WorkplaceStress 1

StressintheWorkplace:AGeneral OverviewoftheCauses,theEffects,andtheSolutions MelanieBickford

CanadianMentalHealthAssociation NewfoundlandandLabradorDivision August2005

WorkplaceStress 2 StressintheWorkplace:AGeneral OverviewoftheCauses,theEffects,andtheSolutions

Stressintheworkplaceisagrowingconcerninthecurrentstateoftheeconomy,where employeesincreasinglyfaceconditionsofoverwork,jobinsecurity,lowlevelsofjob satisfaction,andlackofautonomy.Workplacestresshasbeenshowntohaveadetrimental effectonthehealthandwellbeingofemployees,aswellasanegativeimpactonworkplace productivityandprofits.Therearemeasuresthatindividualsandorganizationscantaketo alleviatethenegativeimpactofstress,ortostopitfromarisinginthefirstplace.However, employeesfirstneedtolearntorecognizethesignsthatindicatetheyarefeelingstressedout, andemployersneedtobeawareoftheeffectsthatstresshasontheiremployeeshealthaswell asoncompanyprofits.Thisreportisacalltoemployerstotakeactiononstresslevelsinthe workplace.

GeneralStress Simplystated,stressiswhatwefeelwhenwehavetorespondtoademandonour energy.Stressisanaturalpartoflife,andoccurswhenevertherearesignificantchangesinour lives,whetherpositiveornegative.Itisgenerallybelievedthatsomestressisokay(sometimes referredtoaschallengeorpositivestress)butwhenstressoccursinamountsthatindividuals cannotcopewith,bothmentalandphysicalchangesmayoccur(CanadianCentrefor OccupationalHealthandSafety,2000).

WorkplaceStress 3 Wearealldifferentintheeventsthatweperceiveasstressorsandthecoping abilitiesatourdisposal.However,thereareanumberofsituationswhicharegenerally identifiedasbeingstressful,andincludefinancialworries,workoverload,unemployment, relationships,parenting,balancingworkandfamily,caregiving,healthproblems,losses, Christmas,competitiveness,peerpressure,exams,andnothavingenoughtime(CanadianMental HealthAssociation,n.d.). StressisaneverpresentissuewiththemajorityofCanadians,accordingtoresultsfrom the2001CanadianMentalHealthSurvey(CanadianMentalHealthAssociation,2001).500 Canadianswereaskedthequestion,Thinkingaboutstressinyourlife,howoftendoyoufeel reallystressedallthetime,afewtimesaweek,aboutonceamonth,afewtimesayear,oncea yearorlessoften,ornever?Inresponse,9%ofCanadianssaidtheyfeltreallystressedallthe time,43%feltreallystressedafewtimesaweek,while24%feltreallystressedaboutoncea month. Stressisanormal,adaptiveresponsetostressorsinourenvironment.Ourbodiesare designedwithasetofautomaticresponsestodealwithstress.Thissystemisveryeffectivefor theshortterm"fightorflight"responsesweneedwhenfacedwithimmediatedanger.The problemisthat,physiologically,ourbodieshavethesamereactiontoall typesofstressors. Experiencingstressforlongperiodsoftime,suchaslowerlevelbutconstantstressorsatwork, activatesthissystem.Formanypeople,everydaystressorskeepthisresponseactivated,sothat itdoesnothaveachancetoturnoff. ThisreactioniscalledtheGeneralizedStressResponseandconsistsofthefollowing physiologicalresponses: increasedbloodpressure

WorkplaceStress 4 increasedmetabolism(e.g.,fasterheartbeat,fasterrespiration) decreaseinproteinsynthesis,intestinalmovement(digestion),immuneandallergicresponse systems increasedcholesterolandfattyacidsinbloodforenergyproductionsystems localizedinflammation(redness,swelling,heatandpain) fasterbloodclotting increasedproductionofbloodsugarforenergy increasedstomachacids Whenthissetofreactionsiscontinuouslyactivated,individualsbegintodisplaysignsand symptomsthatindicatetheyarehavingdifficultycopingwiththestressorsintheirlives.These symptomscanbephysical,psychosocial,andbehaviouralinnature,asillustratedinthe followingtable(CanadianCentreforOccupationalHealthandSafety,2000): Physical Psychosocial Behavioural Headaches Anxiety Overeatingorlossofappetite Grindingteeth Irritability Impatience Clenchedjaws Sadness Quicknesstoargue Chestpain Defensiveness Procrastination Shortnessofbreath Anger Increaseduseofalcohol/ Poundingheart Moodswings drugs Highbloodpressure Hypersensitivity Increasedsmoking Muscleaches Apathy Withdrawalorisolationfrom Indigestion Depression others Constipationor Slowedthinkingor Neglectofresponsibility diarrhea racingthoughts Poorjobperformance Increased Feelingsofhelplessness, Poorpersonalhygiene perspiration hopelessness,orofbeing Changeinreligiouspractices Fatigue trapped Changesinclosefamily Insomnia relationships Frequentillness WorkplaceStress

WorkplaceStress 5 Whenaskedaboutthesourcesoftheirstress,amajorityofCanadians(51%) reportedthatworkwasamajorormoderatesourceofstressintheirlives.Thisfigureisupfrom 39%reportedinaprevioussurveyconductedin1997.Basedonthesesurveyresultsitappears thatworkplacestressisagrowingproblemamongCanadians(CanadianMentalHealth Association,2001). TheCanadianCentreforOccupationalHealthandSafety(2000)hasdefinedworkplace stressastheharmfulphysicalandemotionalresponsesthatcanresultfromconflictsbetweenjob demandsontheemployeeandtheamountofcontrolanemployeehasover meetingthese demands.Experiencinglowerlevelsofstressatworkcanactuallybeamotivatorandserveto increaseproductivityinemployees.However,itbecomesproblematicwhenstressoccursin amountsthatindividualscannolongermanage.

HistoricalContext Theepidemicofworkplacestresscanbeseenasaresultofchangingworkplaceand economicconditionsoverthepast20to30years.Hoel,Zapf,&Cooper(2002)explainthe changesthathavetakenplacespecificallyrelatingtoindustrializedcountries: Inmostdevelopedcountries,the1980scouldbedescribedfromabusinessperspectiveas thedecadeoftheenterpriseculture.Workplacesweretransformedbyglobalization, privatization,processreengineering, mergersandacquisitions,strategicalliances,jointventures andthelike.Intheshortterm,therewasanimprovementineconomiccompetitivenessin internationalmarketsandthecountriesthatembracedthesechanges.Buteventually,strains begantoshow,andtheconceptofburnoutbecamewellknownwithinorganizations.

WorkplaceStress 6 However,itwasbusinessasusualasworkwascarriedoutinessentiallythesamewayin largeormediumsizedbusinesses. Duringthe1990s,amajorrestructuringofworkwasbeginningtotakeplace. Organizationsdramaticallydownsized,delayered,flattened,andrightsized.Theresult wasredundancy,constantrestructuring,andsubstantialorganizationalchanges.Modernworkers nowfindthemselvesinsmallerorganizations,withfewerpeopledoingmoreandfeelingmuch lesssecure.Newtechnologyhasaddedtheburdenofinformationoverloadandacceleratedthe paceofwork. Twomajoreffectsthathavestemmedfromtheseeconomicchangesareknownaswork intensificationandjobinsecurity.Theformerreferstotheextenttowhichemployeesare beingforcedtoworkfasterandharderthantheyhavebeenbefore,whilethelatterreferstothe subjectivefeelingsabouttheriskofjobloss,asexpressedbyemployeesthemselves(Burchell, 2002). Thisneweconomicculturehascreatedmorestressfulworkenvironments,asseen throughtheincreasingphysicalandmentaltollsonemployees,aswellasincreasingcostsfor employersinthewayoflostproductivity,absenteeism,turnover,anddisabilityleave.

