Introduction To WDM

Introduction to WDM
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Training manual 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02 Edition 2003
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Note : Please print this document with comments pages
Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02
Page 0.2
Contents
1 - TDM versus WDM 1.1The telecommunication market 1.2 TDM technique 1.3 WDM technique 2 - Optical fibre 2.1 Principle of light guiding 2.2 Penalties induced by optical fibre 2.3 Non-linear effects 2.4 Types of fibre 3 -Technical Solutions 3.1 DCUs 3.2 PMD compensation devices 3.3 FECs 3.4 TEQs and SEQs 3.5 Modulation formats 4 - Optical Components 4.1 Receivers 4.2 Lasers 4.3 Modulators 4.4 Optical filters, multiplexers and de-multiplexers 4.5 Wavelength adapters 4.6 Miscellaneous devices 4.7 Optical amplifiers 5 - WDM Optical Networks 5.1 Optical network elements 5.2 Optical network structure 5.3 Protections of optical networks 5.3 Supervision of WDM networks 5.5 WDM applications 5.6 Alcatel references in WDM
Page 0.3
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Page 0.4
Self assessment of the objectives

Course title : Introduction to WDM Client (Company, centre) : Language : English Number of trainees : Surname, First name : dates from : Location :
Contract number :
to :
Did you meet the following objectives ? Tick the corresponding box Please, return this sheet to the trainer at the end of the training
Instructional objectives 1. To be able to compare the advantages of TDM and WDM techniques. 2. To be able to quote the limiting factors in WDM. 3. To be able to describe the technical solutions used to compensate for optical fibre impairments. 4. To be able to describe the function of optical components used in WDM systems. 5. To be able to identify the systems used in WDM networks and the architecture of these networks. Yes (or Globally yes) No (or globally no) Comments
Page 0.5
Self assessment of the objectives (continued)

Instructional objectives Yes (or Globally yes) No (or globally no) Comments
Other comments
Thank you for your answers to this questionnaire
Page 0.6
1 TDM versus WDM
Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VT ZZA Ed.02
1.1
Page 1.1
1 - TDM versus WDM Session presentation
Objective: to be able to compare the advantages of TDM and WDM techniques. Program: 1.1 The telecommunication market 1.2 TDM technique 1.3 WDM technique
1.2
Page 1.2
1 TDM versus WDM
1.1 The telecommunication market
1.3
Page 1.3
1 - TDM versus WDM The Telecommunication Market
1.4
Based on demand by end customers for high bandwidth, optical fiber networks capacity is increasing exponentially. Synchronous optical networks have paved the way for ultra high bit rates and ultra high bandwidth. Nevertheless, as the bandwidth keeps increasing, a question arises : what is the best way to adapt the transmission medium to face the demand?
Page 1.4
1 - TDM versus WDM Traffic Increase Expectation
Example of Trans-Atlantic traffic
Need for easy upgrade capacity of transmission equipment
1.5
It is expected that the demand for capacity will keep increasing over the next few years at a pace at least equal to the current one. This means that from to-days capacities, that are close to 1Tbit/s per fiber, there will be a need for further increases to 10 Tbit/s and even more per fiber. Another important measure of capacity is the spectral density, that is, the number of bit/s per hertz. Typical commercial systems with 1 Gbit/s per channel and 100 GHz spacing have a spectral density of 0.1 bit/s/Hz. The challenge for research is to improve that by an order of magnitude.
Page 1.5
1 - TDM versus WDM Solutions for a Larger Throughput
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
increasing the fiber count

