63

SHRIMP aquaculture has a long history in the Philip-

pines. It can be said to have its beginning at the same
time as brackish-water aquaculture which, according
to some accounts, predates even the arrival of Magel-
lan in 1521 (Yap et al. 1995). However, it was in the
early 1950s that culture in earthen ponds of the jumbo
tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, was first docu-
mented by Villadolid and Villaluz (1951). This was
followed by the first account on its phenomenal
growth rate by Delmendo and Rabanal (1953). After
only 16 years, the first successful attempt in breeding
the species was reported (Villaluz et al. 1969). The
industry took off in the 1970s, bloomed in the eight-
ies, only to stagnate and even decline in the nineties.
Brief Status of the Shrimp Aquaculture
Industry
Farm production and exports
In 1995, the shrimp farming industry in the Philip-
pines had 54,912 ha of shrimp ponds, a production of
88,815 t and contributed about peso (Ps) 19.0 billion to
the economy (Ps 26.20 to US$1.00). This production
figure is based on estimates by the Philippine Govern-
ment (BAS 1996). Rosenberry (1995) reported a much
lower production figure of less than 20,000 t for 1995,
but it appears that those figures were based on export
volumes rather than on total production. While Rosen-
berry`s figures appear to be too low, those of the gov-
ernment appear to be too high.
In the Western Visayas Region, where most of the
intensive shrimp farms are found, shrimp farming
activity is down because of massive disease prob-
lems. In the province of Negros Occidental alone, it
was estimated that only 10% of the shrimp farms
were still operating in 1996. However, even as the
industry suffers, Region VI (Western Visayas),
Region IX (Western Mindanao) and Region XII
(Southern Mindanao) appear to be enjoying an
upsurge. Region III (Central Luzon) doubled its pro-
duction from a maximum of only 13,510 t between
1986 and 1993 to 27,749 t in 1994, although it dipped
slightly to 25,591 t in 1995. It should be noted that in
all the regions where the industry remains strong, the
growers practice either extensive culture, semi-inten-
sive culture, or even polyculture with milkfish.
Hatcheries, processors and feed mills
In 1992 there were 461 hatcheries of which 342
were operating. However, in 1995 only 298 hatcher-
ies remained, of which 164 were in operation. The
number of processors also declined-in 1990 there
were 53 companies listed and in 1995 this dropped to
only 18 companies.
Due to a greater degree of awareness of shrimp fry
quality standards, it was the very small, backyard
hatcheries that were not able to survive. The Philip-
pines probably has the strictest industry standard for
shrimp fry quality in the region. The quality criteria
include: presence and degree of infection in the
hepatopancreas, gut, gills and appendages; and body
length as related to number of rostral spines and mus-
cle development. These criteria are used in addition
to the traditional practice of visual examination of
size, distribution, activity, colour and environmental
stress resistance. Figure 1 shows a scoring system
Shrimp Acquaculture: the Philippine Experience
Rolando R. Platon*
* Chief, Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisher-
ies Development Center (SEAFDEC), Tigauan, Iloilo,
the Philippines.
64
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65
used to quantify fry quality. It is not uncommon for a
grower to have fry from a hatchery examined by
more than one laboratory to ascertain their quality
before making a commitment to purchase. Thus, the
actual drop in the fry production may not be as severe
as the drop in the number of operational hatcheries.
Current Key Constraints
Technical constraints to fry production
Shrimp hatchery technology in the Philippines
appears to have matured. Consistent and predictable
results are now the norm. Erratic production due to
perceived water quality problems, disease outbreaks
and a host of other unexplainable reasons appear to
be a thing of the past. The main concern of Philippine
hatcheries has shifted from merely attaining a target
number to producing high health fry and marketing.
The present concern of hatcheries to produce high
health shrimp fry has pointed to the need to have a
captive broodstock and with it the capability of selec-
tive breeding. Thus the lack of a truly domesticated
breeding stock can be considered the major constraint
to shrimp fry production. The present production cri-
sis in intensive grow-out operations has generated an
increased demand for specific pathogen-resistant
strains of shrimp.
Technical constraints to the grow-out operation
The production problems which used to plague the
hatcheries have shifted to the grow-out operation.
