t"e earl* )-4s:and remains one of t"e most c"allen&in& issues facin& furt"er )-4 de7elo,ment:. In recent re7iews co7erin& mem9rane a,,lications to 9ioreactors: it "as 9een s"own t"at: as wit" ot"er mem9rane se,aration ,rocesses: mem9rane foulin& is t"e most serious ,ro9lem affectin& s*stem ,erformance. (oulin& leads to a si&nificant increase in "*draulic
29
resistance: manifested as ,ermeate flu. decline or transmem9rane ,ressure (T)P) increase w"en t"e ,rocess is o,erated under constant8T)P or constant8flu. conditions res,ecti7el*. In s*stems w"ere flu. is maintained 9* increasin& T)P: t"e ener&* re/uired to ac"ie7e filtration increases. 2lternati7el* fre/uent mem9rane cleanin& is t"erefore re/uired: increasin& si&nificantl* t"e o,eratin& costs as a result of cleanin& a&ents and ,roduction downtime. )ore fre/uent mem9rane re,lacement is also e.,ected.)em9rane foulin& results from interaction 9etween t"e mem9rane material and t"e com,onents of t"e acti7ated slud&e li/uor: w"ic" include 9iolo&ical flocs formed 9* a lar&e ran&e of li7in& or dead microor&anisms alon& wit" solu9le and colloidal com,ounds. T"e sus,ended 9iomass "as no fi.ed com,osition and 7aries 9ot" wit" feed water com,osition and )-4 o,eratin& conditions em,lo*ed. T"us t"ou&" man* in7esti&ations of mem9rane foulin& "a7e 9een ,u9lis"ed: t"e di7erse ran&e of o,eratin& conditions and feedwater matrices em,lo*ed: t"e different anal*tical met"ods used and t"e limited information re,orted in most studies on t"e sus,ended 9iomass com,osition: "as made it difficult to esta9lis" an* &eneric 9e"a7iour ,ertainin& to mem9rane foulin& in )-4s s,ecificall*. T"e air8induced cross flow o9tained in su9mer&ed )-4 can efficientl* remo7e or at least reduce t"e foulin& la*er on t"e mem9rane surface. 2 recent re7iew re,orts t"e latest findin&s on a,,lications of aeration in su9mer&ed mem9rane confi&uration and descri9es t"e en"ancement of ,erformances offered 9* &as 9u99lin&. 2s an o,timal air flow8rate "as 9een identified 9e"ind w"ic" furt"er increases in aeration "a7e no effect on foulin& remo7al: t"e c"oice of aeration rate is a <e* ,arameter in )-4 desi&n. )an* ot"er anti8 foulin& strate&ies can 9e a,,lied to )-4 a,,lications. T"e* com,rise: for e.am,le' E Intermittent ,ermeation: w"ere t"e filtration is sto,,ed at re&ular time inter7al for a cou,le of minutes 9efore 9ein& resumed. Particles de,osited on t"e mem9rane surface tend to diffuse 9ac< to t"e reactor3 t"is ,"enomenon 9ein& increased 9* t"e continuous aeration a,,lied durin& t"is restin& ,eriod. E )em9rane 9ac<was"in&: w"ere ,ermeate water is ,um,ed 9ac< to t"e mem9rane: and flow t"rou&" t"e ,ores to t"e feed c"annel: dislod&in& internal and e.ternal foulants. 2ir 9ac<was"in&: w"ere ,ressuri>ed air in t"e ,ermeate side of t"e mem9rane 9uild u, and release a si&nificant ,ressure wit"in a 7er* s"ort ,eriod of time. )em9rane modules t"erefore need to 9e in a ,ressurised 7essel cou,led to a 7ent s*stem. 2ir usuall* does not &o t"rou&" t"e mem9rane. If it did: t"e air would dr* t"e mem9rane and a rewet ste, would 9e necessar*: 9* ,ressuri>in& t"e feed side of t"e mem9rane. In addition: different t*,es5intensities of c"emical cleanin& ma* also 9e recommended' E C"emicall* en"anced 9ac<was" (dail*)3 E )aintenance cleanin& wit" "i&"er c"emical concentration (wee<l*)3 E Intensi7e c"emical cleanin& (once or twice a *ear). Intensi7e cleanin& is also carried out w"en furt"er filtration cannot 9e sustained 9ecause of an ele7ated transmem9rane ,ressure (T)P). Eac" of t"e four main )-4 su,,liers (Ju9ota: )emcor: )itsu9is"i and Lenon) "a7e t"eir own c"emical cleanin& reci,es: w"ic" differ mainl* in terms of concentration and met"ods. Under normal conditions: t"e ,re7alent cleanin& a&ents remain Na+Cl (Sodium =*,oc"lorite) and citric acid. It is common for )-4 su,,liers to ada,t s,ecific ,rotocols for c"emical cleanin&s (i.e. c"emical concentrations and cleanin& fre/uencies) for indi7idual facilities.
30
*iologi!al performan!es<6ineti!s "OD removal and sludge yield: Sim,l* due to t"e "i&" num9er of microor&anism in )-4s: t"e ,ollutants u,ta<e rate can 9e increased. T"is leads to 9etter de&radation in a &i7en time s,an or to smaller re/uired reactor 7olumes. In com,arison to t"e con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,rocess (2SP) w"ic" t*,icall* ac"ie7es B R: C+1 remo7al can 9e increased to B$OBBR in )-4s (see ta9le). C+1 and -+1 remo7al are found to increase wit" )6SS concentration. 29o7e 1 &56 C+1 remo7al 9ecomes almost inde,endent of 9iomass concentration at IB$R. 2r9itrar* "i&" )6SS concentrations are not em,lo*ed: "owe7er: as o.*&en transfer is im,eded due to "i&"er and non8Newtonian fluid 7iscosit*. Jinetics ma* also differ due to easier su9strate access. In 2SP: flocs ma* reac" se7eral 1AA Sm in si>e. T"is means t"at t"e su9strate can reac" t"e acti7e sites onl* 9* diffusion w"ic" causes an additional resistance and limits t"e o7erall reaction rate (diffusion controlled). =*drod*namic stress in )-4s reduces floc si>e (to 3. Sm in sidestream )-4s) and t"ere9* increases t"e a,,arent reaction rate. 6i<e in t"e con7entional 2SP: slud&e *ield is decreased at "i&"er S4T or 9iomass concentration. 6ittle or no slud&e is ,roduced at slud&e loadin& rates of A.A1 <&C+15(<&)6SS d). -ecause of t"e im,osed 9iomass concentration limit: suc" low loadin& rates would result in enormous tan< si>es or lon& =4Ts in con7entional 2SP. ,utrient removal Nutrient remo7al is one of t"e main concerns in modern wastewater treatment es,eciall* in areas t"at are sensiti7e to eutro,"ication. 6i<e in t"e con7entional 2SP: currentl*: t"e most widel* a,,lied tec"nolo&* for N8remo7al from munici,al wastewater is nitrification com9ined wit" denitrification. -esides ,"os,"orus ,reci,itation: en"anced 9iolo&ical ,"os,"orus remo7al (E-P4) can 9e im,lemented w"ic" re/uires an additional anaero9ic ,rocess ste,. Some c"aracteristics of )-4 tec"nolo&* render E-P4 in com9ination wit" ,ost8denitrification an attracti7e alternati7e t"at ac"ie7es 7er* low nutrient effluent concentrations.
31
Anaero5i! M*+s 2naero9ic )-4s (sometimes a99re7iated 2n)-4) were introduced in t"e 1BCAs in Sout" 2frica and currentl* see a renaissance in researc". =owe7er: anaero9ic ,rocesses are normall* used w"en a low cost treatment is re/uired t"at ena9les ener&* reco7er* 9ut does not ac"ie7e ad7anced treatment (low car9on remo7al: no nutrients remo7al). In contrast: mem9rane89ased tec"nolo&ies ena9le ad7anced treatment (disinfection): 9ut at "i&" ener&* cost. T"erefore: t"e com9ination of 9ot" can onl* 9e economicall* 7ia9le if a com,act ,rocess for ener&* reco7er* is desired: or w"en disinfection is re/uired after anaero9ic treatment (cases of water reuse wit" nutrients). If ma.imal ener&* reco7er* is desired: a sin&le anaero9ic ,rocess will 9e alwa*s su,erior to a com9ination wit" a mem9rane ,rocess. 4ecentl*: anaero9ic )-4s "a7e seen successful full8scale a,,lication to t"e treatment of some t*,es of industrial wastewatersTt*,icall* "i&"8stren&t" wastes. E.am,le a,,lications include t"e treatment of alco"ol stilla&e wastewater in Ua,an and t"e treatment of salad dressin&59ar9e/ue sauce wastewater in t"e United State. M**+ 0 Moving *ed *io0film +ea!tor !it" t"e )o7in& 9ed -ioreactor ()--4) an economicall* solution is offered for wastewater treatment if t"e F9ul<F of t"e ,ollution load must 9e dis,osed of (as means of cost reduction) or if a,,lica9le disc"ar&e re&ulations are not as strict. !it" t"is a,,lication we offer ad7anced wastewater treatment solutions for t"e industrial and munici,al mar<ets. T"ese solutions si&nificantl* increase t"e ca,acit* and efficienc* of e.istin& wastewater treatment ,lants: w"ile minimi>in& t"e si>e of new ,lant de,lo*ments. T"is met"od ma<es it ,ossi9le to attain &ood efficienc* results of dis,osal wit" low ener&* consum,tion. T"is ,rocess is used for t"e remo7al of or&anic su9stances: nitrification and denitrification. T"e )--4 s*stem consists of an acti7ated slud&e aeration s*stem w"ere t"e slud&e is collected on rec*cled ,lastic carriers. T"ese carriers "a7e an internal lar&e surface for o,timal contact water: air and 9acteria. T"e 9acteria5acti7ated slud&e &row on t"e internal surface of t"e carriers. T"e 9acteria 9rea< down t"e or&anic matter from t"e waste water. T"e aeration s*stem <ee,s t"e carriers wit" acti7ated slud&e in motion. +nl* t"e e.tra amount of 9acteria &rowt": t"e e.cess slud&e will come se,arate from t"e carriers and will flow wit" t"e treated water towards t"e final se,arator.
T"e carrier material used inside a )--4 s*stem
T"e s*stem can consist of a one sta&e or more sta&e s*stem (see underneat" sc"edule): de,endin& on t"e s,ecific demands. T"e s,ecific 9acteria remain in t"eir own dut* tan< 9ecause of t"e fact t"at t"e carriers remain in onl* 1 tan<: ,rotected 9* screens.
32
T"e )--4 ,rocess can 9e used for a 7ariet* of different a,,lications to attain t"e desired results: de,endin& on t"e /ualit* of t"e wastewater and t"e disc"ar&e re&ulations. Industrial a,,lications E Ca,acit* increase E Vualit* Im,ro7ement O -+1 W Nitro&en 4emo7al E (ast reco7er* from Process U,sets E 6imited (oot,rint E (uture E.,ansion E )inimi>e Process Com,le.it* and +,erator 2ttention -enefits E Economical 7er* attracti7e E Com,act (sa7es s,ace) E )aintenance8friendl* E Stron& E =i&" 7olume load E Sim,l* to e.tend E (inancial sa7in&s on disc"ar&e costs Com,arison of 2ero9ic -iolo&ical Treatment +,tions C2SST) Parameter Con7entional 2SP )eets s,ecified disc"ar&e standards wit" additional filtration ste, )eets5 e.ceeds s,ecified disc"ar&e standards wit"out additional filtra8 tion ste, 0er* &ood E.ceeds s,ecified disc"ar&e standards wit"out additional filtration ste,. 0er* &ood for rec*cle ,ro7ided T1S le7el ,ermits I(2S )-4
Treated Effluent Vualit*
)eets5e.ceeds s,ecified disc"ar&e standards wit" additional filtration ste, 0er* &ood
29ilit* to adDust to 7aria9le 27era&e "*draulic and ,ollutant loadin&
0er* &ood
33
Pretreatment 4e/uirement
Sus,ended im,urities e.&. oil W &rease and TSS remo7al 27era&e
Sus,ended im,urities e.&. oil W &rease and TSS remo7al
Sus,ended im,urities e.&. oil W &rease and TSS remo7al
(ine screenin& for sus,ended im,urities li<e "air and almost com,lete oil W &rease remo7al Poor W detrimental to mem9rane Clarifier is re,laced 9* )em9rane filtration
29ilit* to co,e wit" in&ress of oil
;ood
27era&e
Secondar* Clari8 fier Needed 4e/uirement
2eration -asin acts as clarifier
Needed
Com,le.it* to o,erate W control 4elia9ilit* W Pro7en8ness of Tec"nolo&*
Sim,le: 9ut not o,erator friendl*
+,erator friendl*
+,erator friendl*
4e/uires s<illed o,erators
27era&e
0er* &ood
0er* &ood
6imited references in industrial a,,lications 0er* =i&"
Ca,ital Cost
6ow
6ow
=i&"
+,eratin& Cost
6ow
6ow
=i&"
0er* =i&"
S,ace 4e/uirement
=i&"
6ow
27era&e
6ow
-ased on t"ese com,arisons: it can 9e inferred t"at C2SS T) tec"nolo&* is su,erior to ot"er aero9ic 9iolo&ical treatment tec"nolo&ies in terms of o7erall life c*cle cost and returns to t"e owner.
34
3.
+,eration and control
+,eratin& data from wastewater treatment ,lants "as &enerated some useful o,erational control strate&ies. Some of t"ese control met"ods include' )i.ed li/uor sus,ended solids Slud&e 0olume Inde. and Slud&e 1ensit* Inde. Slud&e 2&e3 )ean Cell 4esidence Time ()C4T) (ood5)ass 4atio Constant )6SS 4eturn 2cti7ated Slud&e Control (42S)
3.1 )i.ed li/uor sus,ended solids )i.ed li/uor sus,ended solids ()6SS) is t"e concentration of sus,ended solids: in an aeration tan< durin& t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess: w"ic" occurs durin& t"e treatment of waste water. T"e units )6SS is ,rimaril* measured in are milli&rams ,er litre (m&56). )i.ed li/uor is a com9ination of raw or unsettled wastewater and acti7ated slud&e wit"in an aeration tan<. )6SS consists mostl* of microor&anisms and non89iode&rada9le sus,ended matter. )6SS is an im,ortant ,art of t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess to ensure t"at t"ere is a sufficient /uantit* of acti7e 9iomass a7aila9le to consume t"e a,,lied /uantit* of or&anic ,ollutant at an* time. T"is is <nown as t"e food to mass ratio: more commonl* notated as t"e (5) ratio. -* maintainin& t"is ratio at t"e a,,ro,riate le7el t"e 9iomass will consume "i&" ,ercenta&es of t"e food. T"is minimi>es t"e loss of residual food in t"e treated effluent. In sim,le terms: t"e more t"e 9iomass consumes t"e lower t"e 9ioc"emical o.*&en demand (-+1) will 9e in t"e disc"ar&e. It is im,ortant t"at )6SS remo7es -+1 in order to ,urif* water for clean drin<in& water and "*&iene. 4aw sewa&e enters in t"e water treatment ,rocess wit" a concentration of sometimes se7eral "undred m&56 of -+1. U,on 9ein& treated wit" )6SS and ot"er met"ods of treatment: t"e concentration of -+1 in water is lowered to less t"an 2 m&56: w"ic" is considered to 9e clean: safe to use water.T"e total wei&"t of )6SS wit"in an aeration tan< can 9e calculated 9* multi,l*in& t"e concentration of )6SS (m&56) in t"e aeration tan< 9* t"e tan< 7olume (6). Overvie) )6SS is res,onsi9le for remo7in& t"e 9ioc"emical o.*&en demand ma<e8u, of a lar&e ,ortion of t"e solids t"at are retained in t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess wit"in t"e water treatment ,rocess. T"e* are t"e Facti7eF ,art of acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. )i.ed li/uor sus,ended solids are "e solids under aeration. )6SS is measured 9* filterin& a <nown 7olume of t"e mi.ed li/uor sam,le: w"ic" is t"e same wa* t"at sus,ended solids are
35
measured in wastewater. Some of t"e )6SS ma* 9e inor&anic material. Sometimes t"is ma* re,resent a lar&e ,ercenta&e of t"e solids ,resent in t"e wastewater. En7ironmental en&ineerin& focuses on t"e ,articles sus,ended in water and t"e suita9le o,eration of water treatment ,lants. T"erefore: it is im,ortant to measure t"e total mass of sus,ended solids: w"ic" is t"e )6SS: as well as t"e mass of or&anic matter sus,ended in t"e acti7ated slud&e unit. T"ese measurements allow en&ineers to adDust t"e flow rate of return slud&e from t"e secondar* clarifier into t"e secondar* treatment reactor. T"is ensures t"at influent or&anic matter will 9e treated wit" a correct concentration of microor&anisms. Mi(ed li=uor volatile suspended solids T"e ,ortion of t"e )6SS t"at is actuall* eatin& t"e incomin& food is referred to as t"e )i.ed 6i/uor 0olatile Sus,ended Solids ()60SS). T"e 7olatile solids concentration in a sam,le of mi.ed li/uor will consist mostl* of microor&anisms and or&anic matter. 2s a result: t"e 7olatile solids concentration of mi.ed li/uor is a,,ro.imatel* e/ual to t"e amount of microor&anisms in t"e water and can 9e used to determine w"et"er t"ere are enou&" microor&anisms ,resent to di&est t"e slud&e. +emoval pro!ess )6SS is remo7ed 9* secondar* treatment in a settlin& tan< in t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. Effe!ts of MASS in )ater treatment If )6SS content is too "i&" E T"e ,rocess is ,rone to 9ul<in& of solids and t"e treatment s*stem can 9ecome o7erloaded. E T"is can cause t"e dissol7ed o.*&en content to dro,3 if t"e effect t"at t"e or&anic matter is not full* de&raded. E E.cessi7e aeration will 9e re/uired w"ic" wastes electricit*. If )6SS content is too low E T"e ,rocess is not o,eratin& efficientl* and is wastin& ener&*. T"e t*,ical control 9and for t"e concentration of )6SS in wastewater is 2:AAA to 4:AAA m&56. +ne of t"e easiest control ,rocedures for acti7ated slud&e s*stems is t"e Constant )i.ed 6i/uor Sus,ended Solids met"od. In t"is met"od: t"e o,erator selects a certain )6SS concentration or ran&e of mi. li/uor concentrations t"at ,roduce t"e 9est effluent and t"e "i&"est remo7al efficiencies. T"is s,ecific 7alue or ran&e must 9e determined e.,erimentall*. !"en t"e o,erator finds t"e o,timum )6SS concentration for eac" ,lant: "e attem,ts to maintain t"is 7alue 9* adDustin& t"e slud&e wastin& rate. +ne rule of t"um9 for acti7ated slud&e s*stems is t"at for e7er* ,ound of -+1 remo7ed in t"e secondar* s*stem a "alf a ,ound of new solids is &enerated t"rou&" re,roduction of t"e or&anisms and addition of new or&anisms from t"e influent wastes. So: t"e o,erator tries to waste t"e ,ro,er amount of solids to <ee, "is selected o,timum mi. li/uor concentration constant.
36
If t"e )6SS concentration is a9o7e t"e desired concentration: t"e wastin& of t"e e.cess solids will "a7e to 9e started or increased. If t"e )6SS concentration is 9elow t"e desired concentration le7el: wastin& s"ould 9e decreased or sto,,ed. "al!ulations of MASS )6SS (m&56) X YS0(1AAA m&5&)Z5S0I !"ere' S0IX slud&e 7olume inde. (m65&) S0X 0olume of settled solids ,er 1 litre AX(V[Vr)(P\)8(VrP\r[VwP\r) !"ere' V X wastewater flow rate (m35d) Vr X return slud&e flow rate (m35d) P\ X )6SS (&5m3) P\r X ma.imum return slud&e concentration (&5m3) Vw X slud&e wastin& flow rate (m35d) Estimating MABSS )aterials' +9tain a sam,le of mi.ed li/uor. Transfer t"e sam,le into a la9orator* in order to anal*>e it. )easure t"e sam,le 7olume wei&"t of t"e sam,le. 4emo7e two filters from a desiccator and record t"e wei&"t of eac". Place t"e filter "older on a 7acuum flas< and t"en ,lace anot"er filter on to, of t"e filter "older 9* usin& a ,air of twee>ers. Stir t"e sam,le of mi.ed li/uor in order to &et a &ood mi.ture for t"e e.,eriment. 2fter sam,le is mi.ed ,our m6 into a &raduated c*linder. Turn on t"e 7acuum ,um, and ,our t"e sam,le into t"e filter "older. 2fter all t"e mi.ed li/uor "as &one t"rou&": run t"ree ,ortions of 1A m6 distilled water t"rou&" t"e filter "older to rinse an* ,articles t"at ma* "a7e stuc< to t"e &lass. 2llow t"e 7acuum ,um, to run an additional t"ree minutes. T"is will "el, remo7e an* e.tra water from t"e filter 9efore dr*in&. Switc" t"e 7acuum ,um, off and remo7e t"e filter from t"e filter "older and ,lace in t"e corres,ondin& wei&"in& dis". 4e,eat a9o7e ,rocess for as man* trials as needed. Place t"e filter(s) into a dr*in& o7en: w"ic" is set to 1A3]81A ] C: for one "our. U,on dr*in&: re,lace filters into a desiccator for 3A minutes. 2fter 3A minutes in t"e desiccator: t"e filters are to 9e wei&"ed. "al!ulations )60SS (m&56) X Y(2 8 -)^1AAAZ_Y0olume of sam,leZ !"ere' 2 is t"e sam,le and filter wei&"t - is t"e wei&"t of t"e filter 3.2 Slud&e 0olume Inde. Slud&e 0olume Inde. (S0I) is an indication of t"e slud&e settlea9ilit* in t"e final clarifier. It is a useful test t"at indicates c"an&es in t"e slud&e settlin& c"aracteristics and /ualit*.
37
-* definition: t"e S0I is t"e 7olume of settled slud&e in millliliters occu,ied 9* 1 &ram of dr* slud&e solids after 3A minutes of settlin& in a 1AAA ml &raduated c*linder or a settleometer. 2 liter of mi. li/uor sam,le is collected at or near t"e outlet of t"e aeration tan<: settled for 3A minutes in a 1 liter &raduated c*linder: and t"e 7olume occu,ied 9* t"e slud&e is re,orted in milliliters. T"e S0I is com,uted 9* di7idin& t"e result of t"e settlin& test in ml5liter 9* t"e )6SS concentration in m&56 in t"e aeration tan< times 1AAA.
8or8
T"e common ran&e for an S0I at a con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,lant s"ould 9e 9etween A and 1 A. +,timum S0I must 9e determined for eac" e.,erimentall*. Sludge Density &nde( Slud&e 1ensit* Inde. is used li<e t"e S0I to determine slud&e settlin& c"aracteristics and return slud&e ,um,in& rates. S1I is com,uted 9*'
T"e common o,erational ran&e for S1I is 1.A 8 2. . T"e S0I and S1I inde.es relate t"e wei&"t of slud&e to t"e 7olume t"at t"e slud&e occu,ies and attem,ts to s"ow "ow well t"e acti7ated slud&e se,arates from t"e mi. li/uor. Slud&es wit" a low S0I ("i&" S1I) "a7e &ood settlin& and com,action c"aracteristics. 3.3 Slud&e 2&e T"e concentration of t"e acti7ated slud&e solids and t"e condition of t"ose 9iolo&ical solids determines t"e effecti7eness of an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. Too few or too man* or&anisms in a s*stem will cause o,erational control ,ro9lems: reducin& treatment ,lant efficienc* and causin& an added load on t"e recei7in& waters. Slud&e a&e is defined as t"e a7era&e time in da*s t"e sus,ended solids remain in t"e entire s*stem. To successfull* maintain a 7ia9le 9iolo&ical ,o,ulation and to maintain t"e ,ro,er concentration of solids: t"e s*stem re/uires continuous o9ser7ation and monitorin& 9* t"e o,erator. Slud&e a&e is one of t"e met"ods or tools a7aila9le to t"e o,erator to "el, maintain t"e desired amount of solids in t"e aeration tan<. Slud&e a&e is a relati7el* eas* control ,arameter to monitor 9ecause t"e sus,ended solids in t"e aeration tan< are eas* to measure. Slud&e a&e considers t"e' 1. solids enterin& t"e aerator3 measured as ,rimar* effluent sus,ended solids in m&56: and
38
2. solids or or&anisms a7aila9le to de&rade t"e wastes3 measured as )i.ed 6i/uor Sus,ended Solids: m&56 Slud&e a&e is estimated as follows'
T"e common ran&e for slud&e a&e for a con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,lant is 9etween 3 and 1 da*s. (or e.tended aeration acti7ated slud&e ,lants t"e ran&e is 9etween a9out 1 and 3A da*s. ;enerall* durin& t"e winter mont"s: "i&"er slud&e a&es are re/uired to maintain a sufficient 9iolo&ical mass. In t"e summer time: 9iolo&ical acti7it* increases and lower slud&e a&es normall* ,roduce a "i&"er /ualit* effluent. T"us: t"e slud&e a&e s"ould 9e adDusted at least twice a *ear to accommodate seasonal 7ariations. T"e o,erator must reali>e: "owe7er: t"at t"e o,timum slud&e a&e ma* not fall in t"e common ran&es &i7en "ere. T"is is due to t"e fact t"at t"e waste c"aracteristics: ,rocess desi&n: fle.i9ilit* in o,eration: and ,rocess control e/ui,ment are different for all facilities. T"e o,erator: 9* trial and error: can find t"e o,timum slud&e a&e for t"at ,articular ,lant and s,ecific conditions. 2 low slud&e a&e tends to ,roduce a li&"t: fluff*: 9uo*ant t*,e of slud&e ,article commonl* referred to as stra&&ler floc: w"ic" settles slowl* in a final clarifier. T"is will 9e witnessed in a clarifier w"en t"ese 9uo*ant: fluff* slud&e ,articles are 9ein& ,ulled o7er t"e weirs e7en t"ou&" t"e effluent ma* 9e cr*stal clear. 2 "i&" slud&e a&e or too man* solids in t"e s*stem tends to ,roduce a dar<er: more &ranular t*,e of slud&e ,article: commonl* called ,in floc: w"ic" settles too fast in a final clarifier. Pin floc is o9ser7ed as man* fine tin* floc ,articles comin& o7er t"e final clarifier weirs lea7in& a 7er* tur9id effluent. Mean "ell +esiden!e Time >M"+T? 2not"er o,erational a,,roac" for solids control: li<e t"e slud&e a&e: is t"e mean cell residence time ()C4T) or Solids 4etention Time (S4T). T"is ,arameter is a refinement of t"e slud&e a&e and ta<es into consideration t"e total solids in7entor* in t"e secondar* or 9iolo&ical s*stem. 2&ain: t"e desired )C4T for a &i7en ,lant must 9e found e.,erimentall* Dust li<e t"e slud&e a&e. T"e )C4T is calculated as'
3.4 (ood5)ass 4atio T"e (ood5)ass or t"e (ood5)icroor&anism ratio commonl* referred to as (5) is 9ased u,on t"e ratio of food fed to t"e microor&anisms eac" da* to t"e mass of microor&anisms "eld under aeration. It is a sim,le calculation: usin& t"e results from t"e influent -+1 test to t"e aerator and t"e mi.ed li/uor sus,ended solids test. Usin& t"e C+1 test ma* 9e ,referred 9ecause t"e results are a7aila9le sooner t"an t"e fi7e da* -+1.
39
Common ran&es for (5) for a con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,lant are from A.1 to A. . T"ese 7alues refer to calculations 9ased on t"e da* -+1 test. T"e o,timum (5) 7aries from ,lant to ,lant and can 9e determined 9* trial and error. ;enerall*: low (5) ratios s"ould 9e carried durin& t"e colder mont"s. T"e (5) ratio is calculated as follows'
^T"e mi.ed li/uor 7olatile sus,ended solids ()60SS) ma* 9e a more accurate estimate of t"e mass of microor&anisms t"an )6SS. 3. Constant )i.ed 6i/uor Sus,ended Solids
+ne of t"e easiest control ,rocedures for acti7ated slud&e s*stems is t"e Constant )i.ed 6i/uor Sus,ended Solids met"od. In t"is met"od: t"e o,erator selects a certain )6SS concentration or ran&e of mi. li/uor concentrations t"at ,roduce t"e 9est effluent and t"e "i&"est remo7al efficiencies. T"is s,ecific 7alue or ran&e must 9e determined e.,erimentall*. !"en t"e o,erator finds t"e o,timum )6SS concentration for eac" ,lant: "e attem,ts to maintain t"is 7alue 9* adDustin& t"e slud&e wastin& rate. +ne rule of t"um9 for acti7ated slud&e s*stems is t"at for e7er* ,ound of -+1 remo7ed in t"e secondar* s*stem a "alf a ,ound of new solids is &enerated t"rou&" re,roduction of t"e or&anisms and addition of new or&anisms from t"e influent wastes. So: t"e o,erator tries to waste t"e ,ro,er amount of solids to <ee, "is selected o,timum mi. li/uor concentration constant. If t"e )6SS concentration is a9o7e t"e desired concentration: wastin& of t"e e.cess solids will "a7e to 9e started or increased. If t"e )6SS concentration is 9elow t"e desired concentration le7el: wastin& s"ould 9e decreased or sto,,ed. +,erators s"ould <ee, in mind t"at in most cases it is 9etter to waste continuousl* o7er 24 "rs5da*: se7en da*s a wee< t"an to waste intermittentl*. 1rastic c"an&es in slud&e wastin& rates are undesira9le. Increases or decreases in wastin& s"ould 9e made &raduall*: i.e.: 2A 8 2 ,ercent ,er da*. 3.$ 4eturn 2cti7ated Slud&e Control To ,ro,erl* o,erate t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess: a &ood settlin& mi.ed li/uor must 9e ac"ie7ed and maintained. T"e )6SS are settled in a clarifier and t"en returned to t"e aeration tan< as t"e 4eturn 2cti7ated Slud&e (42S). T"e 42S ma<es it ,ossi9le for t"e microor&anisms to 9e in t"e treatment s*stem lon&er t"an t"e flowin& wastewater. (or con7entional acti7ated slud&e o,erations: t"e 42S flow is &enerall* a9out 2A to 4A ,ercent of t"e incomin& wastewater flow. C"an&es in t"e acti7ated slud&e /ualit* will re/uire different 42S flow rates due to settlin& c"aracteristics of t"e slud&e.
40
T"ere are two 9asic a,,roac"es t"at can 9e used to control t"e 42S flow rate. T"ese a,,roac"es are 9ased on t"e followin&' 1. Controllin& t"e 42S flow rate inde,endentl* from t"e influent flow. 2. Controllin& t"e 42S flow rate as a constant ,ercenta&e of t"e influent flow. "onstant +AS 'lo) +ate "ontrol Settlin& t"e 42S at a constant flow rate t"at is inde,endent of t"e aeration tan< influent wastewater flow rate results in a continuousl* 7ar*in& )6SS concentration t"at will 9e at a minimum durin& ,ea< influent flows and a ma.imum durin& minimum influent flows. T"is occurs 9ecause t"e )6SS are flowin& into t"e clarifier at a lower rate durin& ,ea< flow w"en 9ein& remo7ed at a constant rate. Similarl*: at minimum influent flow rates: t"e )6SS are 9ein& returned to t"e aeration tan< at a "i&"er rate t"an are flowin& into t"e clarifier. T"e aeration tan< and t"e secondar* clarifier must 9e loo<ed at as a s*stem w"ere t"e )6SS are stored in t"e aeration tan< durin& minimum wastewater flow and t"en transferred to t"e clarifier as t"e wastewater flows initiall* increase. In essence: t"e clarifier acts as a stora&e reser7oir for t"e )6SS: and t"e clarifier "as a constantl* c"an&in& de,t" of slud&e 9lan<et as t"e )6SS mo7es from t"e aeration tan< to t"e clarifier and 7ice 7ersa. T"e ad7anta&e of usin& t"is a,,roac" is sim,licit*: 9ecause it minimi>es t"e amount of effort for control. It is also es,eciall* ad7anta&eous for small ,lants 9ecause of limited fle.i9ilit*. "onstant Per!entage +AS 'lo) +ate "ontrol T"e second a,,roac" to controllin& 42S flow rate re/uires a ,ro&rammed met"od for maintainin& a constant ,ercenta&e of t"e aeration tan< influent wastewater flow rate. T"e ,ro&ram ma* consist of an automatic flow measurement de7ice: a ,ro&rammed s*stem: or fre/uent manual adDustments. T"e ,ro&rammed met"od is desi&ned to <ee, t"e )6SS more constant t"rou&" "i&" and low flow ,eriods. Com,arison of -ot" 42S Control 2,,roac"es T"e ad7anta&es of t"e constant 42S flow a,,roac" are as follows' 1. Sim,licit*. 2. )a.imum solids loadin& on t"e clarifier occurs at t"e initial start of ,ea< flow ,eriods. 3. 4e/uires less o,erational time. T"e ad7anta&es of t"e constant ,ercenta&e 42S flow are t"e followin&' 1. 0ariations in t"e )6SS concentration are reduced and t"e (5) 7aries less. 2. T"e )6SS will remain in t"e clarifier for s"orter time ,eriods: w"ic" ma* reduce t"e ,ossi9ilit* of denitrification in t"e clarifier. 2 disad7anta&e of usin& t"e constant flow a,,roac" is t"at t"e (5) is constantl* c"an&in&. T"e ran&e of (5) fluctuation due to t"e effect of s"ort term 7ariation in t"e )6SS (9ecause of "*draulic loadin&) is &enerall* small enou&" so t"at no si&nificant ,ro9lems arise due to usin& t"is a,,roac". T"e most si&nificant disad7anta&e of t"e second a,,roac" is t"at t"e clarifier is su9Dected to ma.imum solids loadin& w"en t"e clarifier contains t"e ma.imum amount of slud&e. T"is ma* result in solids was"out wit" t"e effluent.
41
In &eneral: it a,,ears t"at most acti7ated slud&e o,erations ,erform well and re/uire less attention w"en t"e constant 42S flow rate a,,roac" is used. 2cti7ated slud&e ,lants wit" flows of 1A million &allon ,er da* or less are often su9Dect to lar&e "*draulic sur&es: and ,erformance of t"ese ,lants will 9enefit t"e most from t"e use of t"is a,,roac".
Operational 9uidelines T"ou&" t"ese o,eratin& ,arameters are widel* used: t"e details of t"e o,eratin& ,rocedure will 7ar* at different acti7ated slud&e ,lants: de,endin& on t"e t*,e of facilities a7aila9le: stren&t" and c"aracter of t"e wastewater: tem,eratures: re/uirements of t"e recei7in& waters: etc. T"e 9est o,eratin& ,rocedure for eac" ,lant must 9e determined 9* e.,erience. Some &uidelines t"at ma* 9e a,,lied to a con7entional acti7ated slud&e ,lant are' 1. T"ere must 9e sufficient aeration to maintain a dissol7ed o.*&en concentration of at least two m&56 at all times t"rou&"out t"e aeration tan<s. 2. 1issol7ed o.*&en s"ould 9e ,resent at all times in t"e treated wastewater in t"e final settlin& tan<s. 3. 2cti7ated slud&e must 9e returned continuousl* from t"e final settlin& tan<s to t"e aeration tan<s. 4. +,timum rate of returnin& acti7ated slud&e will 7ar* wit" eac" installation and wit" different load factors. In &eneral: it will ran&e from 2A to 4A ,ercent of t"e influent wastewater flow for diffused air and 1A to 4A ,ercent for mec"anical aeration units. . T"e o,timum mi. li/uor sus,ended solids concentration in t"e aeration tan<s ma* 7ar* considera9l*: 9ut usuall* is in t"e ran&e of $AA to 3AAA m&56. +,timum )6SS concentrations s"ould 9e determined e.,erimentall* for eac" ,lant. $. 2 slud&e 7olume inde. of a9out 1AA and a slud&e a&e of t"ree to fifteen da*s are normal for most ,lants. !"en t"e o,timum slud&e 7olume inde. is esta9lis"ed for a ,lant: it s"ould 9e maintained wit"in a reasona9l* narrow ran&e. 2 su9stantial increase in S0I is a warnin& of trou9le a"ead. %. T"e sus,ended solids content in t"e aeration tan<s ma* ,artiall* 9e controlled 9* t"e amount of slud&e returned to t"em. 2ll slud&e in e.cess of t"at needed in t"e aeration tan<s must 9e remo7ed from t"e s*stem. It s"ould 9e remo7ed in small amounts continuousl* or at fre/uent inter7als rat"er t"an in lar&e amounts at an* one time. Slud&e "eld too lon& in t"e final settlin& tan< will 9ecome se,tic: lose its acti7it* and de,lete t"e necessar* dissol7ed o.*&en content in t"e t"e tan<. C. Se,tic conditions in t"e ,rimar* sedimentation tan<s will ad7ersel* affect t"e functionin& of t"e acti7ated slud&e ,rocess. Prec"lorination or ,re8aeration ma* 9e used to forestall se,tic conditions in t"e wastewater enterin& t"e aeration tan<s. Se,tic ,rimaries "a7e 9een s"own to cause filamentous 9ul<in&. B. Periodic or sudden or&anic o7erloads t"at ma* result from lar&e amounts of slud&e di&ester o7erflow to t"e ,rimar* tan<s or from doses of industrial wastes "a7in& an e.cessi7e -+1 or containin& to.ic c"emicals will usuall* cause o,eratin& difficulties. !"ene7er ,ossi9le: o7erloadin& s"ould 9e minimi>ed 9* controllin& t"e disc"ar&e or 9* ,retreatment of suc" deleterious wastes.
42
T"e 9asic indicator of normal ,lant o,eration is t"e /ualit* of t"e ,lant effluent. (ailure of ,lant efficienc* ma* 9e due to eit"er of t"e two most common ,ro9lems encountered in t"e o,eration of an acti7ated slud&e ,lant: namel*: risin& slud&e and 9ul<in& slud&e.
'inal "larifi!ation (or an acti7ated slud&e ,rocess to ac"ie7e o,timum ,lant efficienc* t"e final clarification unit must effecti7el* se,arate t"e 9iolo&ical solids from t"e mi. li/uor. If t"ese solids are not se,arated ,ro,erl* and remo7ed from t"e clarifier in a relati7el* s"ort ,eriod of time: o,eratin& ,ro9lems will result: causin& an increased load on t"e recei7in& waters and a decline in ,lant efficienc*. T"e most im,ortant function of t"e final clarifier is to maintain t"e wastewater /ualit* ,roduced 9* t"e ,recedin& ,rocesses. Design "onsiderations (inal clarifiers s"ould 9e desi&ned wit" ra,id slud&e wit"drawal s*stems to in"i9it t"e tendenc* of t"e slud&e to 9ecome anaero9ic if not remo7ed /uic<l*. T"e tan<s s"ould 9e sufficientl* 9affled to reduce 7elocities and to dis,erse t"e flow e7enl* to reduce s"ort8circuitin&. S"ort8circuitin& will tend to increase t"e solids losses o7er t"e clarifier weirs. 2lso: final clarifiers s"ould include some t*,e of surface s<immin& de7ice to remo7e floatin& solids and scum. (inal clarifiers s"ould 9e desi&ned wit" a "*draulic detention time from 2 8 2 "ours. Operational Pro5lems )ith 'inal "larifiers T"e o,erator must <ee, in mind t"at man* o,eratin& ,ro9lems in t"e final clarifier can 9e associated wit" o,eratin& ,ro9lems in t"e ,recedin& ,rocesses: i.e. mainl* t"e aeration s*stem. 1. (loatin& Solids' T"is is commonl* referred to as Fclum,in&F: Fas"in&F or Frisin& slud&eF. (loatin& solids are usuall* due to a "i&" slud&e a&e (too man* solids in s*stem) or too lon& of a solids detention time in t"e final clarifier. 4emedies' 1. 1ecrease solids in7entor* (increase wastin& rate) 2. 4emo7e solids from final clarifier /uic<er 3. C"ec< for an* dead s,ots in clarifier w"ere solids are not 9ein& collected and remo7ed. 2 "ea7* accumulation of solids on t"e surface of a clarifier ma* 9e alle7iated 9* s,ra*in& t"e surface wit" a "i&" ,ressure "ose to <noc< t"e solids down. 1. Solids Aosses Over Effluent Weirs: E.cessi7e solids losses in t"e final clarifier can 9e t"e result of "*draulic o7erload or due to t"e t*,e and c"aracteristics of t"e 9iolo&ical solids ,resent. Stra&&ler (loc is indicati7e of a *oun& slud&e w"ic" tends to settle slowl*. T"is t*,e of floc consists of li&"t: fluff*: 9uo*ant ,articles. T"is situation can 9e intensified 9* s"ort8circuitin& and "*draulic o7erloads. 4emedies' Increase solids in7entor* 9* decreasin& t"e wastin& rate to ,roduce an older slud&e w"ic" tends to settle faster. C"ec< clarifier for s"ort8circuitin&.
43
Calculate detention time and c"ec< for "*draulic o7erloadin&. Pin (loc is indicati7e of an older slud&e w"ic" tends to settle too fast: lea7in& man* fine sus,ended ,articles in t"e su,ernatant and a tur9id effluent. T"e slud&e ,articles are usuall* dar<er: "ea7ier and more &ranular in a,,earance. 4emedies' Increase slud&e wastin& rate to decrease solids in7entor*. C"ec< for s"ort8circuitin& and "*draulic o7erload.
2. 'ouling of Weirs: 2n accumulation of solids and5or on t"e weir surfaces can cause s"ort8circuitin& wit"in t"e tan<: creatin& e.cessi7e 7elocit* currents t"at ,ull solids o7er t"e effluent weirs. 4emedies' 2 t"orou&" scru99in& of weir surfaces to remo7e solids 9uild8u,. Stron& c"lorine solutions a,,lied to t"e weirs is also effecti7e. Plu&&in& of !it"drawal Ports is usuall* caused 9* too "i&" of a solids concentration in t"e return slud&e. 4emed*' !it"draw slud&e faster and5or more fre/uentl*. +ising Sludge' Unli<e 9ul<in& t"e ,ro9lem of risin& slud&e is onl* seen in t"e final settlin& tan< and "as definite o,erational causes and it can 9e corrected t"rou&" an understandin& of t"e s*stem and defined mana&ement ,ractices. T"e 9iolo&ical o.idation of a wastewater "as 9een descri9ed as a two8,"ase reaction w"ere or&anic car9on o.idation occurs first and is usuall* followed 9* t"e 9iolo&ical o.idation of ammonia or nitrification. 1omestic wastewaters: as alread* noted: 9esides "a7in& or&anic: car9on containin& com,ounds alwa*s contain ammonia. ;enerall*: ,rolon&ed aeration or or&anic underloadin& of a 9iolo&ical wastewater treatment ,lant can result in a condition w"ere o.idation of most of t"e or&anic matter occurs (t"at is: car9on is con7erted to car9on dio.ide) and nitrification follows. T"is ,rocess of nitrification in7ol7es t"e con7ersion of ammonia: nitro&en and or&anic nitro&en to nitrate nitro&en. T"e nitrates t"at are formed in t"e aeration tan< t"en flow into t"e final settlin& tan< w"ere /uiescent settlin& and solids remo7al will ta<e ,lace. If t"e dissol7ed o.*&en le7els are sufficientl* low in t"e settlin& tan< and t"ere is some or&anic matter a7aila9le: denitrificaton will ta<e ,lace. 4isin& slud&e is caused 9* denitrification in w"ic" nitrites and nitrates in t"e wastewater are reduced to nitro&en &as. 1enitrification occurs in t"e slud&e la*er in t"e secondar* clarifier w"en conditions 9ecome anaero9ic or nearl* anaero9ic. 2s t"e nitro&en &as accumulates: t"e slud&e mass 9ecomes 9uo*ant and rises or floats to t"e surface. 4isin& slud&e can easil* 9e differentiated from a 9ul<in& slud&e 9* notin& t"e ,resence of small &as 9u99les attac"ed to t"e floatin& solids and 9* microsco,ic e.amination. T"is ,ro9lem can 9e o7ercome 9* increasin& t"e remo7al rate of t"e slud&e from slud&e8collectin& mec"anism: 9* re&ulation of t"e flows (loadin&) and monitorin& of t"e dissol7ed o.*&en le7els in t"e final settlin& tan<. 'ilamentous *ul6ing' ;enerall*: non8flocculent or non8settlin& micro9ial &rowt" is t"e result of eit"er su,,ressin& t"e normal wastewater treatment 9acteria or ,romotin& conditions fa7ora9le to filamentous microor&anisms: suc" as fun&i or actinom*cetes w"ic" cannot 9e settled readil*. T"e ,resence of filamentous microor&anisms to t"e ,oint w"ere t"e* interfere wit" settlin& is called 9ul<in&. T"is condition ma* 9e seen in t"e
44
aeration tan<s of acti7ated slud&e ,rocesses and is sometimes accom,anied 9* frot"in&. T"e solids do not settle in t"e final settlin& tan< and a "omo&eneous 9lan<et of solids will ,our out o7er t"e effluent weirs: es,eciall* durin& diurnal ,ea< flow 7ariations. (ilamentous 9ul<in& can 9e reco&ni>ed t"rou&" a microsco,ic e.amination of t"e mi. li/uor and o9ser7in& t"e ,resence of t"ese microor&anisms in t"e flocculent material t"at does not settle. Under filamentous 9ul<in& conditions t"e ,resence of filaments is o97ious and t"e filaments can 9e seen ,re7entin& more normal loo<in& flocs from comin& to&et"er. T"e conditions associated wit" filamentous 9ul<in& are not alwa*s well understood: 9ut "a7e 9een associated wit" "i&" or&anic loadin&s: ,= c"an&es: low ,= wastewaters: in,uts of industrial wastes: low dissol7ed o.*&en le7els: seasonal 7ariations: se,tic ,rimaries: and an im,ro,er 9alance 9etween car9on: nitro&en and ,"os,"orous in t"e waste. T"e ,ro9lem of 9ul<in& is not eas* to deal wit" since its causes cannot alwa*s 9e identified. =owe7er: a careful re7iew of t"e o,eratin& records wit" res,ect to ,=: loadin&: and aeration tan< 1+: )6SS: etc. is alwa*s useful in attem,tin& to de7elo, relations"i,s 9etween ,oor o,eratin& conditions and 9ul<in&. Careful records and trendin& as well as a close control o7er o,eratin& conditions and a <nowled&e of in,uts into t"e wastewater s*stem is useful. !"en 9ul<in& of acti7ated slud&e is caused 9* o7erloadin&: ,re8c"lorination to reduce t"e load on t"e aeration ,rocess "as 9een tried wit" some success. Pre8c"lorination of t"e ,rimar* tan< influent to ,roduce a residual of a9out A.1 m&56 in t"e ,rimar* tan< effluent is used. Pre8c"lorination of t"e ,rimar* tan< influent is ,articularl* useful in controllin& se,ticit*. C"lorination of t"e return acti7ated slud&e can control filamentous 9ul<in&. T"e ,oint of a,,lication s"ould 9e w"ere t"e return slud&e will 9e in contact wit" t"e c"lorine solution for a9out one minute 9efore t"e slud&e is mi.ed wit" t"e aerator influent. T"e c"lorine dose is 7aried accordin& to t"e 7ariations in t"e slud&e 7olume inde. and ma* 9e estimated as follows' S0I . ( . ! . C.34 . 1A$ X ,ounds of c"lorine ,er da* w"ere' S0I X Slud&e 0olume Inde. ( X 4eturn slud&e rate in million &allons ,er da* ! X Sus,ended solids in return slud&e in m&56 C"lorine dosa&es can 9etter 9e determined 9* trial and error. In &eneral: c"lorination of a 9ul<in& slud&e will reduce t"e slud&e 7olume inde.: t"us t"e dose is reduced dail* until 9ul<in& is corrected. In some ,lants intermittent c"lorination will maintain a low slud&e 7olume inde.: and in ot"ers continuous c"lorination of t"e return slud&e "as ,ro7en more satisfactor*. ;enerall*: w"en c"lorination of t"e return slud&e is started: t"e tur9idit* of t"e ,lant effluent will increase: 9ut after a few da*s of o,eration t"e tur9idit* will a&ain decrease to t"at of normal conditions. E.tensi7e wastin& of t"e 9iolo&ical slud&e to reduce t"e filamentous or&anisms also "as ,ro7en to 9e somew"at effecti7e in alternatin& a 9ul<in& situation. T"e o,erator must reali>e t"at t"ese measures are onl* tem,orar* ste,s to alle7iate 9ul<in& and t"at t"e ,ro9lem ma* rea,,ear if t"e cause is not identified and corrected.
45
4. C"oosin& an Effluent Treatment Plant