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
increasing the bit rate

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
increasing the bandwidth efficiency
1.6
There are two approaches to increase the network throughput : install more fibers or increase the bandwidth of the existing fiber. To increase the bandwidth of a fiber, there are two options : - increase the bit rate. Currently, optical interfaces modulated at 10 Gbit/s are available and in the near future, 40 Gbit/s bit rates will be used in optical networks. However, the electronic circuitry of such systems is neither trivial nor cheap. - increase the number of wavelengths transported in the same fiber. Several wavelengths carrying data at 10 or 40 Gbit/s would increase the bandwidth by a factor equal to the number of wavelengths.
Page 1.6
1 TDM versus WDM
1.2 TDM technique
1.7
Page 1.7
1 - TDM versus WDM What is Optical Transmission ?
Laser Fibre Cable
Optical Amplifier
Receiver
Electrical Input
OPTICAL
TRANSMISSION
Electrical Output
1.8
Page 1.8
1 - TDM versus WDM TDM Principle

400 ps
Electrical synchronous multiplexer 4 to 1
STM-16 # 1
d d
c b c b
a
400/4 = 100 ps
STM-16 # 2
d d d d c c cc bbbb a aa aa
STM-16 # 3
d d
c c
Optical transmitter 10-Gbit/s
a a
Time
STM-16 # 4
2.5 Gbit/s digital streams
10 Gbit/s digital stream
1.9
The first optical systems designed by transmission equipment manufacturers were based on TDM principle. But an electrical multiplexer is only able to combine signals having the same bit rate . Consequently, if these signals are plesiochronous (they come from systems working with different clocks) , they need to be synchronized before being multiplexed.
Page 1.9
1 - TDM versus WDM TDM : Plesiochronous Hierarchy
G752
JAPAN
G752
32064
X3
97728
X4
397200
1544 USA DS 1
G753 X4
6312 DS 2
G752 X7
44736 DS 3
X6
274176
G755
EUROPE
2048 E1
G742 X4
8448 E2
G751 X4
34368 E3
G751 X4
139264 E4
X4
564992
1.10
Page 1.10
1 - TDM versus WDM TDM : Synchronous Hierarchy
USA
STS1 OC-1 51.840
STS3 OC-3 155.520
STS12 OC-12 622.080
STS48 OC-48 2448.320
STS192 OC-192 9953.280
EUROPE
STM-0
STM-1
STM-4
STM-16
STM-64
STM-256
1.11
Page 1.11
1 TDM versus WDM
1.3 WDM technique
1.12
Page 1.12
1 - TDM versus WDM WDM Principle
TDM
STM-16 # 1
d1 c1 b1 a1
Optical transponder 2,5-Gbit/s Optical transponder 2,5-Gbit/s 1
WDM
STM-16 # 2
d2 c2 b2 a2
W D M M U X
STM-16 # 3
d3 c3 b3 a3
Optical transponder 2,5-Gbit/s Optical transponder 2,5-Gbit/s
d1 c1 b1 a1 d2 c2 b2 a2 d3 c3 b3 a3 d4 c4 b4 a4
Time
1.13
STM-16 # 4
d4 c4 b4 a4
Time
There are two types of WDM systems : - Opaque systems : they receive a photonic information. After de-multiplexing the incoming signals, they turn the photonic information into an electrical information. Each channel is individually processed (error monitoring, switching, routing,) and then converted back to an optical signal. - Transparent systems : the optical signals received are never converted into electrical signals. Switching, de-multiplexing, multiplexing functions are purely optical.
Page 1.13
1 - TDM versus WDM WDM Systems Format Independence
SDH IP ATM Leased line ... M U X W D M
1.14
Page 1.14
1 - TDM versus WDM WDM Systems Compactness

16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R 16 x STM-1 STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R STM-16 STM-16 terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R terminal terminal terminal terminal 16 x STM-1 16 x STM-1 3R 3R 3R
STM-16
STM-16
STM-16
STM-16
16 x STM-1
STM-16 terminal
N channels
16 x STM-1
M U X
STM-16 terminal
D E M U X.
STM-16 terminal
16 x STM-1
N channels
STM-16 terminal
16 x STM-1
Coloured signals with specific wavelengths 1.15