This includes the luminescent bacterial disease which
is caused mainly by Vibrio harveyii. This is espe-
cially acute in the province of Negros Occidental
which has the highest concentration of intensive
farms. Since this problem is mainly due to poor sani-
tation, the approaches that are now being tried follow
what has been found successful in hatcheries. These
include the use of chemotherapeutics such as chlo-
rine, benzylkonium chloride, formaline and even
antibiotics. However, such approaches have been
found to be impractical and costly for grow-out ponds
due to the wider areas and much larger volume of
water involved.
Shrimp growers in the Philippines are now also try-
ing bio-remediation or bio-augmentation. This
approach includes use of the so-called green water`
system wherein finfish are also stocked in the grow-
ing pond to induce chlorella to bloom. Commercial
probiotics, which were actually developed for sewage
treatment, are now also finding their way to shrimp
farms as growers become desperate. The results have
not always been consistent.
Use is also being made of immunoenhancers.
These are typically applied to the feed as dressing
immediately before feeding. The theory is that such
substances will intensify the capacity of the shrimp to
resist diseases.
Another approach, which has been talked about but
has had only limited trials so far, is the use of a reser-
voir pond to store incoming water for a certain time
before using it in the rearing ponds. In addition, with
the growing understanding of the role of intensive
shrimp farms in polluting nearshore waters, the con-
cepts of aquaculture wastewater treatment and recir-
culating or low-discharge systems have been
introduced.
While the tools to rehabilitate the industry seem
within reach, these are not immediately useable until
the production protocols for their use have been
established. The present constraints therefore now lie
in coming up with answers to the following ques-
tions.
Which of the commercially available probiotics are
effective for shrimp pond use and how should they
be applied?
If the use of finfish improves the condition of pond
water for shrimp culture, what is the optimum bio-
mass per unit area and when should the fish be
stocked?
What is the ideal ratio of rearing pond to reservoir
pond for incoming and outgoing water?
Can the reservoirs be used to grow other crops
instead of merely holding water? If so, what spe-
cies can be stocked in such ponds?
How does one deal with pond discharge during
harvests?
Environmental constraints
The problems now facing the intensive shrimp
farming areas in the Philippines are partly due to
shrimp farm discharges which exceed the natural car-
rying capacity of the surrounding waters. Part of the
problem, however, lies also with exogenous factors
not related to shrimp aquaculture.
There is a need to determine the hydrography of
water bodies which serve both as supply and dis-
charge points for shrimp farms. This will assist in
determining residence times of specific indicators of
organic and nutrient load (i.e. total nitrogen and total
phosphorus). By knowing these, it might be possible
to regulate shrimp farm density to a level which the
66
environment can support and sustain. This will
require the setting up of water quality standards, not
only for discharge from shrimp farms but for other
industries as well.
Social constraints
The general perception of shrimp aquaculture is
that it is the domain of the rich and has not benefited
the poor, even in terms of employment. The percep-
tion is that shrimp aquaculture has, at best, no effect
and, at worst, negative effects on employment, living
standards and health (Amante et al. 1989).
When the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Pro-
gram was passed as a law, fishponds were also
included. The implementation of such a law should
have led towards a more equitable distribution of
aquaculture resources. This was welcomed by most
of the farmers and fisherfolk groups. However, with a
very strong lobby from the fishpond sector, and to the
consternation of the grassroots sector, fishponds were
recently granted exemption from land reform.
It appears that the Department of Agrarian Reform
was never able to come up with a model for sub-
dividing a large fishpond into several independent
units for distribution to farmers and fisherfolk. There
are problems of supply and discharge canals as well
as access to the waterways. Also, there is the problem
of defining what is an economically viable unit,
which of course will depend on the species to be cul-
tured and the intensity of culture.
The concept of a fishpond estate consisting of inde-
pendent small growers with a company, or even a
cooperative of farmers, operating the common cen-
tralised facilities (i.e. hatchery and or nursery,
processing shed, pumping station) has been floated
for a long time, but a working model has never been
established. If such a system could be demonstrated
to be feasible and profitable, much of the objection
over the inequitable features of the shrimp culture
industry could be greatly minimised if not totally
eliminated. This remains the dream for fisheries
development planners in the Philippines.
Economic constraints
In the Philippine Prawn Industry Policy Study
made by Auburn University (1992), the economic
constraints were as follows.