E7er* factor* t"at is "a7in& an ETP desi&ned and constructed must decide w"ic" com,onents are needed to treat t"e waste from t"at ,articular factor*. T"is decision must 9e 9ased on t"e answers to t"e /uestions ,resented in C"a,ter 1: suc" as t"e /ualit* and /uantit* of t"e wastewater to 9e treated. T"is c"a,ter ,ro7ides su&&estions of "ow suc" an ETP ma* 9e desi&ned and discusses t"e ad7anta&es and disad7anta&es. T"ree models are used for t"is: a ,urel* 9iolo&ical ETP: a ,"*sico8c"emical ETP and an ETP t"at com9ines all t"ree. T"is c"a,ter does not ,rescri9e one ,articular desi&n and t"ere are man* ot"er wa*s of com9inin& t"e o,erations and ,rocesses descri9ed in c"a,ter 2 t"at would also 9e "i&"l* effecti7e. 4.1 -iolo&ical Treatment T"e 9asic units needed for 9iolo&ical treatment are' screenin&3 an e/uali>ation unit3 a ,= control unit3 an aeration unit3 and a settlin& unit ((i&ure 1). 2 slud&e dewaterin& unit ma* also 9e included. -iolo&ical treatment ,lants re/uire t"e ,resence of microor&anisms t"at are ada,ted to de&rade t"e com,onents of t"e effluent to 9e treated. Te.tile industr* waste will not contain suita9le microor&anisms so t"ese must 9e added to t"e ETP w"en it is set u,. Traditionall* in Sout" 2sia cow dun& is used as a source of microor&anisms. !"ile it ma* 9e useful to use cow dun& it is unli<el* to 9e t"e 9est source of micro9es for treatment of te.tile waste. If ,ossi9le new reactors (eit"er acti7ated slud&e or fi.ed film s*stems) s"ould 9e set u, usin& acti7ated slud&e from an e.istin& ETP: ,refera9l* one treatin& a similar waste. If t"is is not ,ossi9le ,olluted ri7er water is li<el* to 9e a &ood source of suita9le microor&anisms and can 9e used to&et"er wit" cow dun& or acti7ated slud&e. It is li<el* to ta<e se7eral mont"s for t"e micro9ial ,o,ulation to esta9lis" itself and successful treatment to result. Output =uality E7idence s"ows t"at out,ut /ualit* from 9iolo&ical treatment can satisf* t"e national standards for most of t"e re/uired ,arameters e.ce,t colour. 2ccordin& to )etcalf W Edd* (2AA3) a ,ro,erl* desi&ned 9iolo&ical ETP can efficientl* satisf* -+1: ,=: TSS: oil and &rease re/uirements. =owe7er: as alread* mentioned: t"e com,ounds in industrial wastewater ma* 9e to.ic to t"e microor&anisms so ,retreatment ma* 9e necessar*. Similarl* most d*es are com,le. c"emicals and are difficult for micro9es to de&rade so t"ere is usuall* 7er* little colour remo7al. (i&ure 1' T*,ical (low 1ia&ram of a -iolo&ical Treatment Plant
46
*n&luent
Screening unit
Equilisation unit
pH control unit
"reated e&&luent
Sedimentation unit
sludge
eration unit!!
Sludge rec'cle Sludge de%atering unit
(iquid o)er&lo%
Sludge "#ic$ening unit (iquid o)er&lo%
!sludge
Sludge disposal
(iquid o)er&lo%
C A sludge re!y!le line is essential for a!tivated sludge systems 5ut is not needed for fi(ed film systems CC The aeration unit !an 5e either a!tivated sludge or a fi(ed film rea!tor
4.2 P"*sico8c"emical Treatment T"e 9asic units needed for a stand8alone ,"*sico8c"emical treatment ,lant are screenin&: an e/uali>ation unit: a ,= control unit: c"emical stora&e tan<s: a mi.in& unit: a flocculation unit: a settlin& unit and a slud&e dewaterin& unit ((i&ure 2). Output =uality !it" ,"*sico8c"emical treatments (coa&ulation and flocculation) it is ,ossi9le to remo7e muc": ,ossi9l* all of t"e colour de,endin& on t"e ,rocess used. It is "owe7er difficult to reduce -+1 and C+1 to t"e 7alue needed to meet t"e national effluent disc"ar&e standard: and im,ossi9le to remo7e T1S. T"e remo7al rate is de,endent on t"e influent wastewater /ualit*. T"e remo7al efficienc* of t"is t*,e of treatment "as 9een found to 9e AR and %AR for -+1 and C+1 res,ecti7el*. (i&ure 2' T*,ical (low 1ia&ram of a P"*sico8c"emical Treatment
47
in&luent
Screening unit
Equilisation unit
coagulation unit pH control unit
"reated e&&luent (iquid o)er&lo%
Sedimentation unit
sludge
eration unit!!
Sludge "#ic$ening unit (iquid o)er&lo%
!sludge
Sludge de%atering unit
Sludge disposal
(iquid o)er&lo%
4.3 P"*sico8c"emical and -iolo&ical Treatment In t"is t*,e of treatment a com9ination of ,"*sical o,erations: and ,"*sico8c"emical and 9iolo&ical ,rocesses are used. T"e 9asic units needed for a ,"*sico8c"emical and 9iolo&ical treatment ,lant are screenin&: an e/uali>ation unit: a ,= control unit: c"emical stora&e tan<s: mi.in& units: flocculation units: a ,rimar* settlin& unit: an aeration unit: and a secondar* settlin& unit ((i&ure 3). T"e ,"*sico8c"emical unit alwa*s comes 9efore t"e 9iolo&ical unit. Output =uality T"ese are t"e most common form of ETP used for t"e treatment of te.tile waste and are t"e most li<el* to meet t"e water /ualit* standards set 9* t"e ;o7ernment: as t"e* ,ro7ide t"e 9enefit of ,"*sical: c"emical and 9iolo&ical treatment and can t"erefore raise t"e efficienc* of -+1 and C+1 remo7al to BA R.
48
(i&ure 3' T*,ical (low 1ia&ram of a P"*sico8c"emical and -iolo&ical Treatment Plant
in&luent
Screening unit
Equili+ation unit
coagulation unit pH control unit -locculation unit
eration unit!!
,rimar' sedimentation
sludge
!rec'cle
Sedimentation unit
Sludge "#ic$ening unit
Sludge de%atering unit
Sludge disposal
(iquid o)er&lo%
(iquid o)er&lo%
"reated e&&luent
C A sludge re!y!le line is essential for a!tivated sludge systems 5ut is not needed for fi(ed film systems CC The aeration unit !an 5e either a!tivated sludge or a fi(ed film rea!tor
4.4 2rea 4e/uirement Com,arison T"e area needed for an ETP de,ends mostl* on t"e /ualit* of wastewater to 9e treated: flow rate: t"e t*,e of 9iolo&ical treatment to 9e used and t"e orientation of different treatment units. In &eneral ,"*sicoc"emical treatment ,lants re/uire t"e least area and 9iolo&ical treatment ,lants re/uire t"e lar&est area (Ta9le 4): 9ut &ood ci7il en&ineerin& can &reatl* reduce t"e land area re/uired. T"is will re/uire e.tra ,um,s and ,i,in&: and stron&er tan< walls: so construction costs ma* 9e "i&"er for tall structures. Ta9le 4' Common 2rea 4e/uirements of 1ifferent T*,es of ETPs^ P"*sico8 c"emical 2rea re/uired (for 3A cu9ic metre5"our flow) CA s/ metres -iolo&ical Com9ined ,"*sico8c"emical c"emical and 9iolo&ical 14A s/ metres
1%A s/ metres
C The area re=uirement values given in this ta5le are not a5solute and depend on the e(a!t design of the ETP 5ut they provide a 5road !omparison of the possi5le area re=uirements
49
4.
Cost Com,arison
T"e installation costs of ETPs can 7ar* &reatl* de,endin& on suc" factors as t"e materials used: includin& t"e /ualit* and source of t"e e/ui,ment (e.&. ,um,s and air 9lowers): land area and dimensions for construction: t"e /ualit* and /uantit* of wastewater to 9e treated: and t"e /ualit* of t"e re/uired out,ut. In addition: t"e o,eratin& costs of ETPs can also 7ar* &reatl* de,endin& on /ualit* and /uantit* of in,uts suc" as c"emicals: t"e efficienc* and si>e of motors and t"erefore t"e ener&* re/uired t"e met"od of treatment and t"e efficienc* of ETP mana&ement.
50
2nal*sis of waste water

