Classification measuring instrument:

The measuring instrument can broadly be classified into two groups as i) Absolute ii) Secondary
i) Absolute instrument:

This type of instrument measures the unknown quantity in an indirect way . Result of the measurement is computed based on quantity related to the unknown quantity and the constant of the instrument . No comparison with another instrument is necessary .The accuracy of the measurement by this type of instrument depends on the accuracy of the human obser ation and true alue of the constant . !or e"ample# the tangent gal anometer gi es the alue of the current in terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection produced by the current # the radius and no. of turns of the gal anometer coil # and hori$ontal component of the earth%s magnetic field .
ii) Secondary instrument:

This type of instrument gi es the result directly by the deflection of the instrument and dial reading only if the latter has been calibrated by comparison with either an absolute instrument or one which has already been calibrated . The deflection obtained is meaningless until such a calibration has been made. All secondary instrument can be classified according to the manner # the result or obser ation is presented or displayed .The types are
i) Indicating instrument

These instruments indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured continuously. They generally make the use of dial and a pointer for this purpose . Ammeter# &oltmeter #'attmeter etc belong these category.
ii) Recording instrument

This instrument gi es continuous record of the quantity being measured o er a specific period . The ariation of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen(attached to the mo ing system of the instrument) gi ing permanent mark o er the mo ing sheet of paper or chart at constant speed. )"amples are *+, plotter # strip chart recorder etc.
iii) Integrating instrument

This instrument totali$e e ents o er a specific period of time . The summation # which they gi e is the product of time and instantaneous quantity being measured. )"amples are Ampere+hour meter # 'att+hour or energy meter . the integration (summation alue) is generally gi en by a register consisting of a set of a pointer and dials.

The secondary instrument may be classified according to the principle of operation they utili$e . The effects utili$ed are: i) ii) iii) i ) ) -agnetic Thermal .hemical )lectrostatic )lectromagnetic /nduction

Magnetic effect:

'hen a current carrying conductor or coil is brought to near a bar magnet # it produces 0.. electromagnet . 0epending on the direction of flow of current through coil # there will be force of attraction or repulsion . /f the bar magnet is stationary and the coil is mounted on a spindle # the coil e"perience a torque about its a"is of rotation and it mo es to rotate . This effect is utili$ed in 1--. instrument . /f there are two current carrying coils # one of which is fi"ed and the other is mo able # there will be a motion of the mo able coil .This effect is utili$ed in the electrodynamoter type instrument.
Thermal effect:

The current or rate of change charge flow to be measured is passed through a small element which heats it . The temperature rise is con erted to an e.m.f. by a thermocouple attached to the element. This thermo e.m.f. can be measured by an indicating instrument or a ordinary gal anometer.
Electrostatic effect:

'hen two plates are charged with opposite or same polarity # there is a force of attraction or repulsion between the plates . This force is utili$ed to mo e one of the plates and the mo ement is coupled to the dri ing mechanism of the pointer gi ing measurement of the quantity under measurement
Induction effect:

'hen an a.c. unknown quantity (e.g. current or oltage) produces alternating magnetic flu" which links another mo ing conducting part of the instrument # an emf is induced in the conducting part . /f a closed path is pro ided # the emf forces a current to flow in the conducting part . The force produced by the interaction of alternating flu" and induced current will creates deflecting torque which makes the mo ing part of the instrument mo e . The induction effect is utili$ed in only a.c. measuring instrument as alternating flu" is necessary .

All secondary indicating type instrument are constructed with the subsystems as i) mo ing system ii) supporting mechanism ii) .ontrol system to obtain steady deflection . The constructional details are described Operating forces of Electromechanical Indicating instrument: Three types of forces are needed for the satisfactory operation . These are :i) 0eflecting force ii) .ontrolling force iii) 0amping force
Deflecting force:

The deflecting or operating force is required for mo ing the pointer from its $ero position . the system producing the deflecting force is called 2 -o ing system 2 . The deflecting force can be produced by utili$ing any of the aforesaid effects .Thus the mo ing system con erts the current into mechanical force in electromechanical type instrument.
Controlling force:

This force is required for indicating instrument in order that the current produces a steady deflection which is proportional to the magnitude of the current flowing the mo ing system. The function of the controlling force are: a) to produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force at the final steady position of the pointer in order to make the deflection definite for a particular magnitude of current . /n absence of a controlling system # the pointer will shoot beyond the final steady position for any magnitude of current and thus the deflection will be indefinite. b) To bring the mo ing system back to $ero position when the force causing the instrument mo ing system to deflect is remo ed . /n the absence of controlling system the pointer will not come back to $ero position when current through the mo ing system ceases to flow .