The cost of feed was identified as the most serious
constraint, being significantly higher than in Thai-
land and Indonesia.
Receipt of tax credit is often delayed for 612
months.
The cost of electric power varies greatly within the
country, but is substantially higher than in many
other shrimp producing countries.
All loans have to be secured with real estate and
carry very high interest rates.
Further, the effect on shrimp aquaculture of two
new developments will need to be studied. These are
(i) the present import liberalisation and change in tar-
iff structure on all commodities under the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and (ii) the
partial deregulation and eventual total deregulation of
petroleum products.
Political and administrative constraints
Many in the shrimp industry complain about gov-
ernment laws, requirements and regulations. Bureau-
cratic obstacles to getting permits and tax credits are
common complaints. Lack of communication and
coordination has been reported for various agencies,
particularly the Department of Agriculture and the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
There is also a perceived lack of political will to
enforce environmental laws whenever the rich and
politically connected are involved.
Research Activities and Priorities for
Future Research
The task force for shrimp farm research
The present problems in the shrimp culture indus-
try are caused by over-intensification of culture oper-
ations wherein the effluents produced by the shrimp
farms themselves exceed the capacity of the natural
environment to degrade and render them harmless.
This causes deterioration of soil and water quality
within the shrimp farms as well their surrounds.
It is for this reason that the Director of the Bureau
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) con-
ceived of a task force` which consists of technical
people from various agencies working on the shrimp
disease and production problem, in order to have a
unified and concerted effort to rehabilitate the coun-
try`s shrimp farms. The task force is named OPLAN
SAGIP SUGPO.
In the process of devising the strategies and
detailed action plans, the task force has considered
the recommendations for shrimp research which were
raised at various meetings and conferences under-
67
taken by the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development
Center (SEAFDEC) Aquaculture Division.
The general objective of the task force is to rehabil-
itate the shrimp culture industry and make it sustaina-
ble through a focused effort to develop sound shrimp
health management techniques.
The specific objectives are:
to tailor-make culture techniques for each spe-
cific culture system;
to determine the carrying capacity of each given
area for shrimp production and develop practical
guidelines on regulating the development and oper-
ation of shrimp farms;
to set in place a monitoring system to ensure com-
pliance of whatever regulation the task force may
recommend for implementation; and
to train shrimp farm operators and technicians on
sustainable shrimp culture techniques.
Research activities
The detailed activities to be undertaken under each
strategy are as follows:
Identification of expertise
To make an inventory of technical persons with
BFAR, SEAFDEC, University of the Philippines in
the Visayas (UPV) and other agencies who are
directly involved in the study of shrimp diseases, cul-
ture, genetics etc.
Short-term studies (12 years)
A. Field evaluation of biological interventions (probi-
otics, integration of finfish, molluscs, and/or sea-
weeds with shrimp).
Validation of commercially available probiotics on
growth and survival of shrimp (to be undertaken by
SEAFDEC/Negros Prawn Producers Marketing
Cooperative, Inc.NPPMCI).
Documentation of lumbac-free (i.e. no luminous
bacteria) shrimp pond areas (SEAFDEC/BFAR).
Evaluation of the use of green water on growth
and survival of shrimp (BFAR/NPPMCI).
Effectiveness of integrating finfish and other
aquatic organisms with shrimp to prevent or mini-
mise incidence of luminous vibriosis (BFAR/NPP-
MCI).
Pond dynamics and nutrient budgets (UPV).
Use of molluscs and Gracilaria as biofiltering
agents (BFAR).
Screening and identification of beneficial bacteria
with potentials as probiotics (BFAR).
Establishment of the bacterial profile of healthy,
normal shrimp (SEAFDEC).
B. Field evaluation of physical interventions (recircu-
lating systems, reservoirs, semi-closed systems).
Development of a prototype recirculating system
using existing shrimp ponds (Society of Aquacul-
ture Engineers of the PhilippinesSAEP/BFAR).
Evaluation of the use of reservoirs in shrimp farms
(NPPMCI).
Documentation on the effectiveness of backfilled
shrimp ponds. (UPV/Department of Agriculture
Regional Fisheries UnitDARFU).
C. Field evaluation of chemical interventions (resi-
due studies, alternatives to antibiotics).