.1 Commonl* used c"emicals
"oagulation and flo!!ulation' acr*lamide co,ol*mers: aluminium c"loride: aluminium sul,"ate:cationic ,ol*acr*lamide: diall*ldimet"*l ammonium5c"loride acr*lamide co,ol*mer: ferric c"loride: ferric and ferrous sul,"ate: <aolinite: ,ol* (diall*ldimet"*l ammonium c"loride): ,ol*aluminium c"loride: ,ol*amines: starc": ,ol*et"*leneamines: resin amines: sodium aluminate. p8 ad@ustment' calcium car9onate: calcium "*dro.ide: calcium o.ide: car9on dio.ide: ma&nesium o.ide: ,otassium "*dro.ide: sodium 9icar9onate: sodium 9isulfate: sodium car9onate: sodium "*dro.ide: sulfuric acid5"*droc"loric acid Disinfe!tion and o(idation produ!ts' an"*drous ammonia: ammonium "*dro.ide: calcium "*,oc"lorite: c"lorine: iodine: ,otassium ,erman&anate: sodium c"lorate: sodium c"lorite: sodium "*,oc"lorite. Algi!ide' co,,er sul,"ate: co,,er triet"anolamine com,le.es. Softening' calcium "*dro.ide: calcium o.ide: sodium car9onate: sodium c"loride. Taste and odour !ontrol' acti7ated car9on: c"lorine: c"lorine dio.ide: co,,er sul,"ate: o>one: ,otassium ,erman&anate. De!hlorinator and antio(idant: sodium meta9isulfite: sodium sulfite: sulfur dio.ide. System !omponents: Pipes and related produ!ts' co,,er: lead: stainless steel: 9rass: &al7ani>ed: concrete ,ressure: ductile iron: P0C: c"lorinated P0C: as9estos5cement. Prote!tive >5arrier?' materials' coatin&s: ,aints: linin&s. Pro!ess media' Adsorption media' acti7ated alumina: &ranular acti7ated car9on: ,owdered acti7ated car9on.
51
'iltration media' aluminium silicates (e.&. >eolites): ant"racite: diatomaceous eart": &ra7el: sand: mem9ranes. Me!hani!al devi!es' c"emical feeders: ,ressure &as inDection s*stems: disinfection &enerators: electrical wire: ,um,s: 7al7es and related fittin&s: water ,rocess treatment de7ices (e.&. mi.ers: re7erse osmosis: screens: clarifiers: aeration e/ui,ment: etc.)
Ferric alum or Ammonium iron (III) sulfate