Damping force:

'hen a deflecting force is applied to the mo ing system # it deflects and it should come to rest at a position where the deflecting force is balanced by the controlling force . The deflecting and controlling forces are produced by the system which ha e the inertia and therefore # the mo ing system can not immediately settle at its final position but o ershoots or swings around the final position . This is illustrated in the following fig. Suppose 3 is the equilibrium or final steady position . 4ecause of the inertia of the mo ing system mo es to position 5a% . Now for any position 5a% beyond the equilibrium position the controlling force is more than the deflecting force and hence the mo ing system swings back . 0ue to inertia it can not settle at 53% but swings to a position say 5b% behind the equilibrium position . At 5b% # the deflecting force is more than the controlling force and hence the mo ing system again swings . The pointer thus oscillates about its final steady position with decreasing amplitude till its kinetic energy is dissipated in friction and therefore # it will settle down at its final steady position . /f e"tra force are not 3

pro ided to 2damp6 these oscillation # the mo ing system will take a considerable time to settle to the final position and hence time consumed in taking readings will be ery large. Therefore damping forces are necessary so that the mo ing system comes to its equilibrium position rapidly and smoothly without any oscillation.

Moving system: The mo ing parts should be light and the frictional forces should be minimum .These requirement should be fulfilled in order that power required by the instrument for its operation is small. The power e"penditure is proportional to the weight of the mo ing parts and the frictional forces opposing the mo ement . The mo ing part can be made light by using aluminum as far as possible . The frictional forces are reduced by using a spindle mounted between 7ewel bearings and by carefully balancing the system. Supporting system : The force or torque de eloped by the mo ing element in electromechanical indicating instrument is small in order that the power consumption be kept low so that the introduction of the instrument into a circuit may cause minimum change in the e"isting circuit conditions . 4ecause of low power le el # the supporting the mo ing system is of great importance . 'ith operating forces being small # the frictional forces must be kept to a minimum in order that the instrument reads correctly and is not erratic in action and is reliable. Se eral types of supports are used # depending upon the sensiti ity required and the operating conditions to be met . Supports may be of the following types :
i) Suspension:

/t consists of fine #ribbon shaped metal filament for the upper suspension and coil of fine wire for the lower part . The ribbon is made of a spring material like beryllium copper or phosphor bron$e . This coiling of lower part of suspension in done is order to gi e negligible restraint on the mo ing system . The type of suspension requires careful le eling of the instrument # so that the mo ing system hangs in correct ertical position . This construction is # therefore # not suited to field use and is employed only in those laboratory applications in which ery great sensiti ity is required . /n order to pre ent shocks to the suspension during transit etc. a clamping arrangement is employed for supporting the mo ing system .

ii) Taut suspension:

Suspension type instruments can only be used in ertical position . The taut suspension has a flat ribbon suspension both abo e and below the mo ing element # with suspension kept under tension by a spring arrangement . The ad antage of this suspension is that e"act le eling is not required if the mo ing element is properly balanced . Ribbon suspensions # in addition to supporting the mo ing element # e"ert a controlling torque when twisted . Taut suspensions are customarily used in instruments which require a low friction and high sensiti ity . Thus the use of suspension results in elimination of pi ots # 7ewels and control springs and therefore pi ot less instruments are free from many defects.

iii) Pi ot ! "e#el $earings:

The mo ing system is mounted on a spindle made of hardened steel . The two ends of the spindle are made conical and then polished to form pi ots . These ends fit conical holes in 7ewels located in the fi"ed parts of the instruments . These 7ewels # which are preferable made of natural or synthetic sapphire form the bearings . The contact surface between the spindle and bearings gi es minimum friction . /t has been found that frictional torque # for 7ewel bearings # is proportional to area of contact between the pi ot and 5