SourcesofWorkplaceStress Stresscanbetheresultofanynumberofsituationsintheworkplace.Thefollowingtable illustratescategoriesofworkplacestressorsandexamplesofeach(adaptedfromMurphy,1995):

CategoriesofJobStressors Factorsuniquetothejob

Examples Workload(overloadandunderload) Pace/variety/meaningfulnessof

WorkplaceStress 7 Roleintheorganization Careerdevelopment TheoreticalExplanationsofWorkplaceStress Muchresearchattentionhasbeenfocusedontheissueofworkplacestress,somuchso thattheorieshaveemergedtoexplaintherelationshipthatexistsbetweenstressandthework environment.Thethreemostinfluentialandprevalenttheoriesofoccupationalstressincludethe personenvironment(PE)fittheory,theframeworkofoccupationalstress,andthedemand controlsupportmodel(Vandenberg,Park,DeJoy,Wilson,&GriffenBlake,2002). work Autonomy(e.g.,theabilitytomake yourowndecisionsaboutyourown joboraboutspecifictasks) Shiftwork/hoursofwork Physicalenvironment(noise,air quality,etc.) Isolationattheworkplace(emotional orworkingalone) Roleconflict(conflictingjobdemands, multiplesupervisors/managers) Roleambiguity(lackofclarityabout responsibilities,expectations,etc.) Levelofresponsibility Under/overpromotion Jobsecurity(fearofredundancyeither fromeconomy,oralackoftasksor worktodo) Careerdevelopmentopportunities Overalljobsatisfaction Supervisors Coworkers Subordinates Threatofviolence,harassment,etc. (threatstopersonalsafety) Participation(ornonparticipation)in decisionmaking Managementstyle Communicationpatterns

Relationshipsatwork(interpersonal)

Organizationalstructure/climate

WorkplaceStress 8 Thebasicpremiseofthepersonenvironment(PE)fittheoryisthatstressarises fromamisfitbetweenpersonandenvironment notfromthetwocomponentsseparately,butas thefactorsofeachrelatetooneanother.Whenindividualsperceivethattheirwork environmentsarenotgood,ordonotfitwellwiththeneeds,wants,anddesiresthatthey personallywouldlikefulfilledfromwork,thediscrepanciescreatediversestrains,whichare thenhypothesizedtoaffectworkershealthandwellbeing. Environmentaldemandshereincludejobrequirements,roleexpectations,andgroupand organizationalnorms.Counteringthesedemandsaretheindividualsabilitiesrepresented throughaptitudes,skills,training,timeandenergythepersonusestomeetthedemands.The ideaisthatthelargerthediscrepancybetweenpersonandenvironment,thegreaterthelikelihood thatstrain,andaneedforcoping,willarise. The frameworkofoccupationalstressisbasedaroundthesamefoundationasthePEfit theory.Theysharetwobasicpremises,first,thatstressarisesfromthemisfitbetweenperson andenvironment,andsecond,thatsubjectiveperceptionsofworkenvironmentsprimarily determinestrains.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoviewpointsistheframeworkscore definition.Itstatesthatoccupationalstressisatotalprocessincludingtheenvironmentalsources ofstressandtheindividualsperceptionofthem,shorttermandlongtermphysiological, psychological,andbehaviouralresponses,aswellasanumberofmodifyingfactorsthat influencetherelationshipsamongvariablesinthestressprocess(suchassocialsupport,andthe qualityofinterpersonalrelationshipswithintheworkenvironment). Perceivedstressandtheresultingstrainsareexplainedasasnowballeffect,a reciprocalassociationwherethenegativefeelingsregardingworkincreasestrains,whichinturn contributeevenmore tothenegativefeelings.Theendresultisthattheaccumulationof

WorkplaceStress 9 physiological,psychologicalandbehaviouralstrainswilleventuallyresultinlongterm outcomessuchasacutedepression,alcoholism,unemployment,physiologicalproblems(e.g., cardiovascularproblems)andothercostlyresults. Finally,the demandcontrolsupportmodelemphasizestheroleofworkcontentasthe majorsourceofworkplacestress.Workcontenthereisdividedintotwocomponents:worker perceptionsregardingthetasksthatneedtobecompletedinperformingthejob(jobdemands), andworkerperceptionsaboutthedegreeofcontrolordiscretiontheyhaveinperformingthejob tasks(jobcontrol).Thesetwoconstructsarethoughttointeractwithoneanotherinaffectingthe amountofstrainexperiencedbyemployees.Thestrongestlevelsofstrain,andhence,the greatestlevelsofoccupationalstresswereexpectedtooccurinsituationswheretherewere extremelyhighdemands,andverylowcontrol. Arevisedversionofthemodelincludessocialsupportasathirdcomponent.Social supportisnotthoughttoeradicatestrain,butrathertobufferittosomedegree. Researchtendstobeverysupportiveofthedemandcontrolsupportmodel;ithasbeen effectivelyusedtopredictpsychologicalstrainandcardiovasculardiseaserisk.

SignsandSymptomsofStress Whenthedemandsoftheworkplacebecometoomuchtohandle,employeesgenerally displaysignsandsymptomsthatindicatetheyarefeelingstressedout.Unfortunately, individualsmaynotrecognizethesesignsandletthemgountreated.Thisiswhereserious conditionscanoccur,eithermentalorphysicalinnature,andaneedarisesforprofessional intervention.Itisimportantthatemployeeslearntorecognizestressfulreactionsinthemselves

WorkplaceStress 10 andotherssothattheycanstopthedownwardspiralofstressbeforeitbecomesdetrimental totheirhealth. Completingastresstestisaquickandeasywaytodeterminewhetherornotstresslevels arebecomingunhealthy.Therearenumerousvariationsofthetest,andtheycanbefoundinthe literatureonstress,andalsothroughaninternetsearch.AstresstesttakenfromtheCanadian MentalHealthAssociation(n.d.)isincludedinAppendixA. Individualsdisplayvarioussignsandsymptomswhencontinuouslyfacedwithastressful environment.Thesesymptomsdonotoccurallatonce,butprogressthroughseveralstages, whicharedescribedinthefollowingtableadaptedfromAnnscheutz(1999): Signs/Symptoms Phase1:Warning feelingsofvague anxiety Earlywarningsignsare depression oftenmoreemotionalthan boredom physicalandmaytakea apathy yearormorebeforetheyare emotionalfatigue noticeable. Phase2:MildSymptoms sleepdisturbances morefrequent Warningsignshave headaches/colds progressedandintensified. muscleaches Overaperiodof6to18 intensifiedphysicaland months,physicalsignsmay emotionalfatigue alsobeevident. withdrawalfrom contactwithothers irritability intensifieddepression Phase3:Entrenched increaseduseof CumulativeStress alcohol,smoking,non prescriptiondrugs Thisphaseoccurswhenthe depression abovephasescontinuetobe physicalandemotional ignored.Stressstartsto fatigue createadeeperimpacton lossofsexdrive career,familylifeand ulcers SuggestedAction talkingaboutfeelings takingavacation makingachangefrom regularactivities takingtimeforyourself moreaggressive lifestylechangesmay beneeded shorttermcounselling

thehelpofmedicaland psychological professionalsishighly recommended

WorkplaceStress 11 personalwellbeing. maritaldiscord cryingspells intenseanxiety rigidthinking withdrawal restlessness sleeplessness careersendprematurely significantintervention asthma fromprofessionals heartconditions severedepression loweredselfesteem/ selfconfidence inabilitytoperform onesjob inabilitytomanage personallife withdrawal uncontrolledanger/ grief/rage suicidalorhomicidal thinking muscletremors extremechronicfatigue overreactiontominor events agitation frequentaccidents carelessness/ forgetfulness paranoia

Phase4:Severe/ DebilitatingCumulative StressReaction Thisphaseisoften considered"self destructive"andtendsto occurafter5to10yearsof continuedstress.