)olar mass8 4C2.2 &5mol (dodeca"*drate) 2,,earance 8Pale 7iolet octa"edral cr*stals 2mmonium iron(III) sulfate: N=4(e(S+4)2`12 =2+: also <nown as ferric ammonium sulfate ((2S) or iron alum: is a dou9le salt in t"e class of alums: w"ic" consists of com,ounds wit" t"e &eneral formula 2-(S+4)2 ` 12 =2+.It "as t"e a,,earance of wea<l* 7iolet: octa"edrical cr*stals. T"ere "as 9een some discussion re&ardin& t"e ori&in of t"e cr*stals\ color: wit" some ascri9in& it to im,urities in t"e com,ound: and ot"ers claimin& it to 9e a ,ro,ert* of t"e cr*stal itself. (2S is ,arama&netic: acidic and to.ic towards microor&anisms. It is a wea< o.idi>in& a&ent: ca,a9le of 9ein& reduced to )o"r\s salt: ferrous ammonium sulfate. Uses 2reas of use for (2S include waste water treatment: tannin&: ,roduction of d*estuffs: and as an etc"in& a&ent in t"e ,roduction of electronic com,onents. It "as 9een used in a wide area of a,,lications: includin& adia9atic refri&eration e/ui,ment: 9ioc"emical anal*sis and or&anic s*nt"esis. 2,,lications
)ost of t"e alum ,roduced toda* is used in t"e ,ul, W ,a,er industr* as well as water and wastewater treatment. It is ine.,ensi7e and effecti7e for a 9road ran&e of treatment ,ro9lems 9ecause it can function as a coa&ulant: flocculant: reci,itant and emulsion 9rea<er. 2s a coa&ulant and flocculant: alum remo7es tur9idit*: sus,ended solids and colloidal color: reduces 9ioc"emical o.*&en demand (-+1) and clarifies ,ota9le: ,rocess and wastewater. T"e main uses of alum are' !ater treatment' used as a coa&ulant to remo7e sus,ended solids and or some metals (e&. Cr: -a: Cu) from water (eit"er drin<in& water or in waste treatment facilities).
Lime (calcium oxide)
52
6ime (calcium o.ide): also <nown as /uic<lime: is a c"emical com,ound deri7ed from limestone. 2ccordin& to t"e National 6ime 2ssociation: lime is t"e most used c"emical 9* wei&"t in ,ota9le and industrial water treatment. C"emicalaformula )olaramass Ca+ $.A%%4 &5mol
Water Softening Treatin& water wit" "*drated lime (calcium "*dro.ide) remo7es "ardness caused 9* car9onate minerals. Treatin& wit" lime remedies non8car9onate "ardness888t"at is: "ardness resultin& from non8car9onate calcium minerals and ma&nesium salts. C"emicalaformula )olaramass Ca(+=)2 %4.AB3 &5mol
P8 Ad@ustment !ater utilities use "*drated lime to ,re,are water for treatment ,rocesses 9* adDustin& t"e water\s ,=. To minimi>e corrosion of ,i,es and e/ui,ment: utilities add lime to neutrali>e acidic water. "oagulation and 'lo!!ulation !ater treatment facilities add lime to o,timi>e conditions for coa&ulation and flocculation: t"e ,rocesses t"at ma<e sus,ended ,articles clum, to&et"er and settle out of sus,ension. Disinfe!tion 4aisin& water al<alinit* to a ,= of 1A. to 11 9* addin& lime in"i9its t"e &rowt" of 9acteria and some 7iruses. Purifi!ation 6ime remo7es im,urities suc" as fluoride: iron: man&anese and or&anic tannins from water. T"e ma&nesium in dolomitic lime (Ca+8)&+) is es,eciall* effecti7e in remo7in& silica from water. 2 side effect of t"e lime8en"anced softenin& ,rocess is arsenic remo7al: w"ile disinfection wit" lime also ser7es to remo7e most "ea7* metals. Industr* +7er7iew' 6ime a,,lications in !ater Treatment 6ime is used e.tensi7el* in t"e treatment of water s*stems drin<in& waters: ,rocess waters: and wastewaters. T"ere are man* 9enefits for t"e water treatment en&ineer in usin& lime ,roducts. 6ime tec"nolo&* ,ro7ides solutions to water treatment ,ro9lems in a 7er* cost effecti7e manner. 6ime treatment s*stems are in"erentl* safe and are en7ironment friendl* 1rin<in& !aters' 6ime is a cost effecti7e rea&ent: and assists t"e water en&ineer 9*'
53
4e8minerali>in& e.cessi7el* soft water. !ater t"at is too soft will cause corrosion of t"e water distri9ution s*stem. T"e addition of lime ,ro7ides a safe solution to t"is ,ro9lem. It ,ro7ides ,rotection to t"e distri9ution s*stem: and ,re7ents t"e water collectin& e.cessi7e le7els of dissol7ed metals: w"ic" can ad7ersel* affect taste and odor: on its wa* to t"e user. Softens (de8car9onates) e.cessi7el* "ard water to ,re7ent scalin& of ,i,es. In t"is case: lime ,reci,itates 9icar9onate salts 8 t"e main scale formin& minerals 8 ,ro7idin& water t"at will not scale t"e distri9ution s*stem. +r&anic matter and trace metals can also 9e successfull* remo7ed in t"e ,rocess of lime treatment
Pro!ess Waters' T"e industrial use of water in ,rocesses suc" as e7a,orati7e coolin&: or steam raisin&: re/uire water of "i&" ,urit*. 6e7els of "ardness and al<alinit* and iron t"at are acce,ta9le for drin<in& su,,lies ma* need to 9e reduced 9* t"e industrial user. 6ime ,ro7ides a cost effecti7e wa* to ,re8treat man* of t"e most difficult ri7er and &round waters for industrial use. 6ime softenin&: usin& lime: or a com9ination of lime and soda8as": can 9e effecti7e in treatin& lar&e 7olumes of ,rocess water to reduce "ardness: tur9idit*: or&anic matter and dissol7ed metals to acce,ta9le le7els. Waste Waters' 6ime is used e.tensi7el* in t"e treatment of wastewater to correct acid ,= le7els and to ,reci,itate metals.
Polyelectrolyte (flocculant)
Pol*electrol*tes are ,ol*mers w"ose re,eatin& units 9ear an electrol*te &rou,. T"ese &rou,s will dissociate in a/ueous solutions (water): ma<in& t"e ,ol*mers c"ar&ed. Pol*electrol*te ,ro,erties are t"us similar to 9ot" electrol*tes (salts) and ,ol*mers ("i&" molecular wei&"t com,ounds): and are sometimes called ,ol*salts. 6i<e salts: t"eir solutions are electricall* conducti7e. 6i<e ,ol*mers: t"eir solutions are often 7iscous. C"ar&ed molecular c"ains: commonl* ,resent in soft matter s*stems: ,la* a fundamental role in determinin& structure: sta9ilit* and t"e interactions of 7arious molecular assem9lies. T"eoretical a,,roac"es to descri9in& t"eir statistical ,ro,erties differ ,rofoundl* from t"ose of t"eir electricall* neutral counter,arts: w"ile t"eir uni/ue ,ro,erties are 9ein& e.,loited in a wide ran&e of tec"nolo&ical and industrial fields. +ne of t"eir maDor roles: "owe7er: seems to 9e t"e one ,la*ed in 9iolo&* and 9ioc"emistr*. )an* 9iolo&ical molecules are ,ol*electrol*tes. (or instance: ,ol*,e,tides: &l*cosamino&l*cans: and 1N2 are ,ol*electrol*tes. -ot" natural and s*nt"etic ,ol*electrol*tes are used in a 7ariet* of industries.