7ewel . the contact area between pi ot and 7ewel should be small . The pi ot is ground to a cone and its tip is rounded to a hemispherical surface of small area. The 7ewel is ground to a cone of somewhat larger angle . The pi ot may ha e a radius at tips from 8.89:; mm to as high as 8.8<; mm depending upon the weight of the mechanism and the force it will encounter . The radius of the pit of 7ewel is somewhat longer so that the contact is in the form of a circle. The contact area should not be too small otherwise the stress may e"ceed the crushing strength of the material of pi ot . The pi ots of many modern instruments are loaded nearly to yield point of steel . The rough handing of the instrument may deform the pi ot and crack the 7ewel . 7ewels are sometimes spring mounted to decrease the like hood of damage because of shocks # and its bottom is also rounded. The 7ewel bearing should be dry . any lubricant # such as oil would cause trouble because of gumming and collected dust . /n order that the wear and tear on the bearings becomes uniform and symmetrical the centre of gra ity of weight of the mo ing parts should coincide with a"is of the spindle for all positions of the pointer and there are no out of balance forces . This also ensures that the deflection is unaffected by the position of the pointer and there are no reading errors . The balance can be achie ed by using balance weights carried on arms attached to the mo ing system . The balance weight whose position is ad7ustable compensates for the weight of pointer and any other part attached to the mo ing system . A small weight at a larger distance increase the moment of inertia and necessitates a larger damping torque . A larger weight at short distance # on the other hand # increases the weight of the mo ing system . A compromise is usually made.

Tor%ue&'eig(t Ratio:

The frictional torque in indicating instrument depends upon the weight of the mo ing parts . /f the weight of the mo ing parts is large # the frictional torque will be large . The frictional torque e"erts a considerable influence on the performance of an indicating instrument . /f the frictional torque is large and is comparable to a considerable fraction of the deflecting torque the deflection of the mo ing system will depend upon the frictional torque to an appreciable e"tent . Also the deflection will depend on the direction from which the equilibrium position is approached and will be uncertain . 3n the other hand # if the fractional torque is ery small compared with the deflecting torque # its effect on deflection is negligible . Thus the ratio of deflecting torque to fractional torque is a measure 3f reliability of the instrument indication and of the inherent quality of the design . hence torque+weight ratio of the instrument is an inde" of its performance # the higher the ratio # the better will be its performance . /f the deflecting torque is e"pressed in terms of a force which acting at a radius of 9 cm # produces full scale deflection # the ratio of this torque to weight of the mo ing parts should not be less than 8.9 as far as possible. Control system: The mo ing system is mounted on a pi oted spindle . The quantity being measured produces deflecting torque proportional to its magnitude . There should a restraining or controlling torque acting in opposite to the deflecting torque # which will bring the mo ing system to steady deflected position # otherwise the mo ing system will go on mo ing for indefinite time. Two types of control system are used in indicating instruments as i) =ra ity control ii) Sprin g control .
)ra ity control:

/n gra ity control instrument # a small weight is placed on a arm attached to the mo ing system in such a way that it produces a restoring or controlling

torque when the system is deflected . The position of the weight is ad7ustable . 'hen the mo ing system is deflected by an angle # the controlling torque is gi en by : Tc = WlSin = K g Sin # where l > distance from the a"is of rotation of mo ing system . K g > Wl >constant. The controlling torque can be aried by simple ad7usting the position of control weight upon the arm which carries it. The gra ity control instrument must ob iously be used in a ertical position in order that the control may operate. The instrument must be mounted in le el position otherwise there will be a ery serious $ero error .!or these reasons # gra ity control is not suited for portable indicating instruments .

Spring control:

A flat spiral spring is attached to the mo ing system # produced controlling torque. 3ne end of the spring is attached to the spindle and the outer end carries a spigot which engages in a circular disc surrounding the 7ewel screw . This disc carries an arm which is slotted and splayed out at the end. The purpose of slotted e"tension arm is to allow the spring to be coiled or uncoiled slightly # so that the pointer may be set at $ero . the slotted arm is actuated by a set screw mounted at the front of instrument and # therefore # $ero setting of the instrument can be done without remo ing the co er. The spring material should be i) non+magnetic ii) proof from mechanical fatigue . 'here springs are used to lead the current into the mo ing system # they should ha e a small resistance # their cross ?sectional area must be sufficient to carry the current without temperature rise effecting their constant . they should also ha e a low resistance temperature coefficient. A no. of non magnetic materials like silicon bron$e # hard rolled sil er or copper # platinum sil er # platinum ?iridium and =erman sil er ha e been used but ha e not been found satisfactory owing to some reason or the other . !or most applications phosphor ?bron$e has been found to be most suitable material e"cept in instruments of low resistance ( ) . /n this case some special bron$e alloys ha ing low resistance may be used with some sacrifice in mechanical quality .