EffectsofUntreatedStress Humanterms. Ournaturalresponsetostress,whilehelpfulinthreateningsituations,mayactuallycause usphysicalandmentalharm.Whenindividualshavebeencontinuallyexposedtostressforlong periodsoftime(i.e.,theirstressresponsesarecontinuouslyactivated),asituationknownas

WorkplaceStress 12 chronicstresscanoccur.Chronicstressischaracterizedbyemotionalvulnerability, persistentnegativeemotions,elevatedhormonalbaselevels,hyperactivityoftheautonomic nervoussystem(sothatthebodyneverrelaxes),andtendenciestoexperiencepsychosomatic symptoms.Whileitisnotpossibletodrawdefinitivecausallinks,researchisshowingstrong relationshipsbetweentheexperienceofchronicstressandthedevelopmentofillnessanddisease (Grimshaw,1999). Illnessesthathavebeenlinkedwithlongtermexposuretostressinclude: Coronaryheartdisease(angina,strokeandheartattacks).Researchhasshownthat individualswhosufferfromstressaremuchmorelikelytoexperiencebothfatalandnon fatalheartattacks. Hypertension(highbloodpressure).Thereisanundeniablelinkwiththestresshormone cortisol,andtheincidenceof highbloodpressure. Someformsofcancer.Beingconstantlystressedhastheeffectofloweringdefencesthat mayhelpfightofftheinitialingressofcancer. Rheumatoidarthritis.Althoughstressdoesnotappeartocauserheumatoidarthritisor osteoarthritis,beingunderstresscanexacerbatetheseillnesses. Diabetesmellitus.Thisdisordermaybeinherited,butthereisalsostrongevidence linkingitwithstress. Irritablebowelsyndrome.Ithasbeenshownthatstressoranxietyistoblameinalotof cases. Depression.Itiswidelyacceptedthatdepressionislinkedwithstress.Theusual symptomsareupsetsleeppatterns,fatigue,increasedconsumptionofalcohol,muscle achesandpains,poorselfesteemorlackofselfworth,amongavarietyofothers.

WorkplaceStress 13 Anxiety.Amongstthesymptomsofanxietyisusuallyanoverconcernwiththelack ofcontroloveronescircumstances,eitheratworkorinonespersonallife.Thisisoften madeworsebytheindividualbecomingsocaughtupinthinkingabout theirsituationthat theybegintobelievethatthereisnowayoutoftheproblem. Ulcerativecolitis(inflammationandulcerationofthecolonandrectum).Stressisoften associatedwiththeonsetandworseningofthiscondition. Strokes(provenlinkwithhighbloodpressure).Thereisstrongevidencethatpeople understressaremorelikelytohaveastrokethantheirnonstressedoutcounterparts. StomachandduodenalulcersandthebacteriumHelicobacterpylori.Therehasbeen irrefutableevidencelinkingtheonsetofpepticulcerswiththebacterium Helicobacter pylori,whichispresentinthegastrointestinalsystemofthelargemajorityofpeoplewith pepticulcerdisease. Indigestionandheartburn.Whenweareanxiousorstressedout,weproducetoomuch acidinourstomach,whichirritatestheliningofthestomachandcanleadtothe developmentofulcers. ChronicfatiguesyndromeME(myalgicencephalomyelitis).Thisdiseaseischaracterized byfeelingsofextremefatigue,depressionandageneraldisappointmentwithlife,which canlastforseveralmonthsoryears(Clark,2002).

Burnout. Burnoutisaresponsetochronicstressthathasreceivedagreatdealofresearch attentionbecauseofitsrelevanceintodaysworkplace.Burnoutisnotsimplyexcessivestress. Rather,itisacomplexphysical,mental,andemotionalreactiontoconstantlevelsofhighstress, anditrelatestofeelingthatyourinnerresourcesareinadequateformanagingthetasksand

WorkplaceStress 14 situationspresentedtoyou.Burnoutproducesfeelingsofhopelessness,powerlessness, cynicism,resentment,andfailure aswellasstagnationandreducedproductivity.Thesestress reactionscanresultindepressionandunhappinessthatcanthreatenyourjob,yourrelationships, andyourhealth. Burnoutpervadeseveryoccupation,butisthoughttobeespeciallyprevalentamong serviceprofessionals,orthosewhodopeoplework,suchasteachers,clergymembers,health practitioners,andcaregivers.Thesetypesof jobsrequireattendingtotheemotionalneedsof others,andcanleadtoemotionalandphysicalfatigue,aswellasthefeelingofnolongerbeing abletogiveofoneself.However,burnoutcanoccurinanyworksituationwhereapersonfeels overworked,underappreciated,confusedaboutexpectationsandpriorities,concernedaboutjob security,overcommittedwithresponsibilities,andresentfulaboutdutiesthatarenot commensuratewithpay. Personalcharacteristicsthatmayleadonetobemorepronetoburnoutincludethe tendencytoplacetoohighexpectationsononeself,aswellasexcessivecompulsiveness, perfectionism,andinflatedselfconfidence(Hutman,Jaffe,Segal,Kemp,&Dumke,n.d.). Anextremeexampleofwhatcanhappeninstressfulworksituationsisknownas Karoshi.ThisisalargelyJapanesephenomenon,andisquiteliterallytranslatedasdeath fromoverwork.Karoshireferstodeathcausedbyheartattackandstroke,presumablybrought aboutthroughacombinationoflongworkhours,highjobstress,andcardiovasculardisease. ManyoftheworkerswhoarevictimsofKaroshiworkedforuptotwelvehoursaday,sixor sevendaysaweek.Whilethisappearstobeanexceptionalseriesofcases,itspeakstojusthow damagingworkplacestresscanbe(Wikipedia,n.d.;VocationalPsychology.com,n.d.).

WorkplaceStress 15 Financialterms. Itisalsoimportanttolookatworkplacestressfromafinancialandeconomicstandpoint. Itisgenerallyacceptedthatuntreatedworkplacestressisassociatedwithincreasedlevelsof employeeabsenteeismandturnover,decreasedlevelsofproductivity,aswellaslostworkdays duetodisabilityorsickleave(Williams,2003).ArecentU.S.estimateplacedthecostofstress totheeconomy(duetoabsenteeism,healthinsuranceclaims,andlostproductivity)at approximately$150billionperyear(Neuman,2004).Employersarebeginningtorecognizethat thisassociationcannolongerbeignored,andthatorganizationalchangesneedtobemade. Arecentpollrevealedthat66%ofCanadianCEOssurveyedadmittedthatstressisnow thebiggestdrainfacingcorporateCanada,andisinfactdoingmoredamagetoproductivitythan anythingelseintheworkplace(NationalUnionofPublicandGeneralEmployees,2005).The samepollreportedthatstress,alongwithdepression,anxiety,orothermentalhealthdisorders, arethemostseriousorganizationalissueswithrespecttotheissuesthatcausethemost absenteeismandhavingthemostimpactonhealthbenefitsclaimscosts(InsuranceCanada.ca Inc.,n.d.). Employersareslowlystartingtorealizethatworkplacestressiscreatingphysicaland mentalhealthproblemsintheiremployees,whichisinturnaffectingthebottomline.Ithasbeen estimatedthatstressrelatedmentalhealthproblemsarecostingCanadianbusinesses$33billion annuallyinlostproduction(Conner,2005),andrelatedmentaldisabilityisnowaccountingfor anestimated3040%ofthedisabilityclaimsbeingrecordedbyCanadasmajorinsurersand employers.Farlessisknownaboutthecostinlostproductivitybyemployeeswhocontinueto workwhilesufferingfromstressrelatedconditions(TheEdmontonSun,2005).

WorkplaceStress 16 OtherresearchhasindicatedthatthemajorityofCanadianorganizationsconsider thecontinuousriseinemployeesmentalhealthclaimstobeatopconcern,andthattherehas beenahugeincreaseinstressandanxietyintheworkplaceanditisshowingupintheir long termandshorttermdisabilitycosts.Infact,mentalhealthissuescontinuetobetheleading causeofdisabilityclaims,anditsbeenreportedthathealthcareexpendituresarenearly50% greaterforworkerswhoreporthighlevelsofstress.71%ofCEOspolled(NationalUnionof PublicandGeneralEmployees,2005),agreethattheseissueswillbecomemoreofaproblem withspirallinghealthcarecostsoverthenexttenyearsitsalreadyreachingtheextentthatthey arebeginningtoworryabouttheirabilitytopayfuturedisabilityclaims.Inspiteofevidence linkingstressandmentalhealthissuestofinancialloss,companieshavenonethelessbeenslow toadoptinnovativementalhealthmanagementpracticesintheworkplace(TheProvince,2005; Galt,2005;Williams,2003;CanadaNewsWireGroup,2005). Alargepartoftheproblemofstressrelatedmentalillnessisthatthereisagenerallack ofunderstanding aswellasaction onmentalhealthissuesintheworkplace.Thiscan be aggravatedbyemployeesreluctancetoseekhelp.Furthermore,thereremainsastigma associatedwithmentalillness,andthismaypreventemployeesfromseekingsupportfrom superiorsandcoworkers.Employeesmayevenfearlosingtheirjoboveraninabilitytocope withthestressorsinherentintheirjobs.Therecanbetragicconsequenceswhenemployeesare afraidtoseektreatmentoraskmanagersandcoworkersforhelp.Itneedstoberecognizedthat mentalillnessisaseriouscrisisforemployees,anditdemandsaseriousresponsefrom employers.Mentalhealthhastobeseenasimportantasphysicalhealth(TheEdmontonSun, 2005;Harvey,2005).