C"emical structures of two s*nt"etic ,ol*electrol*tes
54
As E(amples' To t"e left is ,ol* (sodium st*rene sulfonate) (PSS): and to t"e ri&"t is ,ol*acr*lic acid (P22). -ot" are ne&ati7el* c"ar&ed ,ol*electrol*tes w"en dissociated. PSS is a \stron&\ ,ol*electrol*te (full* c"ar&ed in solution): w"ereas P22 is \wea<\ (,artiall* c"ar&ed).
Sodium hypochlorite (chlorinator)

Sodium "*,oc"lorite is a C"emicalacom,ound wit" t"e C"emical formula NaCl+. Sodium "*,oc"lorite solution: commonl* <nown as -leac" or cloro.: is fre/uentl* used as a 1isinfectant or a 9leac"in& a&ent. )olaramass %4.442 &5mol
Uses *lea!hing =ouse"old 9leac" is: in &eneral: a solution containin& 48$R sodium "*,oc"lorite and A.A18A.A R sodium "*dro.ide3 t"e Sodiuma"*dro.ide is used to dela* t"e 9rea<down of sodium "*,oc"lorite into Sodiumac"loride and Sodiumac"lorate. In "ouse"old form: sodium "*,oc"lorite is used for remo7al of stains from laundr*. It is ,articularl* effecti7e on cotton fi9er: w"ic" stains easil* 9ut 9leac"es well. Usuall* A to 2 A m6 of 9leac" ,er load is recommended for a standard8si>e was"er. T"e ,ro,erties of "ouse"old 9leac" t"at ma<e it effecti7e for remo7in& stains also result in cumulati7e dama&e to or&anic fi9ers: suc" as cotton: and t"e useful lifes,an of t"ese materials will 9e s"ortened wit" re&ular 9leac"in&. T"e Sodiuma"*dro.ide (Na+=) t"at is also found in "ouse"old 9leac" (as noted later) causes fi9er de&radation as well. It is not 7olatile: and residual amounts of Na+= not rinsed out will continue slowl* de&radin& or&anic fi9ers in t"e ,resence of "umidit*. (or t"ese reasons: if stains are locali>ed: s,ot treatments s"ould 9e considered w"ene7er ,ossi9le. !it" safet* ,recautions: ,ost8treatment wit" 0ine&ar (or anot"er wea< acid) will neutrali>e t"e Na+=: and 7olatili>e t"e c"lorine from residual "*,oc"lorite. +ld T8s"irts and cotton s"eets t"at ri, easil* demonstrate t"e costs of launderin& wit" "ouse"old 9leac". =ot water increases t"e effecti7eness of t"e 9leac": owin& to t"e increased reacti7it* of t"e molecules. Disinfe!tion 2 wea< solution of 2R "ouse"old 9leac" in warm water is used to saniti>e smoot" surfaces ,rior to 9rewin& of 9eer or wine. Surfaces must 9e rinsed to a7oid im,artin& fla7ors to t"e 9rew3 t"ese c"lorinated 9*,roducts of saniti>in& surfaces are also "armful. US ;o7ernment re&ulations allow food ,rocessin& e/ui,ment and food contact surfaces to 9e saniti>ed wit" solutions containin& 9leac": ,ro7ided t"at t"e solution is allowed to drain ade/uatel* 9efore contact wit" food: and t"at t"e solutions do not e.ceed 2AA ,arts ,er million (,,m) a7aila9le c"lorine (for e.am,le: one ta9les,oon of t*,ical "ouse"old 9leac" containin& .2 R sodium "*,oc"lorite: ,er &allon of water). If "i&"er concentrations are used: t"e surface must 9e rinsed wit" ,ota9le water after saniti>in&.
55
2 18in8 dilution of "ouse"old 9leac" wit" water (1 ,art 9leac" to 4 ,arts water) is effecti7e a&ainst man* -acteria and some 0irus: and is often t"e disinfectant of c"oice in cleanin& surfaces in "os,itals (,rimaril* in t"e United States). T"e solution is Corrosion: and needs to 9e t"orou&"l* remo7ed afterwards: so t"e 9leac" disinfection is sometimes followed 9* an Et"anol disinfection. E7en Fscientific8&radeF: commerciall* ,roduced disinfection solutions suc" as 0irocidin8P usuall* "a7e sodium "*,oc"lorite as t"eir sole acti7e in&redient: t"ou&" t"e* also contain Surfactants (to ,re7ent 9eadin&) and fra&rances (to conceal t"e 9leac" smell). Water treatment (or S"oc<ac"lorination of wells or water s*stems: a 3R solution of "ouse"old 9leac" is used. (or lar&er s*stems: Sodiuma"*,oc"lorite is more ,ractical 9ecause lower rates can 9e used. T"e al<alinit* of t"e sodium "*,oc"lorite solution also causes t"e ,reci,itation of minerals suc" as calcium car9onate: so t"at t"e s"oc< c"lorination is often accom,anied 9* a clo&&in& effect. T"e ,reci,itate also ,reser7es 9acteria: ma<in& t"is ,ractice somew"at less effecti7e. Sodium "*,oc"lorite "as 9een used for t"e disinfection of drin<in& water. 2 concentration e/ui7alent to a9out 1 liter of "ouse"old 9leac" ,er 4AAA liters of water is used. T"e e.act amount re/uired de,ends on t"e water c"emistr*: tem,erature: contact time: and ,resence or a9sence of sediment. In lar&e8scale a,,lications: residual c"lorine is measured to titrate t"e ,ro,er dosin& rate. (or emer&enc* disinfection: t"e United States En7ironmental Protection 2&enc* recommends t"e use of 2 dro,s of 4R to $R "ouse"old 9leac" ,er litre of water. If t"e treated water does not smell of 9leac": 2 more dro,s are to 9e added. )an* w"o would ,refer to store drin<in& water on a lon& term 9asis for emer&enc* use s"ould consider followin& t"e same treatment ,rotocol durin& t"e stora&e ,rocess (and not w"en t"e time comes to access t"e water)3 t*,icall* usin& t"e \additional\ treatment rate of a,,ro.imatel* 1 dro,s ,er &allon of water (Q1 teas,oon full ,er % &allons of water) unless t"e water is from a munici,alit* and is <nown to 9e free of e.cessi7e contaminants and alread* contains a certain amount of sodium "*,oc"lorite. Note t"at *ou s"ould confirm t"at t"e water "as a 9leac" scent after sittin& for "alf an "our. 2dditionall*: dum,in& t"e water and re,lacin& it e7er* 38 *ears is recommended. !as"in& out t"e food &rade containers (usuall* made of ,ol*et"*lene) durin& t"is time is encoura&ed 9* usin& warm soa,* water or alternati7el* a solution of water wit" "ea7* concentration of 9leac" (1A. \additional\ rate) followed 9* rinsin& wit" clean water. T"e use of c"lorine89ased disinfectants in domestic water: alt"ou&" wides,read: "as led to some contro7ers* due to t"e formation of small /uantities of "armful 9*,roducts suc" as C"loroform. 2n al<aline solution (,= 11.A) of sodium "*,oc"lorite is used to treat dilute (G 1 &56) c*anide wastewater: e.&.: rinse water from an electro,latin& s"o,. In 9atc" treatment o,erations: sodium "*,oc"lorite "as 9een used to treat more concentrated c*anide wastes: suc" as sil7er c*anide ,latin& solutions. 2 well8mi.ed solution is full* treated w"en an e.cess of c"lorine is detected.
Dechlorinator
2 dec"lorinator is a c"emical additi7e t"at remo7es c"lorine and c"loroamines from water. !"ere ta, water is c"lorinated: it s"ould 9e dec"lorinated 9efore use in an a/uarium : since c"lorine can "arm a/uatic life in t"e same wa* it <ills micro8or&anisms
56
C"emicals t"at ser7e t"is function are reducin& a&ents w"ic" reduce c"lorine s,ecies to c"loride: w"ic" is less "armful to fis". Some com,ounds em,lo*ed in commercial dec"lorinators are' sodium meta9isulfite: Sodium Sulfite: Sodium "*dro.*met"anesulfonate and Sodium "*dro.*met"ane sulfinic acid. .2 C"emical Tests and Procedures Some commonl* ,erformed tests for anal*sis of waste water wit" t"eir ,rocedure are &i7en "ere' 1. C"emical +.*&en 1emand (C+1) 2. 1issol7ed +.*&en (!in<ler )et"od) 3. -ioc"emical +.*&en 1emand (-+1) 4. Total Sus,ended Solids (TSS) . Total 1issol7ed Solids (T1S) $. +il W ;rease Content %. Uar Testin&
1. C"emical +.*&en 1emand (C+1)

&ntrodu!tion: T"e industrial and munici,al waste water effluents ma* contain 7er* "i&" amounts of or&anic matter and if disc"ar&ed into natural water 9odies: it can cause com,lete de,letion of dissol7ed o.*&en leadin& to t"e mortalit* of a/uatic or&anisms. T"e amount of o.*&en needed to consume t"e or&anic and inor&anic materials is called t"e C"emical +.*&en 1emand (C+1). Potassium dic"romate is considered t"e 9est o.idant due to its stron& o.idi>in& a9ilit*: its a,,lica9ilit* to a wide 7ariet* of sam,les and ease of mani,ulation ma<es it 7er* efficient. +eagents used: 1. Potassium dic"romate (Standard solution)' J2Cr2+% O A.AA41$% ) (A.A2 A N) 2. )o"rNs Salt' (errous ammonium sul,"ate (Standard solution)' (eS+4.(N=4)2S+4 (A.A2 )) 3. )ercuric Sul,"ate' Powdered =&S+4 4. Sil7er Sul,"ate' Powdered 2&2S+4 . P"enant"roline ferrous sul,"ate indicator solution $. Concentrated Sul,"uric acid' =2S+4 1C ) Pro!edure: A ml of sam,le was ta<en into a reflu.in& flas< and se7eral 9oilin& stones were added. A.1 & =&S+4 was added to t"e solution. ml of concentrated =2S+4 was also added to t"e
57
solution. To ensure t"at =&S+4 dissol7ed com,letel*: t"e solution was swirled slowl* w"ile addin& Sul,"uric acid. A.1 & of 2&2S+4 was added to t"is solution. (inall* Potassium dic"romate was added. T"orou&" mi.in& of t"e solution was ensured 9* swirlin& t"e flas< in a water 9at" to reco7er an* 7olatile su9stances t"at ma* "a7e esca,ed from t"e li/uid state. T"e flas< was t"en attac"ed to t"e condenser and furt"er coolin& was done. 2A ml of Sul,"uric acid was added to t"e solution in t"e flas< continuin& coolin& and swirlin& to mi. t"e solution. T"e solution was reflu.ed for 1 "our. 2 9lan< run (usin& A ml distilled water instead of sam,le) was simultaneousl* conducted wit" t"e same ,rocedure after coolin&3 t"e solution was transferred to an Erlenme*er flas<. T"e reflu. flas< was rinsed t"rice: ,ourin& t"e rinsin& water to t"e Erlenme*er flas<. T"e solution was diluted to a9out 3AA ml and a9out C dro,s of P"enant"roline ferrous sul,"ate was added to t"e solution as an indicator. T"e solution was titrated a&ainst t"e )o"rNs salt and t"e titer 7olume re/uired for t"e color c"an&e from 9lue8 &reen to reddis" 9lue was noted.T"e ,rocedure was re,eated for t"e 9lan< run.
O5servations:
Solution sam,le 9lan< "al!ulations:
Intial readin& (ml) A.AA A.AA
(inal readin&(ml) 1B.$A 21.2A
Titar 7olume(ml) 1B.$A8 0s 21.2A8 09
C+1 X CAAA ^ (09l O 0s)^ )5 ori&inal 7olume of sam,le ta<en m&5l !"ere: 09 X Titer 7olume for t"e 9lan< 0s X Titer 7olume for t"e sam,le ) X )olarit* of )o"rNs solution C+1 X CAAA ^ (21.2A81B.$A) ^ A.A2 5 A X $.4 m&5l Dis!ussions and +esults0 Potassium dic"romate acts as a stron& o.idi>in& a&ent and o.idi>es t"e or&anic and inor&anic matter in t"e waste water. T"e reaction can 9e e.,ressed as 8 Cr2+%2 8 [ 14 =[ [ e8 X 2 Cr[ [ % =2+ If c"lorides are ,resent in t"e sam,le it will interfere wit" t"e o.idation of t"e or&anic matter. To ensure non8interference of c"lorides )ercur* Sul,"ate is added w"ic" will form com,le. of mercuric c"loride. 2n amount of 1A & of )ercur* Sul,"ate is re/uired for 1 & of C"lorides to form com,le.. Sul,"uric acid is added to t"e mi.ture so t"at t"e mercur* is com,letel* dissol7ed. -esides: it assists in o.idi>in& t"e nitro&en com,ounds in t"e sam,le and t"e increased "eat will accelerate t"e reaction rate. Sil7er Sul,"ate catal*ses t"e reaction and also assists in t"e o.idation of t"e nitro&en com,ounds.
58
)ercur* sul,"ate is added first in order to allow t"e c"lorine atoms to com9ine wit" mercur*. If Sil7er Sul,"ate is added first: t"e c"lorine would 9ind wit" t"e sil7er. )ercur* sul,"ate ma* 9e added after3 "owe7er it will ta<e some time for t"e c"lorine to detac" from t"e sil7er and 9ind to mercur*. T"us: it is 9est to add mercur* sul,"ate first . T"e titer 7olume of t"e sam,le &i7es t"e 7olume of (errous 2mmonium Sul,"ate re/uired to react wit" t"e e.cess ,otassium dic"romate in t"e solution. Similarl*: t"e titer 7olume for t"e 9lan< (distilled water) &i7es t"e 7olume of (errous 2mmonium Sul,"ate re/uired to react wit" t"e e.cess ,otassium dic"romate in t"e 9lan<. T"e e/uation for t"e titration can 9e e.,ressed as' Cr2+%2 O [ (eS+4 (N=4)2S+4 X Cr[ [ N=4[ [ (e 3[ (rom a9o7e e/uation it can 9e seen t"at one molecule of dic"romate corres,onds to one molecule of )o"rNs salt. T"us: t"e difference in 7olume of e.cess J2Cr2+% reactin& wit" )o"rNs solution can 9e calculated from t"e e.,ression' X (+ri&inal 7ol. J2Cr2+% O 7ol. of J2Cr2+% used for o.idation) solution 8 (+ri&inal 7ol. J2Cr2+%O 7ol. of J2Cr2+% used for o.idation) 9lan< X (0ol. of J2Cr2+% used for o.idation) 9lan< O (0ol. of J2Cr2+% used for o.idation) solution =ence: t"e difference in t"e titer 7olume for t"e solution and t"e 9lan< is used to find out t"e C"emical +.*&en 1emand directl*. "on!lusion C+1 of &i7en sam,le usin& t"e met"od of titration is found to 9e $.4 m&5l.
2. 1issol7ed +.*&en (!in<ler )et"od)

!"at is t"e !in<ler )et"od# T"e !in<ler )et"od is a tec"ni/ue used to measure dissol7ed o.*&en in fres"water s*stems. 1issol7ed o.*&en is used as an indicator of t"e "ealt" of a water 9od*: w"ere "i&"er dissol7ed o.*&en concentrations are correlated wit" "i&" ,roducti7it* and little ,ollution. T"is test is ,erformed on8site: as dela*s 9etween sam,le collection and testin& ma* result in an alteration in o.*&en content. =ow does t"e !in<ler )et"od !or<# T"e !in<ler )et"od uses titration to determine dissol7ed o.*&en in t"e water sam,le. 2 sam,le 9ottle is filled com,letel* wit" water (no air is left to s<ew t"e results). T"e dissol7ed o.*&en in t"e sam,le is t"en Ffi.edF 9* addin& a series of rea&ents t"at form an acid com,ound t"at is t"en titrated wit" a neutrali>in& com,ound t"at results in a color c"an&e. T"e ,oint of color c"an&e is called t"e Fend,oint:F w"ic" coincides wit" t"e dissol7ed o.*&en concentration in t"e sam,le. 1issol7ed o.*&en anal*sis is 9est done in t"e field: as t"e sam,le will 9e less altered 9* atmos,"eric e/uili9ration. 2,,lications 1issol7ed o.*&en anal*sis can 9e used to determine' t"e "ealt" or cleanliness of a la<e or stream: t"e amount and t*,e of 9iomass a fres"water s*stem can su,,ort:
59
t"e amount of decom,osition occurrin& in t"e la<e or stream.
8o) to0 Sample "olle!tion, Preparation, Analyti!al Proto!ols, and "on!erns 1issol7ed o.*&en s"ould 9e measured as /uic<l* and carefull* as ,ossi9le. Ideall*: sam,les s"ould 9e measured in t"e field immediatel* after collection. 4ea&ent 6ist' 2ml )an&anese sulfate 2ml al<ali8iodide8a>ide 2ml concentrated sulfuric acid 2ml starc" solution Sodium t"iosulfate Please use caution w"en usin& t"ese rea&ents: as t"e* can 9e "a>ardous to one\s "ealt". Procedure' 1. Carefull* fill a 3AA8m6 &lass -iolo&ical +.*&en 1emand (-+1) sto,,ered 9ottle 9rim8full wit" sam,le water. 2. Immediatel* add 2m6 of man&anese sulfate to t"e collection 9ottle 9* insertin& t"e cali9rated ,i,ette Dust 9elow t"e surface of t"e li/uid. (If t"e rea&ent is added a9o7e t"e sam,le surface: *ou will introduce o.*&en into t"e sam,le.) S/uee>e t"e ,i,ette slowl* so no 9u99les are introduced 7ia t"e ,i,ette. 3. 2dd 2 m6 of al<ali8iodide8a>ide rea&ent in t"e same manner. 4. Sto,,er t"e 9ottle wit" care to 9e sure no air is introduced. )i. t"e sam,le 9* in7ertin& se7eral times. C"ec< for air 9u99les3 discard t"e sam,le and start o7er if an* are seen. If o.*&en is ,resent: a 9rownis"8oran&e cloud of ,reci,itate or floc will a,,ear. !"en t"is floc "as settle to t"e 9ottom: mi. t"e sam,le 9* turnin& it u,side down se7eral times and let it settle a&ain. 5. 2dd 2 m6 of concentrated sulfuric acid 7ia a ,i,ette "eld Dust a9o7e t"e surface of t"e sam,le. Carefull* sto,,er and in7ert se7eral times to dissol7e t"e floc. 2t t"is ,oint: t"e sam,le is Ffi.edF and can 9e stored for u, to C "ours if <e,t in a cool: dar< ,lace. 2s an added ,recaution: s/uirt distilled water alon& t"e sto,,er: and ca, t"e 9ottle wit" aluminum foil and a ru99er 9and durin& t"e stora&e ,eriod. 6. In a &lass flas<: titrate 2A1 m6 of t"e sam,le wit" sodium t"iosulfate to a ,ale straw color. Titrate 9* slowl* dro,,in& titrant solution from a cali9rated ,i,ette into t"e flas< and continuall* stirrin& or swirlin& t"e sam,le water. 7. 2dd 2 m6 of starc" solution so a 9lue color forms. 8. Continue slowl* titratin& until t"e sam,le turns clear. 2s t"is e.,eriment reac"es t"e end,oint: it will ta<e onl* one dro, of t"e titrant to eliminate t"e 9lue color. -e es,eciall* careful t"at eac" dro, is full* mi.ed into t"e sam,le 9efore addin& t"e ne.t. It is sometimes "el,ful to "old t"e flas< u, to a w"ite s"eet of ,a,er to c"ec< for a9sence of t"e 9lue color. 9. T"e concentration of dissol7ed o.*&en in t"e sam,le is e/ui7alent to t"e num9er of milliliters of titrant used. Eac" m6 of sodium t"iosulfate added in ste,s $ and C e/uals 1 m&56 dissol7ed o.*&en. 4esults 2nal*sis
60
T"e total num9er of milliliters of titrant used in ste,s $8C e/uals t"e total dissol7ed o.*&en in t"e sam,le in m&56. +.*&en saturation is tem,erature de,endent 8 &as is more solu9le in cold waters: "ence cold waters &enerall* "a7e "i&"er dissol7ed o.*&en concentrations. 1issol7ed o.*&en also de,ends on salinit* and ele7ation: or ,artial ,ressure. use t"e c"art 9elow to find saturation at a &i7en tem,erature.
3. -ioc"emical +.*&en 1emand (-+1 )