Study of the fate of antibiotics (SEAFDEC).
Study of the residual effects of chlorine, formalin,
and other chemicals in brackish-water ponds
(SEAFDEC).
Screening of environmentally friendly chemicals
for pond conditioning and disinfection (SEAF-
DEC).
Promotion of the use of tobacco dust as a pond pes-
ticide (BFAR).
D. Development of an aquaculture effluent treatment
system (BFAR/Department of Environment and Nat-
ural ResourcesDENR).
E. Field evaluation of crop rotation/fallowing (data
already available at Philippine Council for Aquatic
and Marine ResearchPCAMRD).
Medium-term studies (35 years)
A. Immune enhancement in shrimp (basic and
applied) (BFAR/SEAFDEC/UPV).
B. Determination of water quality standards for dis-
charges from shrimp farms (NPPMCI/Bureau of
Agricultural Research/Environmental Management
BureauEMB-DENR).
C. Development of an aqua-silviculture prototype
(SEAFDEC/DENR/DA-RFU).
D. Development of systems for monitoring impacts
of shrimp farming on coastal ecosystems
(DENR/BFAR/Local Government Unit LGU/
RFU).
E. Mass production of beneficial bacteria which have
potential as probiotics (BFAR).
F. Development of rapid sero-diagnostic kits for
detection of Vibrio (SEAFDEC/BFAR).
68
Long-term studies (610 years)
A. Development of captive shrimp broodstock
(SEAFDEC/BFAR).
B. Development of disease-resistant shrimp stock
(SEAFDEC/BFAR).
C. Determination of the effluent absorbing capacity
of mangroves (SEAFDEC/DENR/Ecosystems
Research and Development BureauERDB).
D. Upgrading of field diagnostic facilities
(BFAR/SEAFDEC).
E. Development of human resources in shrimp health
diagnostics and management through both short-term
and formal training (BFAR/SEAFDEC/UPV/
PCAMRD).
F. Development of formal academic programs in
aquatic veterinary science (UPV).
Constraints and dissemination of results
The research action plans call for some studies that
require innovative, biotechnological expertise and
facilities. Although we may have the biotechnical
expertise, lack of laboratory equipment and facilities
will be a major constraint in the conduct of important
studies.
The effective translation of research findings into
workable techniques for individual farmers is some-
times under question. The language gap may be a
constraint in the process of writing for publication of
research findings and also in attendance at training
courses and seminars. The problem of site specificity
may also be a constraint in the repeatability of results.
The conduct of verification tests in different areas
may iron out problems related to site specificity.
These trials may eventually serve as demonstrations
or pilot projects where farmers and technicians can
obtain first hand experience on technical, economic
and environmental aspects.
References
Amante, M., Castillo, F. and Segovia, L. 1989. The aquacul-
ture industry in Panay; a question of genuine peoples
development. Manila, Philippines, Panay Self Reliance
Institute Research Center, Philippine Normal College,
61p.
Auburn University 1992. Philippines prawn industry policy
study. Alabama, USA, Auburn University.
BAS (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics) 1996. Fishery year-
book, 1986 to 1995. Quezon City, Department of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 77p.
Delmendo, M. and Rabanal, H.R. 1953. Studies on the rate
of growth of the jumbo tiger shrimp or sugpo, Penaeus
monodon Fabricius with accounts of methods and prob-
lems of its cultivation in estuarine ponds in the Philip-
pines. Intramuros, Manila, Bureau of Fisheries, 19p.
Rosenberry, B. (ed.) 1995. World shrimp farming 1995:
annual report. San Diego, Shrimp News International,
68p.
Villadolid, D.V. and Villaluz, D.K. 1951. Cultivation of
sugpo (Penaeus monodon Fabricius) in the Philippines.
Philippine Journal of Fisheries, 1, 6878.
Villaluz, D.K., Villaluz, A., Ladrera, B., Sheik, M. and
Gonzaga, A. 1969. Production, larval development, and
cultivation of sugpo (Penaeus monodon Fabricius). Phil-
ippine Journal of Science, 98, 205233.
Yap, W.G., Rabanal, H.R. and Llobrera, J.A. 1995. Winning
the future in fisheries. Manila, Mary Jo Educational Sup-
ply, 132p.