4y making the large no. of turns # the deformation per unit length is kept small on full scale deflection . The controlling torque is thus made proportional to the angle of deflection of the mo ing system . !or a flat spiral spring # the controlling torque de eloped by deflection of the mo ing system is gi en by :
Tc = Ebt 3 . = K c N+m. 12l

where E > ,oung%s modulus of the spring material (N@m:) b >width of spring (m) t >thickness of spring ( m) l >length of spring (m) >angular deflection (rad.)
K c > spring constant >

Ebt 3 12l

( N+m@rad.)

The spring should be stressed well below their elastic limit at ma"imum deflection of the instrument in order that there is no permanent set or that no change in deflection (or $ero shift ) will occur from inelastic yield. 6Tc -a"imum fibre stress f max = 2 (N@m:) bt Sometimes a parameter 2 length @ thickness6 ratio is used for design purpose . l E = ( ) Thus
t f max 2

Aence in order that the material is not o er stressed the ration of length to thickness of the spring should not be much less that !atigue in spring may be a oided to a great e"tent by proper annealing and ageing during manufacture . /n order to eliminate the effect of temperature ariations upon the length of the spring# two springs coiled in opposite

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directions are used . 'hen the mo ing system deflects # one spring is e"tended while the other is compressed .
Comparison of spring and gra ity control instrument:

i) ii) iii) i )

The gra ity control is cheap and is independent of temperature ariation =ra ity control instrument is independent of ageing and its performance does not deteriorate with time The scale of gra ity control instrument is non+linear and is cramped at lower end of the scale. The gra ity control instrument must be used in only ertically and must be perfectly le eled.

Damping System: The method for damping torque are : i) Air friction damping ii) !luid friction damping iii) )ddy current damping i ) )lectromagnetic damping

Air friction damping: /n the 9st type of air friction damping a light aluminum piston is attached to the mo ing system . The piston mo e with a ery small clearance in fi"ed air chamber closed at one end. .ross section of the chamber may be either circular or rectangular . /f the piston is mo ing rapidly into the chamber # the air inside the chamber is compressed and thus the pressure inside the chamber opposes the motion of the piston i.e. of the mo ing system to which piston is attached. /f the piston mo ing outside # pressure inside the chamber 11

falls and therefore the outside pressure becomes greater than that inside the chamber and thus the motion of the piston or of the mo ing system is again opposed . /n this system care must be taken to ensure that the arm carrying piston is not bent and the piston does not touch the sides of the chamber during its mo ement . when once bent it is often difficult to straighten the piston arm so that it does not touch the sides of the chamber at any point during deflection . The solid friction occurring between piston and sides of air chamber may result in serious error in the deflection . Such a system of damping is not fa ored now a days. /n second type of air friction damping system # a ane mounted on the spindle of the mo ing system is utili$ed . The ane is thin aluminum sheet and mo es in a closed sector shaped bo" .

*luid friction damping: /n this method of damping light ane or disc are attached to the spindle of the mo ing system and mo e in a damping oil # which is iscous in nature The damping oil employed must be good insulator # non+e aporating # non+ corrosi e on the metal disc or ane . /t should net be sub7ected to change of property with temperature. Two methods of fluid friction damping are a ailable. /n the 9st method # light anes are attached to the spindle of the mo ing system . the anes are dipped into a oil pot and are completely submerged by the oil . The motion of the mo ing system is always opposed by the friction of damping oil on the anes. The damping forces thus created always increases with the increase in elocity of anes . There is no damping force when the anes are stationary.

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/n the second method # a disc attached to the spindle of the mo ing system is immersed in damping oil . the frictional drag de eloped during the motion of the disc always opposes the motion of the mo ing system and becomes $ero when the disc is stationary . The suspension system of the disc should be cylindrical and of small diameter so that the surface tension effect is negligible .

Eddy current damping: 'hen a sheet of conducting but non+magnetic material like copper or aluminum mo es in a magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force # an e.m.f. is induced in the sheet # due to which a current flows through the short circuited path #encountered . This current is called eddy current which interacts with the magnetic field to produce an electromagnetic torque opposing the motion of the conducting sheet. The torque due to eddy current is proportional to the magnitude of eddy current and the magnetic field. The magnitude of current is proportional to the elocity of the conductor . Aence if the strength of the magnetic field is constant # the damping torque is $ero when the conductor is at rest # but increases when the conductor starts mo ing . There are two methods of pro iding eddy current damping . /n the 9st method a thin disc or ane of conducting material like copper or aluminum is mounted on the spindle carrying the mo ing system and the pointer . The ane or disc is positioned so that its edge rotates between the