1. ;eneral 1iscussion a. Princi,le' T"e met"od consists of fillin& wit" sam,le: to o7erflowin&: an airti&"t 9ottle of t"e s,ecified si>e and incu9atin& it at t"e s,ecified tem,erature for d. 1issol7ed o.*&en ismeasured initiall* and after incu9ation: and t"e -+1 is com,uted from t"e difference 9etween initial and final 1+. -ecause t"e initial 1+ is determined s"ortl* after t"e dilution is made: all o.*&en u,ta<e occurrin& after t"is measurement is included in t"e -+1 measurement. 9. Sam,lin& and stora&e' Sam,les for -+1 anal*sis ma* de&rade si&nificantl* durin& stora&e 9etween collection and anal*sis: resultin& in low -+1 7alues. )inimi>e reduction of -+1 9* anal*>in& sam,le ,rom,tl* or 9* coolin& it to near8free>in& tem,erature durin& stora&e. =owe7er: e7en at low tem,erature: <ee, "oldin& time to a minimum. !arm c"illed sam,les to 2A b 3]C 9efore anal*sis. 1) ;ra9 sam,lesTIf anal*sis is 9e&un wit"in 2 " of collection: cold stora&e is unnecessar*. If anal*sis is not started wit"in 2 " of sam,le collection: <ee, sam,le at or 9elow 4]C from t"e time of collection. -e&in anal*sis wit"in $ " of collection3 w"en t"is is not ,ossi9le 9ecause t"e sam,lin& site is distant from t"e la9orator*: store at or 9elow 4]C and re,ort len&t" and tem,erature of stora&e wit" t"e results. In no case start anal*sis more t"an 24 "ours after &ra9 sam,le collection. !"en sam,les are to 9e used for re&ulator* ,ur,oses ma<e e7er* effort to deli7er sam,les for anal*sis wit"in $ " of collection. 2) Com,osite sam,lesTJee, sam,les at or 9elow 4]C durin& com,ositin&. 6imit com,ositin& ,eriod to 24 ". Use t"e same criteria as for stora&e of &ra9 sam,les: startin& t"e measurement of "oldin& time from end of com,ositin& ,eriod. State stora&e time and conditions as ,art of t"e results. 2. 2,,aratus a. Incu9ation 9ottles' Use &lass 9ottles "a7in& $A m6 or &reater ca,acit* (3AA8m6 9ottles "a7in& a &round8&lass sto,,er and a flared mout" are ,referred). Clean 9ottles wit" a deter&ent: rinse t"orou&"l*: and drain 9efore use. 2s a ,recaution a&ainst drawin& air
61
into t"e dilution 9ottle durin& incu9ation: use a water seal. +9tain satisfactor* water seals 9* in7ertin& 9ottles in a water 9at" or 9* addin& water to t"e flared mout" of s,ecial -+1 9ottles. Place a ,a,er or ,lastic cu, or foil ca, o7er flared mout" of 9ottle to reduce e7a,oration of t"e water seal durin& incu9ation. 9. 2ir incu9ator or water 9at": t"ermostaticall* controlled at 2A b1]C. E.clude all li&"t to ,re7ent ,ossi9ilit* of ,"otos*nt"etic ,roduction of 1+. 3. 4ea&ents Pre,are rea&ents in ad7ance 9ut discard if t"ere is an* si&n of ,reci,itation or 9iolo&ical &rowt" in t"e stoc< 9ottles. Commercial e/ui7alents of t"ese rea&ents are acce,ta9le and different stoc< concentrations ma* 9e used if doses are adDusted ,ro,ortionall*. a. P"os,"ate 9uffer solution' 1issol7e C. & J=2P+4: 21.% & J2=P+4: 33.4 & Na2=P+4c%=2+: and 1.% & N=4Cl in a9out AA m6 distilled water and dilute to 1 6. T"e ,= s"ould 9e %.2 wit"out furt"er adDustment. 2lternati7el*: dissol7e 42. & J=2P+4 or 4.3 & J2=P+4 in a9out %AA m6 distilled water. 2dDust ,= to %.2 wit" 3AR Na+= and dilute to 1 6. 9. )a&nesium sulfate solution' 1issol7e 22. & )&S+4.%=2+ in distilled water and dilute to 1 6. c. Calcium c"loride solution' 1issol7e 2%. & CaCl2 in distilled water and dilute to 1 6. d. (erric c"loride solution' 1issol7e A.2 & (eCl3.$=2+ in distilled water and dilute to 16. e. 2cid and al<ali solutions: 1N: for neutrali>ation of caustic or acidic waste sam,les. 1) 2cidTSlowl* and w"ile stirrin&: add 2C m6 conc sulfuric acid to distilled water. 1ilute to 1 6. 2) 2l<aliT1issol7e 4A & sodium "*dro.ide in distilled water. 1ilute to 1 6. f. Sodium sulfite solution' 1issol7e 1. % & Na2S+3 in 1AAA m6 distilled water. T"is solution is not sta9le3 ,re,are dail*. &. Nitrification in"i9itor: 28c"loro8$8(tric"loromet"*l) ,*ridine. ". ;lucose8&lutamic acid solution' 1r* rea&ent8&rade &lucose and rea&ent8&rade &lutamic acid at 1A3]C for 1 ". 2dd 1 A m& &lucose and 1 A m& &lutamic acid to distilled water and dilute to 1 6. Pre,are fres" immediatel* 9efore use. i. 2mmonium c"loride solution' 1issol7e 1.1 & N=4Cl in a9out AA m6 distilled water: adDust ,= to %.2 wit" Na+= solution: and dilute to 1 6. Solution contains A.3 m& N5m6. D. 1ilution water' Use deminerali>ed: distilled: ta,: or natural water for ma<in& sam,le dilutions. 4. Procedure a. Pre,aration of dilution water' Place desired 7olume of water (d 3 D) in a suita9le 9ottle
62
and add 1 m6 eac" of ,"os,"ate 9uffer: )&S+4: CaCl2: and (eCl3 solutions56 of water. Seed dilution water: if desired: as descri9ed in d 4d. Test dilution water as descri9ed in d 4" so t"at water of assured /ualit* alwa*s is on "and. -efore use 9rin& dilution water tem,erature to 2A b 3]C. Saturate wit" 1+ 9* s"a<in& in a ,artiall* filled 9ottle or 9* aeratin& wit" or&anic8free filtered air. 2lternati7el*: store in cotton8,lu&&ed 9ottles lon& enou&" for water to 9ecome saturated wit" 1+. Protect water /ualit* 9* usin& clean &lassware: tu9in&: and 9ottles. 9. 1ilution water stora&e' Source water (d 3 D) ma* 9e stored 9efore use as lon& as t"e ,re,ared dilution water meets /ualit* control criteria in t"e dilution water 9lan< (d 4"). Suc" stora&e ma* im,ro7e t"e /ualit* of some source waters 9ut ma* allow 9iolo&ical &rowt" to cause deterioration in ot"ers. Prefera9l* do not store ,re,ared dilution water for more t"an 24 " after addin& nutrients: minerals: and 9uffer unless dilution water 9lan<s consistentl* meet /ualit* control limits. 1iscard stored source water if dilution water 9lan< s"ows more t"an A.2 m&56 1+ de,letion in d. c. ;lucose8&lutamic acid c"ec<' -ecause t"e -+1 test is a 9ioassa* its results can 9e influenced &reatl* 9* t"e ,resence of to.icants or 9* use of a ,oor seedin& material. 1istilled waters fre/uentl* are contaminated wit" co,,er3 some sewa&e seeds are relati7el* inacti7e. 6ow results alwa*s are o9tained wit" suc" seeds and waters. Periodicall* c"ec< dilution water /ualit*: seed effecti7eness: and anal*tical tec"ni/ue 9* ma<in& -+1 measurements on a mi.ture of 1 A m& &lucose56 and 1 A m& &lutamic acid56 as a MMstandardNN c"ec< solution. ;lucose "as an e.ce,tionall* "i&" and 7aria9le o.idation rate 9ut w"en it is used wit" &lutamic acid: t"e o.idation rate is sta9ili>ed and is similar to t"at o9tained wit" man* munici,al wastes. 2lternati7el*: if a ,articular wastewater contains an identifia9le maDor constituent t"at contri9utes to t"e -+1: use t"is com,ound in ,lace of t"e &lucose8&lutamic acid. 1etermine t"e 8d 2A]C -+1 of a 2R dilution of t"e &lucose8&lutamic acid standard c"ec< solution usin& t"e tec"ni/ues outlined in ds 4d8D. 2dDust concentrations of commercial mi.tures to &i7e 3 m&56 &lucose and 3 m&56 &lutamic acid in eac" ;;2 test 9ottle. E7aluate data as descri9ed in d $: Precision and -ias. d. Seedin&' 1) Seed sourceTIt is necessar* to "a7e ,resent a ,o,ulation of microor&anisms ca,a9le of o.idi>in& t"e 9iode&rada9le or&anic matter in t"e sam,le. 1omestic wastewater: unc"lorinated or ot"erwise8undisinfected effluents from 9iolo&ical waste treatment ,lants: and surface waters recei7in& wastewater disc"ar&es contain satisfactor* micro9ial ,o,ulations. Some sam,les do not contain a sufficient micro9ial ,o,ulation (for e.am,le: some untreated industrial wastes: disinfected wastes: "i&"8tem,erature wastes: or wastes wit" e.treme ,= 7alues). (or suc" wastes seed t"e dilution water or sam,le 9* addin& a ,o,ulation of microor&anisms. T"e ,referred seed is effluent or mi.ed li/uor from a 9iolo&ical treatment s*stem ,rocessin& t"e waste. !"ere suc" seed is not a7aila9le: use su,ernatant from domestic wastewater after settlin& at room tem,erature for at least 1 " 9ut no lon&er t"an 3$ ". !"en effluent or mi.ed li/uor from a 9iolo&ical treatment ,rocess is used: in"i9ition of nitrification is recommended. Some sam,les ma* contain materials not de&raded at normal rates 9* t"e microor&anisms in settled domestic wastewater. Seed suc" sam,les wit" an ada,ted micro9ial ,o,ulation o9tained from t"e undisinfected effluent or mi.ed li/uor of a 9iolo&ical ,rocess treatin& t"e waste. In t"e a9sence of suc" a facilit*: o9tain seed from t"e recei7in& water 9elow (,refera9l* 3 to C <m) t"e ,oint of disc"ar&e. !"en suc" seed sources also are not a7aila9le: de7elo, an
63
ada,ted seed in t"e la9orator* 9* continuousl* aeratin& a sam,le of settled domestic wastewater and addin& small dail* increments of waste. +,tionall* use a soil sus,ension or acti7ated slud&e: or a commercial seed ,re,aration to o9tain t"e initial micro9ial ,o,ulation. 1etermine t"e e.istence of a satisfactor* ,o,ulation 9* testin& t"e ,erformance of t"e seed in -+1 tests on t"e sam,le. -+1 7alues t"at increase wit" time of ada,tation to a stead* "i&" 7alue indicate successful seed ada,tation. 2) Seed controlT1etermine -+1 of t"e seedin& material as for an* ot"er sam,le. T"is is t"e seed control. (rom t"e 7alue of t"e seed control and a <nowled&e of t"e seedin& material dilution (in t"e dilution water) determine seed 1+ u,ta<e. Ideall*: ma<e dilutions of seed suc" t"at t"e lar&est /uantit* results in at least AR 1+ de,letion. 2 ,lot of 1+ de,letion: in milli&rams ,er liter: 7ersus milliters of seed for all 9ottles "a7in& a 28m&56 de,letion and a 1.A8m&56 minimum residual 1+ s"ould ,resent a strai&"t line for w"ic" t"e slo,e indicates 1+ de,letion ,er milliliter of seed. T"e 1+8a.is interce,t is o.*&en de,letion caused 9* t"e dilution water and s"ould 9e less t"an A.1 m&56 (d 4"). 2lternati7el*: di7ide 1+ de,letion 9* 7olume of seed in milliliters for eac" seed control 9ottle "a7in& a 28m&56 de,letion and a 1.A8m&56 residual 1+. 27era&e t"e results for all 9ottles meetin& minimum de,letion and residual 1+ criteria. T"e 1+ u,ta<e attri9uta9le to t"e seed added to eac" 9ottle s"ould 9e 9etween A.$ and 1.A m&56: 9ut t"e amount of seed added s"ould 9e adDusted from t"is ran&e to t"at re/uired to ,ro7ide &lucose8 &lutamic acid c"ec< results in t"e ran&e of 1BC b 3A. m&56. To determine 1+ u,ta<e for a test 9ottle: su9tract 1+ u,ta<e attri9uta9le to t"e seed from total 1+ u,ta<e (see d ). Tec"ni/ues for addin& seedin& material to dilution water are descri9ed for two sam,le dilution met"ods (d 4 f). e. Sam,le ,retreatment' C"ec< ,= of all sam,les 9efore testin& unless ,re7ious e.,erience indicates t"at ,= is wit"in t"e acce,ta9le ran&e. 1) Sam,les containin& caustic al<alinit* (,= IC. ) or acidit* (,= G$.A)TNeutrali>e sam,les to ,= $. to %. wit" a solution of sulfuric acid (=2S+4) or sodium "*dro.ide (Na+=) of suc" stren&t" t"at t"e /uantit* of rea&ent does not dilute t"e sam,le 9* more t"an A. R. T"e ,= of dilution water s"ould not 9e affected 9* t"e lowest sam,le dilution. 2lwa*s seed sam,les t"at "a7e 9een ,=8adDusted. 2) Sam,les containin& residual c"lorine com,oundsTIf ,ossi9le: a7oid sam,les containin& residual c"lorine 9* sam,lin& a"ead of c"lorination ,rocesses. If t"e sam,le "as 9een c"lorinated 9ut no detecta9le c"lorine residual is ,resent: seed t"e dilution water. If residual c"lorine is ,resent: dec"lorinate sam,le and seed t"e dilution water (d 4 f). 1o not test c"lorinated5dec"lorinated sam,les wit"out seedin& t"e dilution water. In some sam,les c"lorine will dissi,ate wit"in 1 to 2 " of standin& in t"e li&"t. T"is often occurs durin& sam,le trans,ort and "andlin&. (or sam,les in w"ic" c"lorine residual does not dissi,ate in a reasona9l* s"ort time: destro* c"lorine residual 9* addin& Na2S+3 solution. 1etermine re/uired 7olume of Na2S+3 solution on a 1AA8 to 1AAA8m6 ,ortion of neutrali>ed sam,le 9* addin& 1A m6 of 1 [ 1 acetic acid or 1 [ A =2S+4: 1A m6 ,otassium iodide (JI) solution (1A &51AA m6) ,er 1AAA m6 ,ortion: and titratin& wit" Na2S+3 solution to t"e starc"8iodine end ,oint for residual. 2dd to neutrali>ed sam,le t"e relati7e 7olume of Na2S+3 solution determined 9* t"e a9o7e test: mi.: and after 1A to 2A min c"ec< sam,le for residual c"lorine. (N+TE' E.cess Na2S+3 e.erts an o.*&en
64
demand and reacts slowl* wit" certain or&anic c"loramine com,ounds t"at ma* 9e ,resent in c"lorinated sam,les.) 3) Sam,les containin& ot"er to.ic su9stancesTCertain industrial wastes: for e.am,le: ,latin& wastes: contain to.ic metals. Suc" sam,les often re/uire s,ecial stud* and treatment. 4) Sam,les su,ersaturated wit" 1+TSam,les containin& more t"an B m& 1+56 at 2A]C ma* 9e encountered in cold waters or in water w"ere ,"otos*nt"esis occurs. To ,re7ent loss of o.*&en durin& incu9ation of suc" sam,les: reduce 1+ to saturation at 2A]C 9* 9rin&in& sam,le to a9out 2A]C in ,artiall* filled 9ottle w"ile a&itatin& 9* 7i&orous s"a<in& or 9* aeratin& wit" clean: filtered com,ressed air. ) Sam,le tem,erature adDustmentT-rin& sam,les to 2A b 1]C 9efore ma<in& dilutions. $) Nitrification in"i9itionTIf nitrification in"i9ition is desired add 3 m& 28c"loro8$8 (tric"loro met"*l) ,*ridine (TC)P) to eac" 3AA8m6 9ottle 9efore ca,,in& or add sufficient amounts to t"e dilution water to ma<e a final concentration of 1A m&56. (N+TE' Pure TC)P ma* dissol7e slowl* and can float on to, of t"e sam,le. Some commercial formulations dissol7e more readil* 9ut are not 1AAR TC)P3 adDust dosa&e accordin&l*.) Sam,les t"at ma* re/uire nitrification in"i9ition include: 9ut are not limited to: 9iolo&icall* treated effluents: sam,les seeded wit" 9iolo&icall* treated effluents: and ri7er waters. Note t"e use of nitro&en in"i9ition in re,ortin& results. f. 1ilution tec"ni/ue' )a<e se7eral dilutions of sam,le t"at will result in a residual 1+ of at least 1 m&56 and a 1+ u,ta<e of at least 2 m&56 after a 8d incu9ation. (i7e dilutions are recommended unless e.,erience wit" a ,articular sam,le s"ows t"at use of a smaller num9er of dilutions ,roduces at least two 9ottles &i7in& acce,ta9le minimum 1+ de,letion and residual limits. 2 more ra,id anal*sis: suc" as C+1: ma* 9e correlated a,,ro.imatel* wit" -+1 and ser7e as a &uide in selectin& dilutions. In t"e a9sence of ,rior <nowled&e: use t"e followin& dilutions' A.A to 1.AR for stron& industrial wastes: 1 to R for raw and settled wastewater: to 2 R for 9iolo&icall* treated effluent: and 2 to 1AAR for ,olluted ri7er waters. Pre,are dilutions eit"er in &raduated c*linders or 7olumetric &lassware: and t"en transfer to -+1 9ottles or ,re,are directl* in -+1 9ottles. Eit"er dilution met"od can 9e com9ined wit" an* 1+ measurement tec"ni/ue. T"e num9er of 9ottles to 9e ,re,ared for eac" dilution de,ends on t"e 1+ tec"ni/ue and t"e num9er of re,licates desired. !"en usin& &raduated c*linders or 7olumetric flas<s to ,re,are dilutions: and w"en seedin& is necessar*: add seed eit"er directl* to dilution water or to indi7idual c*linders or flas<s 9efore dilution. Seedin& of indi7idual c*linders or flas<s a7oids a declinin& ratio of seed to sam,le as increasin& dilutions are made. !"en dilutions are ,re,ared directl* in -+1 9ottles and w"en seedin& is necessar*: add seed directl* to dilution water or directl* to t"e -+1 9ottles. !"en a 9ottle contains more t"an $%R of t"e sam,le after dilution: nutrients ma* 9e limited in t"e diluted sam,le and su9se/uentl* reduce 9iolo&ical acti7it*. In suc" sam,les: add t"e nutrient: mineral: and 9uffer solutions (d 3a t"rou&" e) directl* to indi7idual -+1 9ottles at a rate of 1 m656 (A.33 m653AA8m6 9ottle) or use commerciall* ,re,ared solutions desi&ned to dose t"e a,,ro,riate 9ottle si>e. 1) 1ilutions ,re,ared in &raduated c*linders or 7olumetric flas<sTIf t"e a>ide modification of t"e titrimetric iodometric met"od (Section 4 AA8+.C) is used: carefull*
65
si,"on dilution water: seeded if necessar*: into a 18 to 2868ca,acit* flas< or c*linder. (ill "alf full wit"out entrainin& air. 2dd desired /uantit* of carefull* mi.ed sam,le and dilute to a,,ro,riate le7el wit" dilution water. )i. well wit" a ,lun&er8t*,e mi.in& rod3 a7oid entrainin& air. Si,"on mi.ed dilution into two -+1 9ottles. 1etermine initial 1+ on one of t"ese 9ottles. Sto,,er t"e second 9ottle ti&"tl*: water8seal: and incu9ate for d at 2A]C. If t"e mem9rane electrode met"od is used for 1+ measurement: si,"on dilution mi.ture into one -+1 9ottle. 1etermine initial 1+ on t"is 9ottle and re,lace an* dis,laced contents wit" sam,le dilution to fill t"e 9ottle. Sto,,er ti&"tl*: water8seal: and incu9ate for d at 2A]C. 2) 1ilutions ,re,ared directl* in -+1 9ottlesTUsin& a wide8ti, 7olumetric ,i,et: add t"e desired sam,le 7olume to indi7idual -+1 9ottles of <nown ca,acit*. 2dd a,,ro,riate amounts of seed material eit"er to t"e indi7idual -+1 9ottles or to t"e dilution water. (ill 9ottles wit" enou&" dilution water: seeded if necessar*: so t"at insertion of sto,,er will dis,lace all air: lea7in& no 9u99les. (or dilutions &reater t"an 1'1AA ma<e a ,rimar* dilution in a &raduated c*linder 9efore ma<in& final dilution in t"e 9ottle. !"en usin& titrimetric iodometric met"ods for 1+ measurement: ,re,are two 9ottles at eac" dilution. 1etermine initial 1+ on one 9ottle. Sto,,er second 9ottle ti&"tl*: water8seal: and incu9ate for d at 2A]C. If t"e mem9rane electrode met"od is used for 1+ measurement: ,re,are onl* one -+1 9ottle for eac" dilution. 1etermine initial 1+ on t"is 9ottle and re,lace an* dis,laced contents wit" dilution water to fill t"e 9ottle. Sto,,er ti&"tl*: water8 seal: and incu9ate for d at 2A]C. 4inse 1+ electrode 9etween determinations to ,re7ent cross8contamination of sam,les. Use t"e a>ide modification of t"e iodometric met"od (Section 4 AA8+.C) or t"e mem9rane electrode met"od (Section 4 AA8+.;) to determine initial 1+ on all sam,le dilutions: dilution water 9lan<s: and w"ere a,,ro,riate: seed controls. If t"e mem9rane electrode met"od is used: t"e a>ide modification of t"e iodometric met"od ()et"od 4 AA8+.C) is recommended for cali9ratin& t"e 1+ ,ro9e. &. 1etermination of initial 1+' If t"e sam,le contains materials t"at react ra,idl* wit" 1+: determine initial 1+ immediatel* after fillin& -+1 9ottle wit" diluted sam,le. If ra,id initial 1+ u,ta<e is insi&nificant: t"e time ,eriod 9etween ,re,arin& dilution and measurin& initial 1+ is not critical 9ut s"ould not e.ceed 3A min. ". 1ilution water 9lan<' Use a dilution water 9lan< as a rou&" c"ec< on /ualit* of unseeded dilution water and cleanliness of incu9ation 9ottles. To&et"er wit" eac" 9atc" of sam,les incu9ate a 9ottle of unseeded dilution water. 1etermine initial and final 1+ as in ds 4& and D. T"e 1+ u,ta<e s"ould not 9e more t"an A.2 m&56 and ,refera9l* not more t"an A.1 m&56 1iscard all dilution water "a7in& a 1+ u,ta<e &reater t"an A.2 m&56 and eit"er eliminate source of contamination or select an alternate dilution water source.. i. Incu9ation' Incu9ate at 2A]C b 1]C -+1 9ottles containin& desired dilutions: seed controls: dilution water 9lan<s: and &lucose8&lutamic acid c"ec<s. !ater8seal 9ottles as descri9ed in d 4 f. D. 1etermination of final 1+' 2fter 9lan<s: and c"ec<s as in d 4&. d incu9ation determine 1+ in sam,le dilutions:
. Calculation (or eac" test 9ottle meetin& t"e 2.A8m&56 minimum 1+ de,letion and t"e 1.A8m&56 residual 1+: calculate -+1 as follows'!"en dilution water is not seeded'
66
!"en dilution water is seeded'
w"ere' 11 X 1+ of diluted sam,le immediatel* after ,re,aration: m&56: 12 X 1+ of diluted sam,le after d incu9ation at 2A]C: m&56: P X decimal 7olumetric fraction of sam,le used: -1 X 1+ of seed control 9efore incu9ation: m&56 -2 X 1+ of seed control after incu9ation m&56 and f X ratio of seed in diluted sam,le to seed in seed control X (R seed in diluted sam,le)5(R seed in seed control). If seed material is added directl* to sam,le or to seed control 9ottles' f X (7olume of seed in diluted sam,le)5(7olume of seed in seed control) re,ort results as C-+1 if nitrification is in"i9ited. If more t"an one sam,le dilution meets t"e criteria of a residual 1+ of at least 1 m&56 and a 1+ de,letion of at least 2 m&56 and t"ere is no e7idence of to.icit* at "i&"er sam,le concentrations or t"e e.istence of an o97ious anomal*: a7era&e results in t"e acce,ta9le ran&e. In t"ese calculations: do not ma<e corrections for 1+ u,ta<e 9* t"e dilution water 9lan< durin& incu9ation. T"is correction is unnecessar* if dilution water meets t"e 9lan< criteria sti,ulated a9o7e. If t"e dilution water does not meet t"ese criteria: ,ro,er corrections are difficult 3 do not record results or: as a minimum: mar< t"em as not meetin& /ualit* control criteria. $. Precision and -ias T"ere is no measurement for esta9lis"in& 9ias of t"e -+1 ,rocedure. T"e &lucose8 &lutamic acid c"ec< ,rescri9ed in d 4c is intended to 9e a reference ,oint for e7aluation of dilution water /ualit*: seed effecti7eness: and anal*tical tec"ni/ue. Sin&le8la9orator* tests usin& a 3AA8m&56 mi.ed &lucose8&lutamic acid solution ,ro7ided t"e followin& results' Num9er of mont"s' 14 Num9er of tri,licates' 421 27era&e mont"l* reco7er*' 2A4 m&56 27era&e mont"l* standard de7iation' 1A.4 m&56 In a series of interla9orator* studies:1 eac" in7ol7in& 2 to 112 la9oratories (and as man* anal*sts and seed sources): 8d -+1 measurements were made on s*nt"etic water sam,les containin& a 1'1 mi.ture of &lucose and &lutamic acid in t"e total concentration ran&e of 3.3 to 231 m&56. T"e re&ression e/uations for mean 7alue: e : and standard de7iation: S: from t"ese studies were' e X A.$ C (added le7el: m&56) [ A.2CA m&56
67
S X A.1AA (added le7el: m&56) [ A. 4% m&56 (or t"e 3AA8m&56 mi.ed ,rimar* standard: t"e a7era&e 8d -+1 would 9e 1BC m&56 wit" a standard de7iation of 3A. m&56. !"en nitrification in"i9itors are used: ;;2 test results fallin& outside t"e 1BC b 3A. control limit /uite often indicate use of incorrect amounts of seed. 2dDust amount of seed added to t"e ;;2 test to ac"ie7e results fallin& wit"in t"is ran&e. a. Control limits' -ecause of man* factors affectin& -+1 tests in multila9orator* studies and t"e resultin& e.treme 7aria9ilit* in test results: one standard de7iation: as determined 9* inter8la9orator* tests: is recommended as a control limit for indi7idual la9oratories. 2lternati7el*: for eac" la9orator*: esta9lis" its control limits 9* ,erformin& a minimum of 2 &lucose8&lutamic acid c"ec<s (d 4c) o7er a ,eriod of se7eral wee<s or mont"s and calculatin& t"e mean and standard de7iation. Use t"e mean b3 standard de7iations as t"e control limit for future &lucose8&lutamic acid c"ec<s. Com,are calculated control limits to t"e sin&le8la9orator* tests ,resented a9o7e and to inter8la9orator* results. If control limits are outside t"e ran&e of 1BC b 3A. : re8e7aluate t"e control limits and in7esti&ate source of t"e ,ro9lem. If measured -+1 for a &lucose8&lutamic acid c"ec< is outside t"e acce,ted control limit ran&e: reDect tests made wit" t"at seed and dilution water. 9. !or<in& ran&e and detection limit' T"e wor<in& ran&e is e/ual to t"e difference 9etween t"e ma.imum initial 1+ (% to B m&56) and minimum 1+ residual of 1 m&56 multi,lied 9* t"e dilution factor. 2 lower detection limit of 2 m&56 is esta9lis"ed 9* t"e re/uirement for a minimum 1+ de,letion of 2 m&56.
4. Total Sus,ended Solids (TSS)