WorkplaceStress 17 Employeesmentalhealthisavitaltoolforincreasingproductivityandprofits. Treatingmentalillnessesearlynotonlybenefitstheemployeesthemselves,butitcanalsosave companiesagreatdealofmoney.Ifcompaniesinvestmoneyintofindingworkerswhoare sufferingfromstressrelatedmentalillnesses,andprovidethemwithprofessionalhelp, companiesgeta100%returnontheirinvestmentbecauseemployeeswillshowupforworkand bemoreefficientandproductiveonthejob.Ithasbeenshownthatwhenemployeesgetearly accesstotreatment,employerscansave$5,000to$10,000perworkerperyearinthecostsof prescriptiondrugs,sickleave,andwagereplacement.Companieshaveeveryreasontotryand fosterhealthyworkenvironments,especiallywiththeknowledgethatprovidinghelpfortheir workerswillnotrunupbig costs,butrathersavethemmoney(CanadianMentalHealth Association,1999;Conner,2005;TheStandard,2005). Awiderangeofstudieshavefoundthatmodifiablehealthrisks(i.e.,stress)canbe improvedthroughworkplacesponsoredpreventativemedicineandhealthpromotionprograms (Smith,2005).However,despitewidespreadacknowledgementofthedetrimentalimpactof stressonindividualsandorganizations,theamountofattentiongivenbyemployersto understandingthesourcesofworkplacestressandtoalleviatingstressfulworkconditionsis relativelysmall.Stressresearchershaveobservedincongruencebetweenworkplacepractices andtheoreticalandpracticalworkinthefield.Threereasonsthathavebeensuggestedtoexplain thisinconsistencyinclude,1)managersperceptionsandbeliefsabouttheimpactofthework environmentonlevelsofemployeestrainandgeneralwellbeing,2)theirbeliefsaboutwhois responsibleformanagingindividualemployeeslevelsofstrain,and3) thecostsassociatedwith makingorganizationlevelchangescomparedwiththoserelatedtoteachingindividualstocope moreeffectively(Cooper,Dewe,&ODriscoll,2001).

WorkplaceStress 18 Thegoodnewsisthatdespiteageneralreluctancebyemployers,thereare progressivecompaniesmakingchangesforthebetterandinstitutingvariousmeansofhelping employeestomanagetheirstress.ThemeasuresthatemployerscantakeinthewayofStress ManagementInterventions(SMIs)willbediscussedinalatersectionofthisreport.

IndividualDifferencesinReactionstoWorkplaceStress Workplacestressdoesnothavethesameeffectonallindividuals.Therearearangeof personal,social,andenvironmentalmoderatorswithineachofusthatinfluenceoursusceptibility andcopingabilitiesinrelationtothestressorsweexperience.Personalitydifferences,gender differences,age,andsocialsupportallseemtobeimportantfactorsindetermininghowwell individualscopewithworkplacestress(Wichert,2002).

Personalitydifferences. TypeAandTypeBpersonality.Withrespecttoindividualpersonalitydifferences,one canviewworkplacestressasafunctionoftherelationshipbetweenworkcharacteristicsandthe attributesof,and resourcesavailableto,theindividualworker.Awellknownperspectiveon personalityvariablesandtheirrelationstostressarethedistinctionsbetweenTypeAand TypeBpersonalitytypes,whichwerederivedbytwocardiologistslookingtoexplaintherole ofpsychologicalfactorsincardiovasculardisease.TypeAbehavioursincludesuchthingsas ambition,aggressivecompetitiveness,andaneagernesstogetthingsdoneontime,aswellas selfabsorption,andatendencytobecynicalandhostile.Ontheotherhand,theTypeB personalityincludesbehavioursthataremuchmorerelaxedandlesscompetitive.

WorkplaceStress 19 StudieshaveshownthatindividualsdisplayingTypeAcharacteristicshavea significantlyincreasedriskofexperiencingthedeleteriouseffectsofstress,specificallywith respecttocardiovasculardisease.ItisarguedthatindividualsexhibitingTypeAbehavioursare morelikelytoenterintodemandingjobs,morelikelytooverreacttothem,andforthisreason wouldbemore vulnerabletostressandcoronaryheartdiseaseinparticular(Wainwright& Calnan,2002;Cowley,Hager&Rogers,1995). AnotherdistinctionthatmayberelatedtotheTypeApersonality,involvestypesof peopleknownashotreactors.Theseareindividualswho,whenfacingthechallengesofdaily life,sufferextremesurgesinbloodpressure.Otherindividualswhodonotexhibitthisreaction tostressors,havebeenfoundtobelessatriskforthedeterioratingeffectsofworkplacestress (Cowleyetal,1995).

Locusofcontrol.Anotherpersonalityfactorthathasbeenfoundtoaffectindividual reactionstostressorsisknownasthelocusofcontrol.Peoplecanbedifferentiatedonthe basisoftheirgeneralizedexpectancyconcerninginternalandexternalcontroloflifeeventsand outcomes.Specifically,someindividualsfeelthateventsarecausedbyfactorsexternaltothem whichtheyhavelittleornocontrolover(meaningtheyhaveanexternallocusofcontrol), while otherstendtofeelthateventsarecausedbyinternalfactorswhichtheyhaveagreatdealorentire controlover(meaningtheyhaveaninternallocusofcontrol). Thereisevidencetosuggestthatindividualswhohaveanexternallocusofcontroltend torespondtoperceivedstressorswithnegativeemotionsandmaybemorepronetothenegative effectsofstresswhentheyfeelpressuredatwork.Specifically,theseindividualshavebeen showntoreportmoreburnout,higherlevelsof perceivedtress,lessjobsatisfaction,greater

WorkplaceStress 20 anger,frustrationandhostility,andhigherlevelsofanxiety.Whereas,theinternallocusof controlisassociatedwithanumberofhighlydesirablebehavioursandattributes,including higherjobmotivationandbetterperformance,higherjobsatisfactionandpsychologicalwell being.Theunderlyingpremiseisthatindividualswhodefinestressfactorsascontrollablewill bemorelikelytotryandcopewiththemusingaproblemsolvingapproachandwillthereby experiencefewerilleffects.Externalsmightnottakeactivestepstoresolvetheirfeelingsof stress(Grimshaw,1999). Genderdifferences. Genderisanotherfactorthatisimportantindeterminingsusceptibilitytoworkplace stress. Researchindicatesthatwomenaremorelikelythanmentoexperiencethenegative effectsofstress.Severalfactorsappeartomagnifytheeffectofworkplacestressonwomen,and include: Thepredominantrolethatwomenstillplayintheprovisionoffamilycare.Itiswell establishedthatthetotalworkloadofwomenwhoareemployedfulltimeishigherthan thatoftheirmalecounterparts,particularlywheretheyhavefamilyresponsibilities. Lowerlevelsofcontrolintheirjobs,sincethegreatmajorityofwomenstilltendto occupylessseniorjobsthanmen. Thehigherproportionofwomenwhoworkinprecariousformsofemployment. Theproliferationofwomeninhighstressoccupations. Theprejudiceanddiscriminationsufferedbymanywomenwhoareinmoresenior positions,suchasmanagerialjobs,bothasaresultoforganizationalandcorporatepolicy andfromtheircolleaguesatwork.

