The survival of Hindi in Guyana since 1838

By Dr. David Chanderbali

Stabroek News

May 5, 2003 Related Links: Articles on Indian heritage Letters Menu Archival Menu (This article is in commemoration of the 16 th anniversary of the arrival of !ast Indians in Guyana "eing o"served today#$

Ho%ever meagre %ere the &ossessions %hich the Indian immigrants "rought from India "et%een 1838 and 1'1() their mother tongue %as an inevita"le and im&ortant &art of their non*material "aggage# This short article see+s to e,&lore the survival of Hindi amidst the com&eting and discouraging forces &revalent on the sugar &lantations in colonial Guyana since the indenture system %as introduced# -or this country the ma.ority of Indian indentured la"ourers %ere recruited from the eastern regions of /ttar 0radesh) the %estern &arts of 1ihar and from various districts of 2outh India# They %ere s&ea+ers of various Indo*Aryan languages and dialects from 3orth India) including mainly Hindi and 1ihari) %ith a fe% s&ea+ers of 1engali and 0an.a"i# Those %ho came from 2outh India s&o+e 4ravidian tongues &articularly Tamil) Telugu and Malayalam# 5ut of this linguistic &ot&ourri arose a homogeneous dialect %hich "ecame the lingua franca on the &lantations) and this dialect "ecame the home language of the Guiana Indians %hatever the linguistic "ac+ground of their fore"ears# This linguistic unification) %hich %as derived mainly from Hindi) had to com&ete for its o%n survival "ecause of various social) economic and &olitical realities in the Guianese society# Immediately u&on the arrival of these immigrants in Guiana they %ere confronted %ith an interesting linguistic situation) %hich forced them to try to com&rehend the 6reolese of the 1lac+s and the s&o+en and %ritten !nglish of the 7hites) %ho ran the &lantations on %hich the Indians %ere "rought to %or+ and live# -rom the outset) therefore) there %as a de*em&hasis on Hindi# 3early everything connected %ith their %or+ %as e,&ressed in !nglish * the la"our contract itself) communication %ith estate officials * including the manager) overseers) field cler+s) "oo+*+ee&ers and office staff# -urther*more) there %ere certain sensitive areas that %ere li+ely to cause and did cause on a daily "asis) controversy and conflict "et%een la"ourers and management# These included the hours of %or+8 the nature and e,tent of the tas+8 the rates of &ay8 &enalties for desertion8 maturity of the contract8 and the conditions for re*indenturing and re&atriation# 4is&utes arising from any of these terms of the contract %ere settled on the estate "y the manager %hose .udicial functions %ere a %ell esta"lished feature# Most managers %ere 9ustices of the 0eace8 they enforced the rules of management and of the la"our contract8 and also dis&ensed inter*&ersonal dis&utes# /nder such :uasi*court circumstances the Hindi*s&ea+ing la"ourers %ould "e clearly at a disadvantage# They %ere thus often una"le to effectively re&resent themselves %hen confronted "y a contending &arty# If after sifting %hatever evidence the !nglish*s&ea+ing manager could gather from the Hindi*s&ea+ing la"ourer) the issues %ere not clear*cut) he %ould %arn the &arties to ;"ehave themselves;# If the issues %ere serious) the manager could a&&ly any of the &o%erful sanctions at his command# -or e,am&le) he could shift a man<s residence) he could sus&end a la"ourer from %or+ or levy fines) or in e,treme cases) he could e,&el him from the estate#

3o%here else %as a +no%ledge of Hindi of little &ractical use than at the magistrates< courts * recourse to %hich %as sought %henever estate managers advised &laintiffs to ta+e serious cases there# 3ot only %ere the immigrants unfamiliar %ith the !nglish language "ut they could not have "een ac:uainted %ith even the "asics of the la"our la%s# If found guilty) immigrants %ere often considered criminals) even in civil matters# Their efforts to induce fello% immigrants to testify on their "ehalf %ere often frustrated "y their o%n ignorance of the !nglish language# It had often occurred that immigrants %ho %ere summoned "y the courts to testify for fello% la"ourers %ere .ailed %ithout giving evidence "ecause they did not +no% that the !nglish*%ritten la"our la% re:uired them first to o"tain a ;&ass; from the manager# The immigrants< ignorance of !nglish necessitated the a&&ointment of inter&reters# /sually) these %ere either Hindi or Tamil*s&ea+ing headmen (or 2ardars$ %ho had ac:uired a little &roficiency in the !nglish language# 1ut as one Magistrate) 7illiam 4e =oeu,) once remar+ed> ;These inter&reters have "ut slight idea of the sanctity of oaths and the &urity of truths;# It %as discovered that such inter&reters often formed their o%n o&inion of a case and su&&ressed or enlarged the evidence to coincide %ith their o%n conclusion# -rom the 18(? on%ards) follo%ing recommendations from the @oyal 6ommission) a religious revival in Hinduism &laced greater em&hasis on Hindi# Tem&les %ere "uilt and re&aired) and sti&ends and free :uarters for &riests %ere &rovided "y estate management) and Hindi schools %ere esta"lished# 1ut %ith the Hindus having little organiAational s+ills) management in time ste&&ed in to control such activities# It %as estate managements that &ersuaded the Hindus to conduct their religious activities through associations) %ith su"scri&tions) elected committees) and &arliamentary &rocedure for the conduct of meetings# Management also hel&ed in +ee&ing accounts and minutes# All of these activities) e,ce&t the ceremonies and rituals) %ere conducted not in Hindi "ut in !nglish# In 18(6) the colonial government) ta+ing authority from the 6om&ulsory 0rimary !ducation Act) made it com&ulsory for all Indian children to attend schools throughout the country# This develo&ment effectually discouraged the learning of Hindi and laid greater em&hasis on !nglish usage# In order to communicate %ith their school*going children) &arents tried to s&ea+ %hatever !nglish they +ne%# 7hen the !nglish*s&ea+ing children gre% u&) they in turn s&o+e !nglish %ith their children and so in the &rocess of attrition) Hindi faded as a day*to*day means of communication# The de*em&hasis on Hindi %as never at any stage forced "y official authorities) yet there %as much informal &ressure to s%itch to !nglish# -irst) in the B?th century) if not earlier) ;!nglish; customs had) in the eyes of all Guyanese) a great deal of &restige# The u&%ardly mo"ile Indian) %hether Hindu) Moslem or 6hristian) li+e his 1lac+) 0ortuguese and 6hinese counter&art realiAed that he had to ac:uire these customs# 2econd) there %as a gro%ing realiAation that conformity to <!nglish< customs) values and "enefits "rought certain advantages# -or e,am&le) .o"s as schoolteachers %ere o&en mainly to 6hristians since most schools %ere controlled "y !nglish*s&ea+ing 6hristian missions# Third) on the estates themselves) "elonging to a &articular stratum in the occu&ational structure re:uired the use) not of Hindi) "ut of !nglish# 2uch occu&ations included) "oo++ee&ers) cler+s) store*+ee&ers) ty&ists) &an "oilers) electricians) mill* hands) shift*su&ervisors) drivers) %elfare officers) foremen) mechanics) and sic+*nurses and dis&ensers# 5n the other end of the linguistic continuum) there %ere the la"ourers %ho s&o+e a lo%*status dialect of !nglish) called ;ta+i*ta+i; in &lace of Hindi# 7ith little or no schooling at all) even at the &rimary level) an uns+illed la"ourer had little control over the techni:ue and s+ills that ensured