Total sus,ended solids (TSS) include all ,articles sus,ended in water w"ic" will not ,ass t"rou&" a filter. Sus,ended solids are ,resent in sanitar* wastewater and man* t*,es of industrial wastewater. T"ere are also non,oint sources of sus,ended solids: suc" as soil erosion from a&ricultural and construction sites. 2s le7els of TSS increase: a water 9od* 9e&ins to lose its a9ilit* to su,,ort a di7ersit* of a/uatic life. Sus,ended solids a9sor9 "eat from sunli&"t: w"ic" increases water tem,erature and su9se/uentl* decreases le7els of dissol7ed o.*&en (warmer water "olds less o.*&en t"an cooler water). Some cold water s,ecies: suc" as trout and stoneflies: are es,eciall* sensiti7e to c"an&es in dissol7ed o.*&en. P"otos*nt"esis also decreases: since less li&"t ,enetrates t"e water. 2s less o.*&en is ,roduced 9* ,lants and al&ae: t"ere is a furt"er dro, in dissol7ed o.*&en le7els. TSS can also destro* fis" "a9itat 9ecause sus,ended solids settle to t"e 9ottom and can e7entuall* 9lan<et t"e ri7er 9ed. Sus,ended solids can smot"er t"e e&&s of fis" and a/uatic insects: and can suffocate newl*8"atc"ed insect lar7ae. Sus,ended solids can also "arm fis" directl* 9* clo&&in& &ills: reducin& &rowt" rates: and lowerin& resistance to disease. C"an&es to t"e a/uatic en7ironment ma* result in a diminis"ed food sources: and increased difficulties in findin& food. Natural mo7ements and mi&rations of a/uatic ,o,ulations ma* 9e disru,ted. (or ,oint sources: ade/uate treatment is necessar* to insure t"at sus,ended solids are not ,resent at le7els of concern in waters of t"e state. Treatment t*,icall* consists of settlin& ,rior to disc"ar&e of t"e wastewater. Settlin& allows solids to sin< to t"e 9ottom: w"ere
68
t"e* can 9e remo7ed. Some t*,es of wastewaters: suc" as non8contact coolin& water: are naturall* low in sus,ended solids and do not re/uire treatment. (or non,oint sources: control measures s"ould 9e im,lemented to reduce loadin&s of sus,ended solids to streams: ri7ers and la<es. (armin& ,ractices suc" as no8till minimi>e soil erosion and "el, ,rotect water /ualit*. (or construction sites: controls suc" as silt fences and sedimentation 9asins are desi&ned to ,re7ent erodin& soils from reac"in& surface waters. In ur9an areas: storm water retention ,onds or a re&ular sc"edule of street swee,in& ma* 9e effecti7e in reducin& t"e /uantit* of sus,ended solids in storm water run8off. Procedure3 Ta<e a filter ,a,er: dr* it in o7en at 1A A C tem,. for 1 "r. wei&" it (intial wei&"t) now ta<e Aml of well s"a<ed sam,les: if sus,ended solids are of low ran&e: ta<e 1AA ml of sam,le or so and filter t"e sam,le. 1r* t"e filter ,a,er alon& wit" resiue in o7en at 1A A C cool it and wei&" it to a constant wei&"t ((inal !ei&"t). Calculations3 T.S.S in ,,m X ! . 1A$ 0 !"ere: ! X (inal wei&"t of filter ,a,er (wit" solids ) 8 intial wei&"t of filter ,a,er (wit"out solids) 0 X 0olume of sam,les used
. Total 1issol7ed Solids (T1S)

Solids are found in streams in two forms: sus,ended and dissol7ed. Sus,ended solids include silt: stirred8u, 9ottom sediment: deca*in& ,lant matter: or sewa&e8treatment effluent. Sus,ended solids will not ,ass t"rou&" a filter: w"ereas dissol7ed solids will. 1issol7ed solids in fres"water sam,les include solu9le salts t"at *ield ions suc" as sodium (Na[): calcium (Ca2[): ma&nesium ()&2[): 9icar9onate (=C+3O): sulfate (S+42O ): or c"loride (ClO). Total dissol7ed solids: or T1S: can 9e determined 9* e7a,oratin& a ,re8 filtered sam,le to dr*ness: and t"en findin& t"e mass of t"e dr* residue ,er liter of sam,le. 2 second met"od uses a 0ernier Conducti7it* Pro9e to determine t"e a9ilit* of t"e dissol7ed salts and t"eir resultin& ions in an unfiltered sam,le to conduct an electrical current. T"e conducti7it* is t"en con7erted to T1S. Eit"er of t"ese met"ods *ields a T1S 7alue in units of m&56. Sources of Total 1issol7ed Solids E =ard8!ater Ions 8 Ca2[ 8 )&2[ 8 =C+3O
69
E (ertili>er in a&ricultural runoff 8 N=4[ 8 N+3O 8 P+43O 8 S+42O EUr9an runoff 8 Na[ 8 ClO ESalinit* from tidal mi.in&: minerals: or returned irri&ation water 8 Na[ 8 J[ 8 ClO E2cidic rainfall 8 =[ 8 N+3O 8 S+32O: S+42O T"e T1S concentration in a 9od* of water is affected 9* man* different factors. 2 "i&" concentration of dissol7ed ions is not: 9* itself: an indication t"at a stream is ,olluted or un"ealt"*. It is normal for streams to dissol7e and accumulate fairl* "i&" concentrations of ions from t"e minerals in t"e roc<s and soils o7er w"ic" t"e* flow. If t"ese de,osits contain salts (sodium c"loride or ,otassium c"loride) or limestone (calcium car9onate): t"en si&nificant concentrations of Na[: J[: ClO will result: as well as "ard8water ions: suc" as Ca2[ and =C+3O from limestone. T1S is sometimes used as a ?watc"do&@ en7ironmental test. 2n* c"an&e in t"e ionic com,osition 9etween testin& sites in a stream can /uic<l* 9e detected usin& a Conducti7it* Pro9e. T1S 7alues will c"an&e w"en ions are introduced to water from salts: acids: 9ases: "ard8water minerals: or solu9le &ases t"at ioni>e in solution. =owe7er: t"e tests descri9ed "ere will not tell *ou t"e s,ecific ion res,onsi9le for t"e increase or decrease in T1S. T"e* sim,l* &i7e a &eneral indication of t"e le7el of dissol7ed solids in t"e stream or la<e. (urt"er tests descri9ed in t"is 9oo< can t"en "el, to determine t"e s,ecific ion or ions t"at contri9uted to c"an&es in t"e initial T1S readin&. T"ere are man* ,ossi9le manmade sources of ions t"at ma* contri9ute to ele7ated T1S readin&s. (ertili>ers from fields and lawns can add a 7ariet* of ions to a stream. Increases in T1S can also result from runoff from roads t"at "a7e 9een salted in t"e winter. +r&anic matter from wastewater treatment ,lants ma* contri9ute "i&"er le7els of nitrate or ,"os,"ate ions. Treated wastewater ma* also "a7e "i&"er T1S readin&s t"an surroundin& streams if ur9an drin<in& water "as 9een "i&"l* c"lorinated. Irri&ation water t"at is returned to a stream will often "a7e "i&"er concentrations of sodium or c"loride ions. 2cidic rainwater: wit" dissol7ed &ases li<e C+2: N+2: or S+2: often *ields ele7ated =[ ion concentrations.
70
If T1S le7els are "i&": es,eciall* due to dissol7ed salts: man* forms of a/uatic life are affected. T"e salts act to de"*drate t"e s<in of animals. =i&" concentrations of dissol7ed solids can add a la.ati7e effect to water or cause t"e water to "a7e an un,leasant mineral taste. It is also ,ossi9le for dissol7ed ions to affect t"e ,= of a 9od* of water: w"ic" in turn ma* influence t"e "ealt" of a/uatic s,ecies. If "i&" T1S readin&s are due to "ard8 water ions: t"en soa,s ma* 9e less effecti7e: or si&nificant 9oiler ,latin& ma* occur in "eatin& ,i,es. Summar* of )et"ods )et"od 1' T1S Usin& a Conducti7it* Pro9e 2 0ernier Conducti7it* Pro9e is used on site: or ,laced into sam,les collected at sites: to measure T1S concentration of t"e solution. It offers t"e ad7anta&e t"at it can 9e ,erformed wit"out filtration: ,ro7idin& instantaneous feed9ac< a9out total dissol7ed solids concentration in a stream.
)et"od 2' T1S 9* E7a,oration Usin& t"is met"od: sam,les are first filtered to remo7e sus,ended solids. 2 ,recise amount of sam,le is added to a carefull* cleaned: dried: and wei&"ed 9ea<er. T"e water is t"en e7a,orated in a dr*in& o7en at 1A A C. T"e difference in mass 9etween t"e two wei&"in&s is t"e mass of t"e total dissol7ed solids. Calculations are t"en ,erformed to con7ert t"e c"an&e in mass to m&56 of T1S. T"is ,rocedure does not re/uire a sensor: 9ut does re/uire an anal*tical 9alance (A.AA1 or A.AAA18& resolution). Calculations' T.S.S in ,,m X ! . 1A$ 0 !"ere: ! X (inal wei&"t of 9ea<er (wit" solids ) 8 intial wei&"t of 9ea<er (wit"out solids) 0 X 0olume of sam,les used
$. +il W ;rease Content