WorkplaceStress 21 Largelyduetothesekindsoffactors,womenaresignificantlymorelikelytoreport burnout,stressrelatedillnesses,oradesiretoleavetheirjobs(InternationalLabour Organization,2001). Alsoimportanttonoteisthattheremaybedifferencesinthecopingmechanismsmen andwomenusetodealwithstress.Ithasbeenfoundthatin general,womentendtousemore socialemotionalstrategiestocopewithstress,whereasmenaremorelikelytouse behavioural/mentalordrug/alcoholdisengagement.Mentendtocopebywayofproblem focusedstrategieswhilewomencharacteristicallyusemoreemotionfocusedstrategiesto managetheirstress.Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatwomenmayhavebeensocializedina waythatpredisposesthemtoineffectivecoping,forexample,womengetsickasawayofcoping withstressmoreoftenthanmendo(Korabik,McDonald,&Rosin,1993). Finally,whenitcomestohowmenandwomenreacttostressoverthelongterm,ithas beenfoundthatmentendtoshowphysicaldeteriorationasaresponsetostressfulsituations, whereaswomengenerallyexhibitpsychologicalsymptoms(Wichert,2002).

Age. Agecaninfluencethetypeofworkplacestressexperienced,butittendstobespecificto certainaspectsofthejob.Forexample,inastudyconductedbyStatisticsCanada(Williams, 2002)moreworkersovertheageof45feltstressasaresultofhavingtolearncomputerskills,as comparedtoworkersbetweentheagesof15and24.Withrespecttostressasaresponsetorisk ofinjuryoraccidents,moreyoungmenfeltthisasasignificantsourceofstressthanoldermale workers.Youngemployeesweresignificantlylesslikelythanolderemployeestofeelthattoo manyhours/toomanydemandswereasourceofstress.Lastly,itwasreportedbyWichert

WorkplaceStress 22 (2002)thatwithrespecttojobsecurity,olderemployeestendtoexperiencelessstressthan theiryoungercounterpartsbutexperiencemorestressthanyoungerworkerswhenitcomesto workintensification.

Socialsupport. Thisisanotherfactorthatcanbuffertheeffectofworkplacestressthatanindividual experiences.Socialsupportreferstotheresources(bothemotionalandpractical)thatare derivedfromanindividualssocialnetworkoffamily,friends,coworkersandothersocial contacts.Thereisasubstantialbodyofevidencesuggestingthatlackofsocialsupportmaylead toillhealth,andinfacthasbeenshowntoexertapositiveeffectonpeopleshealthandwell beinginarangeofstressfulsituations. Ithasbeensuggestedthatsocialsupportbringshealthbenefitsirrespectiveofthedegree ofstressencounteredbytheindividuals,andalsoactsasabufferagainstthenegativeeffectsof stressbyfulfillingspecificneedsthroughpracticalhelp,adviceandinformationoremotional comfort.Additionally,socialsupportmayservetoa)reducetheimportanceoftheperception thatasituationisstressful,b)insomewaytranquillizetheneuroendocrinesystemsothatpeople arelessreactivetoperceivedstress,orc)facilitate healthybehaviours,suchasexercisingor gettingsufficientrest. Whenitcomestoappraisingpotentialstressors,theavailabilityofemotional, informational,andinstrumentalsupportmaysubstantiallyeffectanindividualsperceptionof threat.Emotionalsupportmayincreaseindividualsconfidenceintheirabilitytodealwiththe

WorkplaceStress 23 challengesthatconfrontthem.Informationalsupportmayyieldnewstrategiesfor resolvingparticularproblems,orreducetheperceivedmagnitudeofthechallengebyplacingit inthecontextofdifficultiesencounteredbyothers.Finally,instrumentalsupportmayofferthe resourcestoresolveaproblemorstopitfromarisinginthefirstplace(Wainwright&Calnan, 2002;Wichert,2002). CopingStrategiesandInterventions Whateverthecausesofthisworkplacestressepidemic,thereisnodenyingitsexistence asoneofthekeyproblemsofmodernworkinglife.Becauseofthepervasivenessofstressinthe workplace,thereisaneedtodefinecopingmechanismssothatthelongtermnegativeeffectsof persistentstresscanbeavoided.Therearetwodifferentapproachestocopingwithstress.The firstapproachistolocatetheoriginsofworkstressinthestructureandorganizationofthe modernworkplaceandtoseethesolutionintermsofjobredesign.Thesecondapproachisto locateworkstressintheresponsesoftheindividualandseethesolutionintermsoftherapeutic intervention(Wainwright&Calnan,2002). Themosteffectivemethodforworkerstomanagestressseemstolieinsolutionsthat combinestressmanagementatboththeorganizationalandindividuallevel.Ofthetwo, organizationalstrategiesaremoreeffectiveinreducinglongtermstressandriskofillness, however,itisjustasimportantthatindividualshavepersonalcopingstrategiesattheirdisposal forwhenstressinevitablyoccurs(Cahill,Landsbergis,&Schnall,1995).

IndividualLevel Itisextremelyimportantthatindividualsaretaughttorecognizewhentheyarefeeling stressedoutandtodeveloppersonalcopingstrategiestoutilizewhentheyarefeeling

WorkplaceStress 24 overwhelmedbystress.TheCanadianMentalHealthAssociation(n.d.)listsanumberof methodsforindividualstouseincopingwithstress.

Relaxationtechniques. Learningrelaxationtechniquescanbeoneofthemosteffectivewaysofdealingwith stress.Whilethestressresponsespeedsupthebodysreactionsandtensesthemuscles, relaxationwilldotheopposite,bydeepeningbreathing,slowingthepulseandheartrate,and relaxingthemuscles. Deepbreathingisatoolwehaveatourdisposalallthetime.Nomatterwhereyouare,it iseasytotakeafewminutestopracticedeepbreathing,exhalingslowly untilyourabdomenis flat,thenfillingupyourlungs,diaphragmandabdomenwithairasyouinhale.Doingthis severaltimesadaywillhelptocalmyourbodyandyourmind. Progressiverelaxationreferstotheprocessoftrainingyourbody torelaxcompletelyby tensingandreleasingeachsetofmusclesinturn.Booksorcassettetapesareavailablethatcan helptoguideyouthroughtheprocess. Massagetherapyandhotbathsareothermethodsofrelaxingtensemusclesthatwillhelp releasestress.

Waystofocusyourmind. Individualswhoworryexcessivelyandbeatthemselvesupintheirownmindscan benefitfromfindingwaystofocustheirmindsandletgooftroublesomeorpainfulthoughts.

WorkplaceStress 25 Theancientpracticeofmeditation isaprovenwaytoworkwiththechaosofour thoughtstowardsasenseofpeace.Therearemanybooksonmeditationandmanydifferent techniques,aswellasanumberofgroupsthatcanprovideanintroductiontothepractice. Spendingregulartimeonahobbywillhelptorestoreenergyandsenseofwellbeing. Absorbingyourselfinsomethingyoureallyenjoyisagreatwaytogiveyourselfabreakfrom thehasslesandstressesofeverydaylife. Wehavealreadyspokentothebenefitsofsocialsupportintheworkenvironment. However,havingsupportivefriendsingeneralcanhelpwhenweareexperiencingstress.Weall needsomeonewecantalktogetourworriesoffourchest,someonewhowilllistenwithout judgementandappreciateyouforwhoyouare. Oneoftheverybestwaystorelaxyourmindisbylaughing!Good,heartylaughter causesthereleaseofendorphins,whicharethebody'snatural"feelgood"chemical.Itisagood ideatocollectthingsthatmakeyoulaugh cartoons,books,movies andlookatthemwhenyou feeloverstressed.You'llbeamazedhowsmilesandlaughtercanlightenyourmood.