Before the introduction of WDM systems in optical networks, the only possibility to increase the traffic capacity of an optical span was to install in parallel Nx STM-16 systems depending on the needs, thus multiplying by N the number of pieces of equipment in each point of the line. The consequence is the improvement of the global reliability.
Page 1.15
1 - TDM versus WDM TDM and WDM Capacity

WDM + TDM
Global capacity per fiber (Gbits/s) Capacit totale par fibre (Gbit/s)
1000
N x 10 Gbit/s
40 x 10 Gbit/s
N x 2.5 Gbit/s
128 x 2.5 Gbit/s
200 Gbit/s
100
100 Gbit/s
16 x 10 Gbit/s 8 x 10 Gbit/s 16 x 2.5 Gbit/s 8 x 2.5 Gbit/s
64 x 2.5 Gbit/s 32 x 2.5 Gbit/s 40 Gbit/s
TDM
Single (mono canal) Channel
10
10 Gbit/s
4 x 2.5 Gbit/s 2 x 2.5 Gbit/s 2.5 Gbit/s 10 Gbit/s
1
565 Mbit/s
0.1
1984
140 Mbit/s 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Anne Year
1.16
Page 1.16
1 - TDM versus WDM Optical bands in WDM Absorption spectrum of the optical fiber
10
Loss (dB/km)
S C L
1 0.5
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength (m)
1.17
Based on optical power loss of fibers, spectrum ranges have been characterized for compatibility purposes with light sources, receivers and optical components, including the optical fiber. Three optical windows have been used in optical transmission : the first window at 850 m, the second window at 1300 nm and the third window at 1550 nm. According to the broad absorption minimum, third window is best suited for WDM technique For WDM transmission systems, three optical bands are defined in the third optical window : - the S band : 1460 to 1490 nm - the C band : 1530 to 1565 nm - the L band : 1565 to 1595 nm
Page 1.17
1 - TDM versus WDM From 80 to 240 Channels

Trib Shelfs Channel # 161
LS LS LS
Channel # 240 Channel # 1

LS LS LS
1460 1460nm nm--1490 1490nm nm (S band) (S band) 1530 1530nm nm--1565 1565nm nm (C band) (C band)
LS LS LS
Channel # 80 Channel # 81
Channel # 160 Trib Shelfs
1565 1565nm nm--1595 1595nm nm (L band) (L band)
= Combiner/Splitter
LS = Line Shelf
1.18
Page 1.18
1 - TDM versus WDM C Band and ITU-T Grid
BLUE BAND (SHORT BAND) 1528 1542 1547
RED BAND (LONG BAND) 1565
C Band
WDM GRID at 100-GHz ITU-T G.692 196.0 195.5 195.0 194.5 194.0 193.5 193.0 192.5 192.0 191.5 191.0 Frequency (THz)
Wavelength (nm)
1530
1535
1540
1545
1550
1555
1560
1565
1.19
Page 1.19
1 - TDM versus WDM Exercise