!orld water 9odies are increasin&l* ,olluted wit" oil* water: its effects can 9e irre7ersi9le for a/uatic li7in& or&anisms: and t"e conse/uences of t"ese effects are transferred: indirectl* or directl*: to "umans: as t"e* are also in7ol7e in t"e in t"e food c"ain of t"e ecos*stem. T"e ,resence of oil and &rease in water 9odies leads to t"e formation of oil la*er: w"ic" causes si&nificant ,ollution ,ro9lem suc" as reduction of li&"t ,enetration and ,"otos*nt"esis. It furt"er "inders o.*&en transfer from atmos,"ere to water medium and t"is leads to decreased amount of dissol7ed o.*&en (1+) at t"e 9ottom of t"e water and t"is ad7ersel* affects sur7i7al of a/uatic life in water . Stams and +ude re,orted t"e effects of oil and &rease in wastewater steam to include ,"*sical 9loc<a&es in sewers: ,um,: screens and filter distri9utor arms: and t"ese conse/uentl*
71
lead to increase maintenance costs. T"ese effects also include accumulation of li&"ter oils in t"e wet wells of ,um,in& stations: foulin& of electrodes or float s*stems w"ic" leads to ,um, controls failures. !"ere t"e nature of oil is "i&"l* flamma9le: it leads to e.,losion "a>ard in t"e treatment wor<s. E.cessi7e &rease in t"e wastewater stream causes difficulties in slud&e ,ressin& 9ecause of M9lindin& effectN on t"e filter clot"s. (urt"ermore: oil and &rease interfere wit" aero9ic 9iolo&ical wastewater treatment ,rocesses 9* reducin& o.*&en transfer rates. E/uall*: oil and &rease reduce t"e efficac* of anaero9ic treatment ,rocesses 9* reducin& t"e trans,ort of solu9le su9strates to t"e 9acterial 9iomass. Similarl*: in t"e munici,al water treatment ,lant: oil and &rease cause o9Dectiona9le taste and odors: tur9idit* and film: and ma<e filtration treatment difficult. 4ea&ents re/uired ' Petroleum et"er of 9oilin& ran&e 4A8$AA C: dilute =Cl AR. Procedure' Ta<e a <nown /uantit* of sam,le usuall* 1AAml in a 9ea<er. 2cidif* its ," usin& dil. =Cl. !ei&" t"e e7a,oratin& dis" (intial wei&"t). To t"e se,aratin& funnel add sam,le. add ml of t"e ,etroleum et"er to it.s"a<e well for atleast 2 min. t"en allow to rest for 2 min. we will find two se,arated la*ers: one et"er la*er and anot"er sam,le la*er. collect lower la*er to same sam,le 9ea<er. add et"er la*er to e7a,oratin& dis". 4e,eat a9o7e ,rocedure to 2 more times. t"en ,ut collected et"er la*er in e7a,oratin& dis" in o7en and allow it to e7a,orate to constant wei&"t. T"en allow it to cool. wei&" it a&ain (final wei&"t). Calculations' T.S.S in ,,m X ! . 1A$ 0 !"ere: ! X (inal wei&"t of e7a,oratin& dis" 8 intial wei&"t of em,t* e7a,oratin& dis" 0 X 0olume of sam,les used
%. Uar Testin&
Uar testin& is a ,ilot8scale test of t"e treatment c"emicals used in a ,articular water ,lant. It simulates t"e coa&ulation5flocculation ,rocess in a water treatment ,lant and "el,s o,erators determine if t"e* are usin& t"e ri&"t amount of treatment c"emicals: and: t"us: im,ro7es t"e ,lantNs ,erformance. Uar testin& is a met"od of simulatin& a full scale water treatment ,rocess: ,ro7idin& s*stem o,erators a reasona9le idea of t"e wa* a treatment c"emical will 9e"a7e and o,erate wit" a ,articular t*,e of raw water. -ecause it mimics full8scale o,eration: s*stem o,erators can use Dar testin& to "el, determine w"ic" treatment c"emical will wor< 9est wit" t"eir s*stemNs raw water. Uar testin& entails adDustin& t"e amount of treatment c"emicals and t"e se/uence in w"ic" t"e* are added to sam,les of raw water "eld in Dars or 9ea<ers. T"e sam,le is t"en stirred so t"at t"e formation: de7elo,ment:
72
and settlement of floc can 9e watc"ed Dust as it would 9e in t"e full scale treatment ,lant. ((loc forms w"en treatment c"emicals react wit" material in t"e raw water and clum, to&et"er.) T"e o,erator t"en ,erforms a series of tests to com,are t"e effects of different amounts of flocculation a&ents at different ,= 7alues to determine t"e ri&"t si>e floc for a ,articular ,lant. (T"e ri&"t si>e of floc de,ends u,on t"e s*stemNs filter dimensions and ot"er considerations.) T"e Dar testin& ,rocess can 9e summari>ed as follows' 1. (or eac" water sam,le (usuall* raw water) a num9er of 9ea<ers (Dars) are filled wit" e/ual amounts of t"e water sam,le3 2. Eac" 9ea<er of t"e water sam,le is treated wit" a different dose of t"e c"emical3 3. +t"er ,arameters ma* 9e altered 9esides dosa&e: includin& c"emical t*,es: mi.in& rate: aeration le7el5time: filtration t*,e: etc.3 4. -* com,arin& t"e final water /ualit* ac"ie7ed in eac" 9ea<er: t"e effect of t"e different treatment ,arameters can 9e determined3 and . Uar testin& is normall* carried out on se7eral 9ea<ers at a time: wit" t"e results from t"e first test &uidin& t"e c"oice of ,arameter amounts in t"e later tests. 're=uen!y of Jar Testing Uar testin& s"ould 9e done seasonall* (tem,erature): mont"l*: wee<l*: dail*: or w"ene7er a c"emical is 9ein& c"an&ed: or new ,um,s: ra,id mi. motors: new floc motors: or new c"emical feeders are installed. T"ere is no set re/uirement for "ow often Dar testin& s"ould 9e conducted: 9ut t"e more itNs done t"e 9etter t"e ,lant will o,erate. +,timi>ation is t"e <e* to runnin& t"e ,lant more efficientl* Why perform @ar tests: -* ,erformin& Dar tests: *ou can tr* alternati7e treatment doses and strate&ies wit"out alterin& t"e ,erformance of t"e full8scale treatment ,lant and easil* com,are t"e results of se7eral different c"emical treatments for time of formation: floc si>e: settlea9ilit*: and: ,er"a,s: filtration c"aracteristics. +ne cannot ma<e suc" com,arisons wit" t"e full ,lantNs treatment.@ 2not"er im,ortant reason to ,erform Dar testin& is to sa7e mone*. +ne of t"e common ,ro9lems in water treatment is o7erfeedin& or o7erdosin&: es,eciall* wit" coa&ulants. T"is ma* not "urt t"e /ualit* of water: 9ut it can cost a lot of mone*. +ne of t"e easiest t"in&s an o,erator can do for o,timi>ation of t"e ,lant is Dar testin&: and Dar testin& is a must w"en loo<in& at 9est a7aila9le tec"nolo&ies. Jar Testing Pro!edures T"e followin& Dar test ,rocedure uses alum (aluminum sulfate) a c"emical for coa&ulation5 flocculation in water treatment: and a t*,ical si.8&an& Dar tester. T"e results of t"is ,rocedure can "el, o,timi>e t"e ,erformance of t"e ,lant.
73
E (irst: usin& a 1:AAA milliliter (m6) &raduated c*linder: add 1:AAA m6 of raw water to eac" of t"e Dar test 9ea<ers. 4ecord t"e tem,erature: ,=: tur9idit*: and al<alinit* of t"e raw water 9efore 9e&innin&. E Ne.t: ,re,are a stoc< solution 9* dissol7in& 1A.A &rams of alum into 1:AAA m6 distilled water. Eac" 1.A m6 of t"is stoc< solution will e/ual 1A m&f6 (,,m) w"en added to 1:AAA m6 of water to 9e tested. E Usin& t"e ,re,ared stoc< solution of alum: dose eac" 9ea<er wit" increased amounts of t"e solution. See ta9le 9elow for an e.am,le of t"e increments and dosa&e' ml alum stoc< added 1.A 1. 2.A 2. 3.A 3. m&5l alum dosa&e 1A 1 2A 2 3A 3
Uar g 1 2 3 4 $
E 2fter dosin& eac" 9ea<er: turn on t"e stirrers. T"is ,art of t"e ,rocedure s"ould reflect t"e actual conditions of t"e ,lant as muc" as ,ossi9le. )eanin&: if t"e ,lant "as a static mi.er followin& c"emical addition: followed 9* 3A minutes in a flocculator: t"en 1. "ours of settlin& time 9efore t"e filters: t"en t"e test also s"ould "a7e t"ese ste,s. T"e Dar test would 9e ,erformed as follows' +,erate t"e stirrers at a "i&" 4P) for 1 minute to simulate t"e static mi.er. T"en reduce t"e s,eed of t"e stirrers to matc" t"e conditions in t"e flocculator and allow t"em to o,erate for 3A minutes. +9ser7e t"e floc formation ,eriodicall* durin& t"e 3A minutes. 2t t"e end of t"e 3A minutes turn off t"e stirrers and allow settlin&. )ost of t"e settlin& will 9e com,lete after one "our. E Now: loo< at t"e 9ea<ers and determine w"ic" one "as t"e 9est results (if an*). If no results were noticea9le: t"en increase t"e dosa&e usin& t"e ta9le a9o7e for t"e ne.t si. Dars. 2n underfeedin& will cause t"e sam,le in t"e 9ea<er to loo< cloud* wit" little or no floc and no settlin& or 7er* little. 2n o7erfeedin& will cause a dense fluff* floc to form and will not settle well: meanin& it sta*s in sus,ension and floats. T"e 9ea<er t"at loo<s li<e it "as t"e a,,ro,riate dosa&e of alum (coa&ulant) will "a7e floc t"at "as settled to t"e 9ottom: and t"e water a9o7e it will 9e relati7el* clear (remem9er t"is is 9efore t"e filterin& ,rocess of t"e water treatment ,lant). T"e 9est wa* to determine w"ic" sam,le is t"e clearest would 9e to c"ec< t"e tur9idit* of eac" 9ea<er and record t"is information. Use a ,i,ette to draw a ,ortion from t"e to, of eac" 9ea<er one at a time not stirrin& or distur9in& t"e sam,le. If none of t"e 9ea<ers a,,ear to "a7e &ood results: t"en t"e ,rocedure needs to 9e run a&ain usin& different dosa&es until t"e correct dosa&e is found.
74
4eferences 1. Euro,ean En7ironment 2&enc*. Co,en"a&en: 1enmar<. FIndicator' -ioc"emical o.*&en demand in ri7ers (2AA1).F ("tt,'5 5 t"emes. eea. euro,a. eu5 S,ecificamedia5 water5 indicators5 9od5 inde.a"tml). 2. Tanner* !astewater Treatment 9* t"e +.*&en 2cti7ated Slud&e Process )amoru Jas"iwa*a and Jameo Hos"imoto Uournal (!ater Pollution Control (ederation): 0ol. 2: No. ()a*: 1BCA): ,,. BBB81AA% (article consists of B ,a&es) Pu9lis"ed 9*' !ater En7ironment (ederation. 3. Tc"o9ano&lous: ;.: -urton: (.6.: and Stensel: =.1. (2AA3). !astewater En&ineerin& (Treatment 1is,osal 4euse) 5 )etcalf W Edd*: Inc. (4 t" ed.). )c;raw8 =ill -oo< Com,an*. IS-N A8A%8A41C%C8A. 4. -e*c"o<: )ilton 4. (1B$%). 2/ueous !astes from Petroleum and Petroc"emical Plants (1st ed.). Uo"n !ile* W Sons. 6CCN $%A1BC34. . !ater and !astewater News: )a* 2AA4 G"tt,'55wwn8online.com5articles5 ACBC5I $. 2merican Petroleum Institute (2PI) ((e9ruar* 1BBA). )ana&ement of !ater 1isc"ar&es' 1esi&n and +,erations of +il8!ater Se,arators (1st ed.). 2merican Petroleum Institute. %. -e*c"o<: )ilton 4. (1ecem9er 1B%1). F!astewater treatmentF. =*drocar9on Processin&' 1ABO112. ISSN AC1C8C1BA. C. C"oosin& an Effluent Treatment Plant: ). 2<"taru>>aman: 2le.andra Clemett: Uerr* Jna,,: )a"9u9ul 2. )a"mood: Sami*a 2"med. B. -iolo&ical !astewater Treatment 9* 2run )ittal. 1A. "tt,'55 wi<i,edia.com 11. "tt,'55 &oo&le.com

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Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

1. Introduction to Effluent Treatment Plant

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

A A.2 3A 2 2 2 A 1AAA A.1 3 A.2 2 A.1 A.A1 3 1A 8 . 8B.A 1

A A.2 3 A 2 1 8 1AAA 2.A 3 2 1 1.A A.A1 3 2A 8 . 8B.A 8

Inland surface waters A.A 8 1AAA 2 1AA 21AA 1 _

Land for Irrigation

A.A $A 1AAA 8 $AA 21AA 8 1 _

8 $A 1AAA 8 2AA 21AA 8 8 3

!"at do t"ese Standards )ean#

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

2 t*,ical 2PI oil8water se,arator used in man* industries

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

2 t*,ical ,arallel ,late se,arator

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

2 t*,ical com,lete tric<lin& filter s*stem

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

What national or international standards must you !omply )ith:

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Ta9le 1' !astewater Treatment 6e7els and Processes

Treatment 6e7el Preliminar*

P"*sical and c"emical

-iolo&ical and c"emical P"*sical: c"emical and 9iolo&ical

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Dissolved air flotation

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

2ttac"ed8&rowt" ,rocesses or fi.ed8film ,rocesses

2 com9ination of sus,ended8&rowt" and fi.ed8film

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Con7entional 2SP S*stem

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Elimination of se!ondary !larifier

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Inte&rated (i.ed (ilm 2cti7ated S*stem (I(2S)

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

T"e carrier material used inside a )--4 s*stem

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Treated Effluent Vualit*

29ilit* to adDust to 7aria9le 27era&e "*draulic and ,ollutant loadin&

Effluent Treatment Plant: Design, Operation And Analysis Of Waste Water

Sus,ended im,urities e.&. oil W &rease and TSS remo7al 27era&e

Sus,ended im,urities e.&. oil W &rease and TSS remo7al

Sus,ended im,urities e.&. oil W &rease and TSS remo7al

29ilit* to co,e wit" in&ress of oil

Secondar* Clari8 fier Needed 4e/uirement

2 t,ical 2PI oil8water se,arator used in man industries

2 t,ical com,lete tric<lin& filter sstem