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poles of a permanent magnet . /n second method of pro iding eddy current damping as used in 1--. instrument # the coil is wound on alight metal former in which eddy current are produced due to mo ement of the coil in the field of a permanent magnet .

i)

Eddy current damping tor%ue #it( metal disc:

.onsidering a metallic disc of thickness t # mean radius r and of resisti ity rotating with angular elocity and cutting through the magnetic field of permanent magnet with uniform flu" density 4 The instantaneous e.m.f. induced in this portion of disc in the inter polar gap # e = Blv = Blr The resistance of the eddy current path # consisting only the portion of the l disc which is immediately under the pole # R =
wt e Blr Bwrt I = = = Kl The eddy current # e R K (A) wt B 2 wlrt 0amping force # F = BI e l = (N) K B 2 wlrt T = F r = = r (N+m) 0amping torque# d d K B 2 wlr 2 t B 2 r 2 At = 3r Td = K K wl = A B # the area of the pole faceC

The actual resistance of the total eddy current path depends upon the radial position of pole and let it be D times as high as that of section under the poles # D is always greater than unity . The magnitude of damping torque may be aried by ad7usting the radial position of the poles. 0amping torque decreases with the distance of the magnet towards the edge of the disc and becomes $ero when the centre of the poles are at the edge of the disc .

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ii)

Eddy current damping tor%ue #it( a metal former:

/n 1--. instrument eddy current damping is obtained by employing a metallic former on which the coil iEs wound so that metal former acts as a single turn short circuited coil rotating in the field of permanent magnet and thus producing eddy current and damping force on the mo ing system . Fet the metallic former of length l metre and diameter of d metre rotates in radial field of permanent magnet of uniform flu" density 4 'b@m: with angular elocity w radians per second. Fet the thickness and width of the section of metallic former be t and w metre respecti ely . The e.m.f induced in each side of the former > Blv Total induced e.m.f. in the former # e = 2 Blv = 2 Bl
v =

d
2

= Bld (&) B

d
2

C
2(l + d ) (ohm) t

Resistance of the path for eddy current # R =

'here is the resisti ely of the metal of former in e Bld Bldwt Ie = = = )ddy current R 2(l + d ) 2(l + d ) (A) wt

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The damping force# F = BI e l = 0amping torque Td = Fd = 0amping constant K d =

B 2 l 2 dwt (N) 2 (l + d )

B 2 l 2 d 2 wt (N+m) 2 (l + d )

Td B 2 l 2 d 2 wt = (N+m@rad) 2 (l + d ) Aence the damping can be aried by arying the thickness of the metal former .

Electromagnetic damping: The mo ement of a coil in a magnetic field produces a current in the coil due to induced e.m.f. #which interacts with the magnetic field to produce torque . This torque opposes the mo ement of the coil . The magnitude of the current and hence the damping torque is dependant on the resistance of the coil circuit .

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Magnet system: Special alloys steel are used in instrument magnet construction . Tungsten steel has been popular since the early days. .obalt ?chrome steel has also been used because of their higher coerci ity and where economy of weight and space is important . 4ut recent years # Alnico magnets has been used to an increasing e"tent ./deally an instrument magnet should ha e in its air gap high magnetic flu" density which may not change with time or temperature . The design of instrument magnets in ol es consideration of weight and economy of space # e"pense of materials and manufacturing processes # and performance of magneti$ation both as well as the field strength desired in the air gap . /n most of the applications# the field strength may be e"pected to be between 8.8; and 8.:; T in air gap of 9.;+:.; mm length # depending on the si$e and type of instrument. 1ermanet magnets are made of hard materials # i.e. materials which ha e a broad hysteresis loop (large co+erci e force) so that they are not sub7ect to self demagneti$ation . /n order that the olume of the permanent magnet is small # the (4A) # of the material used should be large .The following table gi es data for magnetic materials used for permanent magnets.

Material 98G .arbon steel IG Tungsten steel

Remenance +'b&m,) 8.E 9.8;

Co-erci e force +A&m) H#888 ;#:88

.alue of $ for +$/)ma0 +T) 8.I 8.<

.alue of / for +$/)ma0 :#I88 J#<;8

+$/) ma0 9#;I8 :I:;

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J;G .obalt steel Alnico Alini Alcoma"+/// Alcoma"+/&

8.E 8.K 8.;; 9.:; 9.9

:8#888 H8#888 HI#888 ;H#888 I8#888

8.I 8.;I 8.JI 8.E; 8.K

9J#888 :H#888 :K#888 H8#888 HJ#888

<K88 9J#;88 98#888 JK#888 JH#888

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