Dailyhabits. Individualswhofeeltiredandlackinginenergymaybeexperiencingstressdueto unhealthydailyhabitsthatareinterferingwiththebodysabilitytomaintainasenseofwell being.Anindividualsdiet,amountofsleep,caffeineconsumption,andlevelofactivityareall importantfactorsinonesgeneralhealth.Maintainingyourhealthbypractisinghealthyhabits canbeimportantinfightingoffthenegativeeffectsofstress. Itisimportantto maintainabalanceddiettoensurethatwearekeepingourbodies healthy.Wearewhatweeat,andweneedabalancedintakeofhealthyfood.Toomuchfatty

WorkplaceStress 26 "comfort"foodaddsweightanddepletesenergy.Itisimportanttogetenoughfreshfruit andvegetables,anddrinkplentyofwater. Ourbodiesneedadequatesleeptorestoreourenergy.Manypeoplethesedaysaresleep deprivedwithoutrealizingit.Artificiallightandlatenighttelevisionkeepmanyofusupand awakeathourswhenourancestorsusedtosleep.Trygoingtobedearlyafterahotbath,orlisten toarelaxationtapetohelpyoufallasleep.You'llfeelmuchbetterinthemorning. Itisadvisabletocutcaffeineconsumptiondown.Caffeineisastimulantthatsimulates thestressresponseandcanmakeusedgyand"hyper".Keepingyourconsumptiondowntothree cupsofcoffeedaily,orcuttingitoutcompletelyisrecommended. Exerciseisoneofthebestwaystoreleasetensionandrelaxourmindsandbodies.It's greatifyouenjoysports,butitdoesn'thavetobethatformal.Swimmingandbikingare excellent.Walkingthedog,workinginthegarden,andvacuumingthehouseareallformsof exercise.Orjoinadanceoryogaclassandgetthebenefitofmeetingpeoplealongwiththe exercise! Grimshaw(1999)pointsoutthatwhileindividuallevelstressmanagementinterventions maybeofvalueinhelpingworkerscopewithunavoidablepressures,theydealwithonlypartof theproblem,andneedtoactasasupplementtoorganizationalchangeprogramsthatdealwith therootcausesofstressinunhealthy workenvironments.

OrganizationLevel Organizationsmayhavedifferentreasonsforwantingtoimplementstressmanagement initiatives.Onereasonmaybetheneedtoreducethecoststotheorganizationofstressrelated illness,absenteeismandstaffturnover.Itmaybeahumanitariandesiretoimproveworking

WorkplaceStress 27 conditions.Theremayberegulationsinplaceregardingthelistingandassessingof workplacehazards,includinghazardstomentalhealthsuchaspsychologicalstress,andto provideasafeworkingenvironment.Anorganizationmightwishtobeseenascaringandas lookingaftertheiremployeesinordertoraisemoraleorimprovethecompanyimage.Afinal reasonforwantingtomakethesechangesmaysimplybetofollowcurrenttrends,whereother suchorganizationsareintroducingstressmanagementinterventions(Grimshaw,1999). Whateverthereason,theissueofworkplacestresscannolongerbeignored,anditisnecessary forchangestobemadewhereunhealthyworkenvironmentsexist.

Stressmanagementinterventions. Thereareabroadrangeofinterventionsthatcanbeusedtomanagestressinthe workplace.Theseincludeinterventionsthataimtochangetheindividual,theindividuals relationshipwiththeorganization,andtheorganization. Threebroadaimsofstressmanagementinterventionsinclude1)prevention,through controlofhazardsbydesignandworkertrainingtoreducethelikelihoodofworkers experiencingstress,2)timelyreaction,toimprove theabilityofmanagerstorecognizeanddeal withproblemsastheyarise,and3)rehabilitation,whichofteninvolvesofferingenhanced supportsuchascounsellingtohelpdistressedworkerscopeandrecover(Grimshaw,1999). Thefollowingsectionsexplainsomecommonlyusedstressmanagementinterventionsin theworkplace.

EmployeeAssistancePrograms. AnEmployeeAssistanceProgramme(EAP)isa systematic,ongoingandorganizedservice,fundedbytheemployerandprovidingcounselling,

WorkplaceStress 28 advice,andhelptoemployeesandtheirfamilieswithproblemsarisingfrombothwork relatedandexternalsources.EAPshavetwomainobjectives:1)tohelpemployeesdistractedby arangeofpersonalconcerns,includingemotional,stress,relationship,family,alcohol,drug, financial,legalandotherproblems,tocopewithsuchconcernsandtolearntomanagethe stressesproduced,and2)toassisttheorganizationintheidentificationandimprovementof productivityproblemsinworkerswhoseperformanceisadverselyaffectedbysuchconcerns. EAPsaregenerallyseenasthefirststeptotakeinseekinghelpwithstressrelated emotionalproblems.Theseservicesmaybeprovidedinhousebydesignatedstaff,ordelivered byanexternalcontractor.Mostcounsellingwithinthisserviceisshorttermtherapyaimedat helpingtheclientatatimeofchange,choice,orcrisis.Workplacecounsellingdoesnotaimto bethekindofpersonalrestructuringaccomplishedbyapsychoanalyst.Insteadcounsellingis viewedasanopportunitytolearnproblemsolvingskillsandtocreatenewlifechoices.The servicesofanEAPcangenerallybeextendedtoemployeesfamilymembersaswell,butthis mayvarydependingontheorganization. AweaknessoftheEAPservicesurroundsthedelicatebalancebetweenassisting individualsandpromotingtheinterestsoftheorganization.Theproblemliesinattemptingto allyamentalhealthdriventherapytoaperformanceandprofitdominatedsystemofproduction ofgoodsandservices. Thedegreeofbenefitgainedbytheorganizationwillbeindirect correlationwiththeextenttowhichtheEAPisintegratedintotheorganizationalstructure (Grimshaw,1999;CanadianMentalHealthAssociation,2004).

StressManagementTraining. Inrecentyears,ithasbecomepopulartooffertrainingin stressmanagementtechniquesintheworksetting.Individuallevelstressmanagementtraining

WorkplaceStress 29 seekstoeducatestaffaboutstressanditsassociatedhealtheffects,andtoteachcopingand stressreductionskills.Interventionshavemoreoftenthannotbeenofferedinapreventative contexttoparticipantsnotsufferingfromanyevidentstressrelatedproblems.Trainingusually consistsofsomeformofrelaxationexerciseincombinationwithcognitivetechniquesborrowed fromthefieldsofcounsellingandpsychotherapy.Elementsofmanagementskills,suchastime management,andofinterpersonalskills,suchasdelegationandassertiveness,maybeincluded. i.Relaxationtraining Theobjectiveofrelaxationtrainingistoreducetheindividualsarousallevelboth psychologicallyandphysiologically.Psychologically,successfulrelaxationresultsinenhanced feelingsofwellbeing,peacefulnessandcontrol,andareductionintensionandanxiety. Physiologically,decreasesinbloodpressure,respirationandheartrateshouldtakeplace. Progressivemusclerelaxation.Thisinvolvesfocusingattentiononmuscleactivity, learningtoidentifyevensmallamountsoftensioninamusclegroups,andpractisingreleasing tensionfromthemuscles.Musclerelaxationisusuallyaccomplishedbyaseriesofalternating tensingandreleasingexercisesandinvolvescreatingtensioninamusclegroup,studyingthe feelingsoftension,andthenallowingthemusclestorelax. Meditation. Meditationmethodstaughtinstressmanagementtrainingareoftensecular versionsoftraditionallypractisedTranscendentalMeditation.Forexample,theRespiratoryOne Methodrequiresapersontositcomfortablyinaquietplacefor20minutestwiceadayand repeattheworkoneorsomeotherneutralwordwitheachexhalationwhilemaintaininga passivementalattitude.