1- What is the parameter that has boosted the traffic increase in telecommunication networks ? 2- What is the maximum bit rate of current TDM systems in PDH and in SDH ? 3- Which optical window is used by WDM systems ? 4- What is the name of the optical band used to-day in WDM transmission ? What are the lower and the upper wavelength limits in this band ? 5- What is the channel spacing of current WDM systems ? 6- What is the pitch of a an optical grid of which two adjacent channels have the following wavelengths : 1554.13 nm and 1553.33 nm ? 7- Quote three advantages of WDM technology in comparison with TDM technology.
1.20
1- The increase of internet traffic has contributed a lot to the increase of traffic in telecommunication networks. 2 - The maximum standardised bit rate of PDH TDM systems is 140 Mbit/s. In SDH, the maximum TDM bit rate is 10 Gbit/s (STM64 OC-192) 3- The third optical window is used in WDM systems. 4- Current WDM system use the so-called C-band in the range 1530nm to 1565nm. 5- The spacing of WDM is expressed in GHz. At the beginning of WDM, the spacing was 200 GHz. To-day the spacing is 50 GHz for DWDM systems and a spacing of 25 GHz is envisaged for future systems Remove this rectangle to discover the solution 6- = c/f => f =c/ f1 = 3 x 108 /1554.13 x 10-9 = 193.034 Thz f2 = 3 x 108 /1554.33 x 10-9 = 193.133 Thz So the channel spacing is : 193133 - 193034 = 99 GHz. The pitch of the system is 100 GHz. Advantages of WDM independence to tributary format multiplexing of non-synchronised tributaries reliability improved by the reduction of pieces of equipment
Time allowed : 10 minutes
Page 1.20
1 - TDM versus WDM Evaluation
Objective: to be able to compare the advantages of TDM and WDM techniques.
Thank you for answering the self-assessment of the objectives sheet
1.21
Page 1.21
1 - TDM versus WDM Notes
1.22
Page 1.22
2- Optical Fibre
2.1
Page 2.1
2 - Optical fibre Session presentation
Objective: to be able to quote the limiting factors in WDM. program: 2.1 Principle of light guiding 2.2 Penalties induced by optical fibre 2.3 Non-linear effects 2.4 Types of fibre
2.2
Page 2.2
2- Optical fibre
2.1 Principle of light guiding
2.3
Page 2.3
2 - Optical fibre Basic Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation

in m
1 km = 103 102 101 1 m = 100 10-1 10-2 1 mm = 10-3 10-4 10-5 1 m = 10-6 10-7 10-8 1 nm = 10-9 10-10 10-11 1 pm = 10-12
f in Hz
106 = 1 MHz 107 108 109 = 1 GHz 1010 1011 1012 = 1 THz 700 nm
visual range
800 nm
electric waves
red yellow
600 nm
C = f
1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021
WDM
IR-Radiation
green
500 nm
x-Ray radiation
400 nm
blue
- radiation
2.4
Page 2.4
2 - Optical fibre Propagation of Light in an Optical fibre
n1
Critical cone
crit
n2>n1 n2
n1
2.5
Light is transmitted through guided modes in an optical fibre. These modes are labeled TEmn or TMmn depending of the value of the transverse electric field or the transverse magnetic field. In a multimode fibre, the diameter of the fibre in on the order of 50 m and several modes are propagated whereas in a monomode fibre, the diameter is around 9 m, and only one mode is propagated and in that case. The critical angle is the maximum angle of incidence of light at which the light stops being refracted an is totally reflected. This angle depends on the refractive index : sin crit=n1/n2. The refractive index is given by the following equation : n = c/v where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v the speed of light in the medium. The cutoff wavelength of a monomode fibre is defined as the shortest wavelength that can travel through the fibre in single mode. Below this wavelength, the fibre behaves like a multimode fibre. ITU-T G650 gives a definition of this cutoff wavelength.
Page 2.5
2- Optical fibre
2.2 Penalties induced by optical fibre
2.6
Page 2.6
2 - Optical fibre Optical Attenuation

