Proofs

Zeph Grunschlag

Copyright Zeph Grunschlag, 2001-2002.

Announce
Spring break coming up! Next time, HW 6 due. OHs today cancelled. Rescheduled OHs, tomorrow: 1-2:30 pm

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Agenda
Proofs: General Techniques Direct Proof Indirect Proof Proof by Contradiction

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Proof Nuts and Bolts

A proof is a logically structured argument which demonstrates that a certain proposition is true. When the proof is complete, the resulting proposition becomes a theorem, or if it is rather simple, a lemma. For example, consider the proposition: If k is any integer such that k 1 (mod 3), then k 3 1 (mod 9). Lets prove this fact:
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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3)

k 31(mod 9)

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PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) 1. k 1(mod 3)

k 31(mod 9)

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PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n

k 31(mod 9)

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PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1

k 31(mod 9)

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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1 4. n k 3 = (3n + 1)3

k 31(mod 9)

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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) k 31(mod 9) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1 4. n k 3 = (3n + 1)3 5. n k 3 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n + 1

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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) k 31(mod 9) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1 4. n k 3 = (3n + 1)3 5. n k 3 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n + 1 6. n k 3-1 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n

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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) k 31(mod 9) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1 4. n k 3 = (3n + 1)3 5. n k 3 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n + 1 6. n k 3-1 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n 7. n k 3-1 = (3n 3 + 3n 2 + n)9

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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) k 31(mod 9) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1 4. n k 3 = (3n + 1)3 5. n k 3 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n + 1 6. n k 3-1 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n 7. n k 3-1 = (3n 3 + 3n 2 + n)9 8. m k 3-1 = m9
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Proofs Example
PROVE: kZ k 1(mod 3) k 31(mod 9) 1. k 1(mod 3) 2. n k-1 = 3n 3. n k = 3n + 1 4. n k 3 = (3n + 1)3 5. n k 3 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n + 1 6. n k 3-1 = 27n 3 + 27n 2 + 9n 7. n k 3-1 = (3n 3 + 3n 2 + n)9 8. m k 3-1 = m9 9. k 31(mod 9)
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Direct Proofs
Previous was an example of a direct proof. I.e., to prove that a proposition of the form k P(k) Q(k) is true, needed to derive that Q(k) is true for any k which satisfied P(k) is true. Three basic steps in a direct proof:

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Direct Proofs
1) Deconstruct Axioms
Take the hypothesis and turn it into a usable form. Usually this amounts to just applying the definition. EG: k 1(mod 3) really means 3|(k-1) which actually means n k-1 = 3n

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Direct Proofs
2) Mathematical Insights
Use your human intellect and get at real reason behind theorem. EG: looking at what were trying to prove, we see that wed really like to understand k 3. So lets take the cube of k ! From here, well have to use some algebra to get the formula into a form usable by the final step:

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Direct Proofs
3) Reconstruct Conclusion
This is the reverse of step 1. At the end of step 2 we should have a simple form that could be derived by applying the definition of the conclusion. EG. k 31(mod 9) is readily gotten from m k 3-1 = m9 since the latter is the definition of the former.

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Proofs Indirect
In addition to direct proofs, there are two other standard methods for proving k P(k) Q(k) 1. Indirect Proof For any k assume: Q(k) and derive: P(k) Uses the contrapositive logical P equivalence: P Q Q
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Proofs Reductio Ad Absurdum

2.
Proof by Contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) For any k assume: P(k) Q(k) and derive: P(k) Q(k) Uses the logical equivalence: P Q

P Q P Q P Q (P Q ) (P Q ) (P Q ) (P Q ) (P Q ) (P Q )
Intuitively: Assume claim is false (so P must be true and Q false). Show that assumption was absurd (so P false or Q true) so claim true!

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b)

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even.

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd.

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n 6. 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1)

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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n 6. 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1) 7. 2 | (k - 1) 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime
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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n 6. 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1) 7. 2 | (k - 1) 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime 8. a k - 1 = 2a b k+1 = 2b
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PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n 6. 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1) 7. 2 | (k - 1) 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime 8. a k - 1 = 2a b k+1 = 2b 9. a k = 2a + 1 b k = 2b 1
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Indirect Proof Example

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PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n 6. 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1) 7. 2 | (k - 1) 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime 8. a k - 1 = 2a b k+1 = 2b 9. a k = 2a + 1 b k = 2b 1 10. In both cases k is odd
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Indirect Proof Example

PROVE: The square of an even number is even. (Ex. 1.16.b) 1. Suppose k 2 is not even. 2. So k 2 is odd. 3. n k 2 = 2n + 1 4. n k 2 - 1 = 2n 5. n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n 6. 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1) 7. 2 | (k - 1) 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime 8. a k - 1 = 2a b k+1 = 2b 9. a k = 2a + 1 b k = 2b 1 10. In both cases k is odd 11. So k is not even
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Indirect Proof Example

Rational Numbers an Easier Characterization

Recall the set of rational numbers Q = the set of numbers with decimal expansion which is periodic past some point (I.e. repeatinginginginginging) Easier characterization Q = { p/q | p,q are integers with q 0 } Prove that the sum of any irrational number with a rational number is irrational:
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Reductio Ad Absurdum Example English!

You dont have to use a sequence of formulas. Usually an English proof is preferable! EG: Suppose that claim is false. So [x is rational and y irrational] [=P] and [x+y is rational] [= Q]. But y = (x+y ) - x. The difference of rational number is rational since a/b c/d = (ad-bc)/bd. Therefore [y must be rational] [implies P ]. This contradicts the hypotheses so the assumption that the claim was false was incorrect and the claim must be true.
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Proofs Disrefutation
Disproving claims is often much easier than proving them. Claims are usually of the form k P(k). Thus to disprove, enough to find one k called a counterexample which makes P(k) false.

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Disrefutation by Counterexample
Disprove: The product of irrational numbers is irrational. 1 1. Let x = 2 and y = . Both are irrational. 2 1 2. Their product xy = 2 = 1 is rational. 2

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Blackboard Exercise for 3.1

Proof that the square root of 2 is irrational

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