WorkplaceStress 30 Biofeedbacktraining. Inbiofeedbacktraining,anindividualisprovidedwith informationorfeedbackaboutthestatusofaphysiologicfunctionandovertimelearnstocontrol theactivityofthatfunction.Potentially,biofeedbacktechniquescanbeusedtobringawide rangeofphysiologicalfunctionsundercontrol,includingheartrate,bloodpressure,stomach activity,andbodytemperature(Grimshaw,1999).

ii.Cognitivebehaviouralskillstraining Cognitivebehaviouraltechniquesrefertoarangeofskillsdesignedtohelpparticipants toappraisesituationsmorerealisticallysoastoreducethethreattheypresent,andtodevelop behaviouralskillstomanagestressfactorssuccessfully.Cognitivereappraisalorrestructuring focusesonremovingdistortedviewsofasituationthatcanarisefromovergeneralization, personalizationandexaggerationofitsimpact.Approachesusedinthistypeoftrainingaimto helpindividualsgainahigherdegreeofcontrolovertheirreactionstostressorsbymodifying unhelpfulpatternsofthinking. Themostwidelyusedapproachiscalledstressinoculationtraining,andconsistsofthree phases.Thefirstphaseiseducationalandaimstohelptheindividualunderstandthenatureof stressandstresseffects.Thesecondphaseconsistsofskillacquisitionandrehearsal,andhasthe objectiveofteachingindividualsarangeofcopingskillstoreduceanxietyandenhancetheir capabilitytorespondeffectivelyinstressfulsituations.Thethirdandfinalphase,applicationand followthrough,involvestheapplicationofcopingskillsthroughroleplayor guidedimageryin conditionsthatincreasinglyapproximatereallife(Grimshaw,1999).

WorkplaceStress 31 CrisisIntervention. Feworganizationshavedevelopedcomprehensiveplanstodeal withtheacuteandlongtermeffectsoftraumaticeventsonthehealthandmoraleofemployees. However,implementingcrisisinterventionstrategiesintheworkplaceisimportantwhenyou considertheeffectsoftraumaticeventsonthehealthandwellbeingofemployees,andthe resultingeffectstotheirperformanceatwork. Traumaticeventsintheworkplacecanarisefrommanysources.Somejobscarryhigher thannormalrisksofexposuretocrimeorinjury,suchaslawenforcement,emergencyresponse, andretailbanking.However,suddendeath,violenceorthethreatofviolencecanstrikeany workforceandcanhaveaprofoundeffectonindividualandgroupfunctioning.Havingacrisis interventionmethodavailableforwhenemployeesexperiencedistressingandpainfuleventscan helpminimizedisruptionofworkwithintheorganization. Peopleexposedtotraumaticeventsintheworkplacemaydisplayarangeofreactions includingemotionalnumbing,withdrawal,irritability,fearfulness,depression,sleepdisturbance, substanceabuse,andprolongedmedicalproblems.Ithasbeenshownthatmobilizationofsocial supportatworkisvitaltotherestorationofgeneralmoraleandtheprotectionofthehealthof individualworkers.Acrisisresponseplanthatencouragescommunicationandgroupsupport shouldconsistofthefollowing: CrisisreadinessAsetofprocedurespreparedinadvanceincludingcommunicationplans, securityprocedures,handlingshutdowns,etc. Formationofacrisisresponseteam,includinghighlevelmanagementwhosevisibilitywill bereassuringtostaff. Meetingswithaffectedgroups,whichwillcombineaninformation,education,andemotion sharingapproach.

WorkplaceStress 32 Crisiscounsellingforindividualemployees,especiallyprimaryvictimsandwitnesses. Followup,includingevaluationofthesuccessoftheinterventionsandplanningforthe future. Additionally,stressdebriefinghasbeenwidelypromotedasameansofpreventingor reducingpsychologicaldistressexperiencedfollowingaseveretrauma. CriticalIncidentStressDebriefing(CISD)isthemostwidelyusedgroupintervention techniqueforthepreventionofworkrelatedtraumaticstressdisorderamonghighrisk emergencyresponsepersonnel.CISDcanbedefinedasgroupmeetingsordiscussiondesigned todiminishthepsychologicalimpactofatraumaticevent,preventthedevelopmentofpost traumaticstressdisorder,andserveasanearlyidentificationmechanismforindividuals requiringprofessionalcounselling.Participantsaregiventheopportunitytodiscusstheir thoughtsabout,andemotionsfollowing,atraumaticevent.Theyarealsotaughtaboutnormal reactionstotraumaandstressmanagementtechniques,andhavetheopportunitytoseetheyare notaloneintheirresponses(Grimshaw,1999).

StressorReductionInterventions. Jobcharacteristicsthatcanbeassociatedwithpoor levelsofmentalandphysicalhealthtypicallyincluderoleambiguity,roleconflict,jobinsecurity, lowinvolvementindecisionmaking,andworkoverloadamongothers.Inspiteofthesefactors beingprevalentin manyorganizations,relativelylittleattentionhasbeenfocusedon organizationalchangeasawayofimprovinghealthandwellbeingofemployees.Implementing changesaimedatreducingworkstressorscanbecostlyanddifficulttoimplement.Stressor reductionrequiresanidentificationofthestressagentsfollowedbyplannedchangesin organizationalstructureandfunction,whicharepotentiallyexpensiveanddisruptivetoongoing

WorkplaceStress 33 work.Itisthereforemorefinanciallyfeasiblefororganizationstoconcentrateoncheaper individualcentredapproaches,thantotackletherootoftheproblemsinherentinthework environment. Regardlessofthisfact,researchintheareasupportsorganizationallevelinterventionsas thepreferredapproachtodealingwithemployeestressbecausetheyconcentrateoneliminating thesourcesoftheproblemratherthansimplytreatingthesymptoms.Organizational interventionsmayinclude: Changingorganizationalcharacteristics,suchasrewardsystems,staffselectionsystems,or traininganddevelopmentsystems. Changingrolecharacteristicsthroughroleredefinition,reductioninroleunderloador overload,reductioninroleconflictandincreasingparticipationindecisionmaking. Changingtaskcharacteristicsthroughjobredesigntotakeaccountofworkersabilities,use ofworkerspreferencesinselectionandplacement,provisionoftrainingprograms,and treatmentofworkersasindividuals.

Theideaslistedintheabovesectionsarebroadinnature,andaremeanttogiveanoverall glanceatthecurrentmethodsofstressinterventionsintheworkplace.Somepractical,workable stepsthatanorganizationcantaketoreducestressintheiremployeesarelistedinCahilletal (1995)andareexplainedasfollows:

Thefirststepisto offeranoccupationalstressworkshop.Thissendsamessageofconcern foremployees,willeducateworkersaboutstress,andhelptoidentifythemostimportant personalandorganizationalconcernsabouttheissue.

WorkplaceStress 34 Organizeanoccupationalstresscommittee.Thecommitteeshouldmeetonanon goingbasisandformulateastrategyforimprovingtheworkenvironment.Thiscommittee shouldincludebothlabourandmanagement.Employeesfromvariousdepartments, divisions,shifts,andworkgroupsshouldbeincluded.Managementrepresentativesshould includepersonswithrealauthorityintheorganization.Thiscommitteeshouldalsobe distinguishedfromotherongoingcommittees. Increaseemployeessenseofcontrolandparticipationintheworkplace.Thekeypointhere istoincreaserealcontrolandparticipation;nottheillusionofcontrol.Somepossible strategiesmayincludeusingstaffmeetingsmoreeffectivelytoencourageparticipationand input;anddevelopingautonomousworkgroups. Increasetheskilllevelsofemployees.Unfortunately,manyofthejobspresentlybeingadded totheeconomyareextremelylowskillones.Skillfulworkallowsfortheongoing developmentofnewskillsandtheopportunitytousethem.Possibleworkplacestrategiesto counterthedeskillingeffectmayincludeincreasedskillbasedtraining,useofcareerladders torewardskilldevelopment,useofjobrotationtoexpandskills,useofjobredesignto increaserangesofskillneeded,andhealthyuseofcomputersforskilldevelopment. Increaselevelsofsocialsupport.Keycomponentsofsocialsupportintheworkplaceare supervisorysupportandcoworkersupport.Somepossiblestrategiesmayincludetrainingin proactivesupervision;traininginconflictresolutionandteambuilding;andappropriateuse ofstaffretreats. Changesthatimprovephysicalworkingconditions.Thereisextensiveevidenceshowingthat poorphysicalworkingconditionscontributenotonlytophysicalhazards,butstresslevelsas well.Somepossiblestrategiesmayincludeimprovingindoorairquality;reducinglevelsof