Absorption Impurities Rays of light
Absorption spectrum of the optical fibre
Scattering
Loss (dB/km)
10 5 1 0.5
0.8
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.7
During the manufacturing process, all impurities cannot be removed from the material. These unwanted elements have either an absorptive effect on the light or a scattering effect, thus reducing the optical throughput of the fibre. One of the most difficult impurity to remove is OH radical causing a strong attenuation in the 1400 nm range
Page 2.7
2 - Optical fibre Modal Dispersion
n1
crit
Tmin Tmax n2
Different optical modes in the fibre result in a variation of the time, the light remains in the fibre.
n1
Input pulse Output pulse
Power
2.8
The rays transmitted in the fibre are not parallel since they are transmitted through a small cone. Consequently, the length of the path followed by these rays are not equal. Thus the initial pulse is widened. This phenomenon is called Modal Dispersion. This parameter is negligible with a monomode fibre since, in theory,only one mode can be propagated in the core. In the former optical transmission systems, a way to reduce this penalty consisted in manufacturing a fibre with a graded-index fibre. In this case the refraction index of the fibre varies from the center to the periphery according to a pre-defined profile.
Page 2.8
2 - Optical fibre Chromatic Dispersion (GVD)
Positive chromatic dispersion
Time
2.9
The propagation speed of light in a medium with a given refractive index depends on its wavelength. Since the pulse of light launched into the fibre is not purely monochromatic, the travel time of each wavelength is different even if these wavelengths are guided in the same straight path. As a result, the different wavelengths dont arrive at the same time. This is known as chromatic dispersion d or GVD (Group Velocity Dispersion). It is an intra-modal dispersion. d is expressed in ps/nm.km To-day, 80% of optical fibres installed in the world are monomode fibres complying with ITU-T recommendation G652. Due to the availability of optical components in the second optical window (1310 nm), this fibre was designed so as to have a minimal chromatic dispersion at this wavelength. So, for very high bit rate and very long optical links, the terminal equipment has to face a very high chromatic dispersion ( +18 ps/nm.km for a G652 fibre). The consequence is the widening of the optical pulses transmitted through the fibre, creating an interference inter-symbols which makes more difficult the recognition of a succession of binary symbols.
Page 2.9
2 - Optical fibre Chromatic Dispersion versus Wavelength

25
20
Chromatic dispersion (ps/nm.km)
15
10
5
G.
0
EDFA bandwidth
65 2
(0 .0 8
ps /
nm 2 .k m
65 5
G.
-10 1200 1300 1400
1500
G.
65 5
G.
-5
65 3
1600
Wavelength (nm)
2.10
Page 2.10
2 - Optical fibre Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

DGD
Rx
DGD: DIFFERENTIAL GROUP DELAY PMD: POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION
2.11
Isotropic optically transparent materials are those that have the same index of refraction, the same polarization and the same propagation constant in every direction throughout the material. Materials that do not exhibit these properties are known as anisotropic. Anisotropic materials have a different index of refraction in specific directions. Consequently when a beam of monochromatic unpolarized light travels through it in a given direction, it is refracted differently along the directions of different indices. So when an unpolarized beam enters the material, it is separated into two rays, each with different polarization and different propagation constant. This property of anisotropic crystals is known as birefringence. PMD is the time averaged DGD at lambda (signal). This phenomenon was brought to the fore in long submarine links and is due to the imperfection of the fibre core. This core is not strictly circular ( manufacturing imperfection, mechanical and thermal constraints on the optical cable,). The consequence is a different propagation delay between the two propagation modes of light. The result is once more a widening of the transmitted optical pulse. The problem is complicated by the fact that the DGD is not constant. It varies depending on external constraints. PMD is expressed in ps/ (km)1/2 and this parameter has been limited in 1995 by ITU-T to 0;5 ps/ (km)1/2 for new fibres.
Page 2.11
2 - Optical fibre Impact of GVD & PMD

10000
PM D
PM
Non-regenerated spans (km)
1000
ps /k m0
0. 5
ps /k
.5
m0
D
.5
ps /n m
.k m
D
100
17
16
ps
/n m .k
X4
10 0.1 1 2.5 10 100
Bit rate (Gbit/s)

2.12
As shown in the diagram above, the throughput of a WDM system is divided by 16 when the bit rate is multiplied by 4. Consequently, optical fibres with a high PMD are not suited for transmission at 10 Gbit/s, since the length of non-regenerated sections is too short.
Page 2.12
2- Optical fibre
2.3 Non-linear effects
2.13
Page 2.13
2 - Optical fibre Non-Linear Effects

Non linear dependency of refractive index on launched optical power n=n0 + n2 x P(t)/Aeff with n2 = 2.7 x 10-20 m/W Aeff = effective area (80m for G652 and 50 m for G653)
MI : Modulation Instability Modulation of refractive index by light intensity fluctuation SPM : Self Phase Modulation XPM : Cross-Phase Modulation FWM : Four Wave Mixing Scattering effects SRS : Stimulated Raman Scattering SBS : Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
2.14
Page 2.14
2 - Optical fibre Modulation Instability