high status and &o%er "oth in the local community and the %ider society# !nglish not Hindi) has "een the language of the government administration and the medium of communication in the society as a %hole# To the e,tent that an uns+illed la"ourer is not com&etent in the !nglish language (in its standard form$ he is cut off from the sources of information and &o%er# 7hether he is "argaining for "etter %ages and conditions) or com&uting %ages) or asserting his rights) he is at a disadvantage "y "eing de&endent on others# The retention "y those immigrants of Hindi as their ma.or) if not only) means of communication caused at least three ma.or social &ro"lems to emerge in the late 1'th century and the early &ost* indenture &eriod (1'B? on%ards$# -irst) it %as difficult for them to "e a"sor"ed in the general life of the %ider ;!nglish; culture of Guyanese society# 2econd) %ith their castes and religion and their different dialects and sometimes ;outlandish; dress they "ecame narro% in outloo+ and less &rone to "ecome cosmo&olitan# Third) they lac+ed the cultural characteristics valued in the society) and in return) the society %ithheld its rights and &rivileges from them# Let me conclude this &art of the &a&er "y noting this# Historically) considerations of social and economic &osition overrode cultural considerations and %ent to the e,tent of devaluating their o%n language) %hich so far) had served as a sym"ol of ethnic identity# -urthermore) the Indians< lac+ of +no%ledge of !nglish %as considered the main stum"ling "loc+ in their rise to social and &olitical &o%er# Today) in Guyana !nglish and not Hindi is regarded as a su&erior language for &olitical and economic reasons# 1eing the language &reviously of the ruling class i#e# the &lantocracy and today of the government) !nglish is loo+ed u&on "y the !ast Indian community as a source of &o%er) &restige and %ealth# In this &rocess !nglish rose to a su&reme &osition) leaving Hindi "ehind# 5n a ha&&y note) one should recogniAe that a &re*e,isting &assive +no%ledge of Hindi) es&ecially among older fol+s) is constantly "eing re*informed# This %as achieved through religious "oo+s in Hindi) distance learning) Hindi movies im&orted from India) Hindi movie songs "roadcast on local radio and television &rograms) and earlier) radio &rograms of the neigh"ouring countries of 2uriname and Trinidad# @eligious ceremonies and rituals are still in Hindi and often translated into !nglish# A fe% Hindi classes %ere conducted u& to a"out the mid*t%entieth century "y 6ana*dian 0res"yterian Missionary schools and some secondary schools) and u& to this day community*run Hindi classes are held in some rural areas# 0riests) are among the fe% individuals +no%n to have made a conscious attem&t to ac:uire com&etence in s&o+en and %ritten Hindi# The &riests< +no%ledge of Hindi allo%s them to give a culturally authentic touch to religious ceremonies and to maintain their o%n status as ;learned men;# The others %ho &ossess active com&etence in standard Hindi are younger &eo&le %ho learn Hindi at institutions li+e the 2ans+ritic Cendra) the Indian 6ultural 6entre) and until a"out si,teen years ago at the /niversity of Guyana) and those %ho have had the o&&ortunity of studying in the Indian su"*continent# Although these are some s&oradic attem&ts to teach and revive Hindi these days) it seems that they %ould hardly ma+e any difference unless its actual use its e,tended to some of the domains of day* to*day life# In conclusion) it must "e noted that des&ite all the circumstances militating against the more universal use of Hindi in Guyana) the Hindus< a"ility to &reserve their values and to &ractise their customs must "e accorded considera"le significance# 6onsidering the &ervasive and socially and culturally destructive influence of the &lantations during the indenture &eriod) the Hindus have

managed to +ee& intact the central tenets of their cultural values %hich in &resent times are given fuller institutional e,&ression#