WorkplaceStress 35 physicalhazardssuchasnoise,toxins,chemicals,etc.;andjobredesigntoreduce incidenceofrepetitivestraininjuries(i.e.,reducingrepetitivework,awkwardworkpostures and/orheavylifting.). Healthyuseoftechnology.Strategiesmayincludehealthyuseofcomputers;andstaff involvementinchoosingnewequipment. Maintainjobdemandsathealthylevels.Peopleareattheirmostproductiveandhealthyif theycanworkatamanageablelevel.Possiblestrategiesmayincludereduceduseof overtime;caseloadrestrictions;brakemechanism(anadministrativegroupdesignedto reducetheamountofchangetheorganizationinitiates);andformationofWhatdontwe needtodo?committee(aninternalgroupchargedwithfindinglowpriorityorunnecessary tasks). Changesthatprovideforjobsecurityandcareerdevelopment.Changesthatareintendedto eliminatejobsareusuallyincompatiblewitheffortstoimprovethequalityoftheworking environment.Morepositiveapproachesattempttousetheskillsofexistingemployeesina moreeffectivemanner.Possibleworkplacestrategiesmayincludeextensionofcareer ladders;andexpansionofresponsibilitiesandtasks. Changesthatprovidehealthyworkschedules.Moreflexibleworkscheduleshavethe potentialofimprovingemployeesatisfactionandreducingstress.Possibleworkplace strategiesmayincludereduceduseofforcedovertime;rotatingshiftsinaforward(dayto night)schedule;anduseofflextimeandotheralternativeworkweekschedules. Strategiestoimprovepersonalcopingmechanisms.Thesestrategiescanbeseenasuseful companionstoorganizationalchangeefforts.Adistinctionmustbemadebetweenfunctional anddysfunctioncopingmechanisms.Somehealthychoicesincludeimprovingthedietof

WorkplaceStress 36 employees;encouragingtheemployeestoexercise;traininginmusclerelaxation techniques;trainingineffectivecognitivestrategies;traininginsubstanceabuseawareness; organizingdiscussiongroupsonhealthystressreducers;transitiontime(thebasicideabeing totrainemployeestofindawaytorelaxfor2030minutesbeforeassumingfamily responsibilities,allowingthebodysautonomicresponsestoreturntobaselinelevels);and trainingonfamilydynamicsandparentingskills(improvingemployeesabilitiestohandle pressuresathomecanhavemajorpayoffsforanorganization,asemployeeswillbeless stressedingeneral). Developstrategiesthatdonotharm.Changeforthesakeofchangeisnotagoalofstress reductionprograms.Oneeffectivewaytoavoidthesenegativeoutcomesistodesignan assessmentmechanismthatwillaccuratelymeasurekeyaspectsoftheworkenvironmentand stresssymptomsbefore,duringandafteryourefforts.Importantthingstoassessincludethe following:Hassocialsupport(bothcoworkersandsupervisory)increased?Havejob demandsdecreased?Haveemployeessenseofautonomyandcontrolincreased?Hasjob satisfactionincreased?Haveskilllevelsanduseofskillsincreased?Havephysicalor psychologicalstresssymptomsdecreased?Apositivefindingonanyofthesemeasuresisan encouragingaffirmationofhealthyorganizationalchange.

Asorganizationsworktoimplementchanges,theinterestshouldlienotjustinworkplace stressperse,butinidentifyingandworkingtowardsthehealthyworkorganizationwhere workplacestressisconsideredamongotherfactorssuchashealthpromotion,andsafetyandrisk management.Akeyassumptionofthehealthyworkorganizationisthatcreatingand

WorkplaceStress 37 maintainingsuchanorganizationisgoodforallstakeholdersemployees,shareholders (andothersconcernedwithfinancialperformance),andsocietyingeneral. Inworkingtowardsthegoalofmaintainingthehealthyworkorganization,sixfairly distinctbutinterrelatedcomponentsmustbekeptinconsideration: i. Coreorganizationalattributes.Specificattributes thatarerelevantinclude involvement,qualityofworklife,safetyandhealth,organizationalvalues,and organizationalbeliefs.Focusshouldbeonemployeesperceptionsoftheattributes, andnotonsomeobjectiveassessmentoftheexistenceofthoseattributes. ii. Domainsofsocialsupport.Opportunitiesshouldbeprovidedformeaningful interpersonalinteractionandcommunication,bothforemotionalsupportandsupport infulfillingjobtasksandotherassignedresponsibilities. iii. Jobdesign.Jobsshouldinvolvereasonableworkloads,meaningfulandworthwhile tasks,adequatelevelsofcontrol,andclearjobexpectations.Workscheduleisalsoan importantelement,aswellastheminimizationofexposuretoenvironmental stressors. iv. Jobfuture.Employeesshouldbeclearlyinformedaboutopportunitiestoimprove theirjobskillsandcareeropportunities,aswellasabouttheorganizationand economicdevelopmentsthatmayaltertheiremploymentsituation. v. Workadjustment.Definedthroughfourindices:jobsatisfaction,organizational commitment,psychologicalempowerment(includingworkplaceselfefficacy,and perceivedimpactontheworkgroup),andexperiencedjobstress.

WorkplaceStress 38 vi. Organizationaleffectiveness.Itisnecessarytomeasurerelevantoutcomes relatedtotheemployeesaswellastheorganizationtodetermineifchangeshavebeen beneficial(Vandenbergetal,2002).

Conclusion Stressisnotsomethingtobedismissedasbeingjustpartofthejob,orthepriceyoupay forbeingsuccessfulinyourcareer.Stresshasbeenshowntobeeitherdirectlyorindirectly responsibleforearlyanduntimelydeathsthroughheartattack,stroke,highbloodpressure,anda multitudeofotherstressrelatedillnesses.Whilethementalandphysicalhealthofemployees aresufferingduetounhealthyworkenvironments,stressisstillseenasasignofweaknessin manyorganizations,andiskeptquietsoastoavoidnegativerepercussions.Stresstendstobe eitherignoredordismissedbytheverypeoplewhoarebestplacedtodosomethingaboutit managingandseniordirectors,personnelandtrainingmanagers,occupationalhealthworkers, anddepartmentalmanagersandsupervisors. Theopportunityexistsforemployersandemployeestogettogetherandmakewayfor changesthatwillreducestressrelatedillness.Changemustcomefromthetop,anditis thereforeimperativeformanagerstorecognizethattheyhavealegalandmoralresponsibilityto protectthephysicalandmentalwellbeingof theirworkers(Clark,2002). Itistheintentionofthisreporttoeducateonthedamagingeffectsofworkplacestress, andincreaseawarenessofthewidespreadnatureofthisproblem.Itishopedthatthisknowledge willmotivateorganizationstoexplorethestressorsthatarepresentintheirownwork environments,andtotakestepstoreduceand/orpreventstressintheworkplace,thereby workingtomaintainthehealthandwellbeingofemployees.

WorkplaceStress 39

WorkplaceStress 40 AppendixA SelfScoringStressTest

Chooseanumberforeachstatementandaddupyourownscore. almost always (2points) afew rarely timesa week (0points) (1point)

Behaviour Ifeeltense,anxiousorhavenervousindigestion. Iseemtobelowinenergy. Ieat/drink/smokeinresponsetotension. Ihavetensionormigraineheadaches,orpainintheneckor shoulders. Iseemtohavetroublegettingtosleepnaturallyorhave difficultygettingbacktosleepifawakened. IfinditdifficulttoconcentrateonwhatI'mdoingbecauseof worryingaboutotherthings. Itakepills,medicine,alcoholorotherdrugstorelax. Ihavedifficultyfindingenoughtimetorelax. IfIfinallyfindthetime,itishardformetorelax. Ifeelpressuredduringmyworkday. Ifinditdifficulttolaugh. Maximumtotalscore=22

MYTOTALSCORE=_____ Score 1422 1013 69 35 02 Tensionlevel Considerablyaboveaverage Aboveaverage Average Belowaverage Considerablybelowaverage

Ifyou'reaboveaverage,it'svitalforyoutodevelopacopingplan.Andifyou'redoingfineatthe moment,agoodcopingplanwillhelpyoustayfine(CanadianMentalHealthAssociation,n.d.).

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