Pin = 8 dBm Pin = 16 dBm (BER floor)
Transmission over 2x100 km DSF (GVD=0.1ps/nm.km)
(10 dB /div, resolution 0.1 nm)
0
2.15
When a single pulse of a monochromatic source has a wavelength above the zero dispersion wavelength of the fibre, another phenomenon occurs that degrades the pulse shape : two side lobes are symmetrically generated at either side of the original pulse. This phenomenon is known as modulation instability and affects the SNR. Modulation instability affects the signal to noise ratio as shown in the slide above and can be reduced by operating at low energy levels.
Page 2.15
2 - Optical fibre Self Phase Modulation : SPM
Optical signal phase modulated proportionally to signal power
Wavelength
Modulated optical power P(t)

Power
Variable delay through the nonlinear dependency of optical length 150 200
Red
Falling edge Rising edge
Pulse shape
Blue 0 50 100 150 200
50
100
Time (ps)
Time (ps)
positive impact upon pulse shape over G.652 fibres
2.16
Page 2.16
2 - Optical fibre SPM Effects

80 km SMF
9 km DCF
80 km SMF
9 km DCF
Tx
Pin
Pin
Rx
Pin: 2 dBm
17 dBm
18 dBm
20 dBm
2.17
Page 2.17
2 - Optical fibre Cross-Phase Modulation : XPM

XPM events Optical power
(i.e. refractive index change at the power transients of the copropagating channels)
400-ps pulses
i j k l
Refraction index seen by channel # i :
P (t ) n = n0 + n 2 i +2 Aeff
(SPM)
j i
P j (t ) Aeff
(XPM)
XPM impact depends on the per channel optical power the GVD the channel spacing the polarization states
500
1000
1500
2000
Time (ps)
Limited impact of XPM on highly dispersive fibre (G.652)

2.18
Page 2.18
2 - Optical fibre Four Wave Mixing
FWM waves created via 3rd-order intermodulation process: ffwm = fk + fl - fm

Out-of-band crosstalk In-band crosstalk Optical frequency Optical frequency
FWM crosstalk is increased by:

large power per channel low chromatic dispersion small channel spacing
2.19
Considering three wavelengths, fk, fl and fm, from the interaction between them, a fourth wavelength is created such that : fwm = fk + fl - fm The effect of four wave mixing on an optical link is an OSNR degradation and cross-talk. The FWM increases as the input power of the channels increase and decreases as the channel spacing increases. Consequently, the effect of FWM is larger at the near end than at the far end.
Page 2.19
2 - Optical fibre Impact of FWM 50 GHz spacing Worst case configuration only
f1 + f2 = f3 + f4 With only two channels : f4 = 2f2 - f1 or f4 = 2f1 - f2
SMF
(GVD=17ps/nm.km)
NZDSF
(GVD=3ps/nm.km)
f1 2f1-f2
f2 2f2-f1
High intensity of FWM inter-modulation products over low local dispersion fibre
2.20
Four wave mixing may also occur with two signals at different wavelength. In that case, the fiber refractive index is modulated at the beat frequency of the two wavelengths.The phase modulation in that case create two sidebands, the intensity of these undesired signals being weaker than the mixing products of three signals.
Page 2.20
2 - Optical fibre Stimulated Raman Scattering

Excited atoms : high energy level
Stimulated emission Short wavelength source
Residue emission
Low energy level atoms
2.21
SRS is described as the scattering of one incident photon by a molecule to a lower-frequency (i.e. higher-wavelength) photon (called Stokes wave) while at the same time the molecule makes a transition between vibrational states. The incident photon acts as a pump to generate the down frequency-shifted photon. Consider two light sources with two different wavelength propagating in the same optical fibre. The short wavelength source excites atoms at a high energy level. These excited atoms can be triggered by other photons and drop to an intermediate energy level releasing optical energy at a longer wavelength. The photon frequency that is emitted is determined by the following equation : E = hv So, v = (Ehigh - Elow )/h In WDM systems, SRS is undesirable since it may result in amplification of adjacent channels.
Page 2.21
2 - Optical fibre Effect of SRS

-10 dBm /channel (linear regime) 0.7 dB
#1 10 Gbit/s per channel #32
100 km
Tx
Rx
5.6 dBm /ch. 2.3 dB
In future dense WDM/large bandwidth configurations, SRS is to be one of the main limiting effects
2.22
High energy channels (lower wavelengths) pump the low energy channels (higher wavelengths) in high optical power conditions. Consequently the multiplex will be unbalanced and noticeable SNR differences between channels will be observed at the end of the link. The longer the link, the larger the SNR gap between channels. The value of this gap depends on the number of channels (the occupied bandwidth) and the power per channel. It is possible to reduce this impairment by channel pre-emphasis to compensate for the SRS effect. However, this solution is not satisfactory for very long links.
Page 2.22
2 - Optical fibre Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
Electrostriction
2.23
French physicist Lon Brillouin studied first, around 1920, the diffusion of light by acoustic waves. One of the distinctive features he observed was a frequency change of the scattered light. Its first "contribution" was indeed a negative one : it was demonstrated that the Brillouin effect is the most drastic limitation encountered when the light power within the fibre is increased. There is a power threshold above which any additional light is back-scattered due to its interaction with acoustic waves. In a dielectric material such as the silica of an optical fibre, material density increases in the region of high electric field. Thus, when a high power optical signal travels through silica, the index of refraction of the fibre increases. This phenomenon called electrostriction is one of the components of optical Kerr effect. Let us consider an electrostrictive material where acoustic noise is due to the Bownian motion of its molecules (thermal noise). Part of the light traveling through this media, called here pump light, is backscattered by this acoustic noise : it's the spontaneous Brillouin scattering. This backscattered light, called Stokes light, propagates in the opposite direction and interferes with the pump light. Thus, due to the electrostriction, an acoustic wave is generated and stimulates the Brillouin scattering even more, which reinforces the acoustic wave, and so on. This loop process described here after is called stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS). The energy of the acoustic wave is negligible regarding the optical waves. This SBS process can be summarized as an energy transfer from the pump wave to the Stokes wave. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering is thus noting else than a optical gain experienced by the stokes wave traveling through the electrostrictive material in presence of the pump wave. The stimulated light is at a shorter wavelength. The part that is in the same direction as the original signal is scattered as acoustic phonons, and the part that is in the opposite direction is guided by the fibre. SBS limits the launched power per channel, thus reducing the span length. However, SBS is used in optical amplification : the backward signal is used as a pump for the signal to be amplified.
Page 2.23
2- Optical fibre
2.4 Types of fibre
2.24
Page 2.24
2 - Optical fibre Types of Optical fibre
SSMF :Standard Single Mode Fibre G 652 PSCF : Pure Silica Core Fibre G 654 NZDSF : Non Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre G 653 G 655 Tera Light DCF : Dispersion Compensation Fibre
2.25
Standard single mode fibre has a step index profile.It is characterized by a large chromatic dispersion and a moderate insertion loss. The most common fibre, which complies with ITU-T recommendation G 652 has a typical chromatic dispersion of +17ps/nm.km at 1550 nm and a loss around 0.2 dB/km. The PSCF (Pure Silica Core fibre) which complies with ITU-T recommendation G 654 has a low loss (typically 0.18 ps/nm) and a slightly larger chromatic dispersion (20ps/nm.km). This fibre is well adapted to WDM transmission because its chromatic dispersion limits the interaction between channels. Nevertheless, there is a drawback : high bit rate transmission on such a fibre requires a large amount of DCF, which is somewhat expensive. A new family of fibre has been developed with a complex index profile to achieve a small (but not null) and precise value for the chromatic dispersion. This fibre is known as non zero dispersion shifted fibre. It complies with ITU-T recommendation G 655. Note that old G 653 DSF often causes problems when upgrading to WDM because the exact chromatic dispersion of this type of fibre was uncontrolled and very small. NZDSF usually has a loss similar to SSMF while the chromatic dispersion is usually in the range 4 to 8 ps/nm.km. It has an effective area in the range 50 to 72 m (similar to that of SSMF : 80 m) Alcatel has developed an NZDSF called Teralight which is the result of optimizing these aspects. This fibre has a small chromatic dispersion of around 9 ps/nm.km and an effective area of 65 m. The purpose of DCF is to compensate for chromatic dispersion of the line fibre. Typical chromatic dispersion is lower than 80ps/nm.km while the typical attenuation is less than 0.5 dB/km.
Page 2.25
2 - Optical fibre Exercise

1- Which kind of optical fibre is the best suited for WDM systems. 2- The distance between two optical transmission systems is 50 Km. The optical budget of the link is 25 dB. What is the optical window used by the optical interfaces on both sides of the link ? 3- The length of an optical link is 5000 km. The optical interfaces on both sides can accept 6400 ps/nm of chromatic dispersion. Is G652 optical fibre convenient for that link ? 4- What are the components of Kerr effect ? 5- Which parameters increase FWM?
2.26
1- The dispersion shifted fibre G653 2- The attenuation of the fibre is approximately 0.5 dB/Km (25/50). So the system uses the second window at 1300 nm. 3- The chromatic dispersion would be : 5000 x 17 = 85000ps/nm. It is far larger than 6400 ps/nm. So this fibre doesn't match the needs.
Remove this rectangle to discover the solution
4- The SBS and SBS 5- The increase of power per channel and the reduction of the distance between channels.
Page 2.26
2 - Optical fibre Evaluation
Objective: to be able to quote the limiting factors in WDM.
2.27
Page 2.27
2 - Optical fibre Notes
2.28
Page 2.28
3 - Technical Solutions
3.1
Page 3.1
3 -Technical Solutions Session presentation
Objective: to be able to describe the technical solutions used to compensate for optical fibre impairments. Program: 3.1 DCUs 3.2 PMD compensation devices 3.3 FECs 3.4 TEQs and SEQs 3.5 Modulation formats
3.2
DCU : dispersion Compensation Unit PMD : Polarisation Mode Dispersion FEC / Forward Error Corrector TEQ : Tilt Equalizer SEQ : Shape Equalizer
Page 3.2
3.1 DCUs
3.3
Page 3.3
3 -Technical Solutions Dispersion Compensation Unit

DSF/DCF management & Dmux/Mux for individual channel adjustment
DSF DCF SMF/DCF management, & simultaneous dispersion/slope compensation SMF
DCF
3.4
DSF : Dispersion Shifted Fibre SMF : Single Mode Fibre In terrestrial links, a few sets of DCF are defined. For instance : 20, 40, 60, 80 km. These sets are installed either in a terminal rack or in repeater rack (in this case, the DCF span is inserted in between the two stages of the optical amplifier). Given that the chromatic dispersion of the fiber varies linearly with wavelength, the cumulated chromatic dispersion cannot be simultaneously canceled for all channels.This linear variation called chromatic dispersion slope, is such that, if the cumulative dispersion is exactly compensated periodically for the channel at the center of the transmitted optical band, the dispersion for the channels on both sides of the band will depend on the length of the link (typically +/- 6000 ps/nm for a 6000 km and 68 X 10 Gbits/s link). To overcome this problem a new type of fiber called RDF (Reverse Dispersion Fiber) is under study. The main characteristic of this fiber is that its chromatic dispersion and its chromatic dispersion slope is exactly the reverse of that of the normal fiber. The idea is to combine RDF with PSCF in each section to cancel the cumulative chromatic dispersion at the end of each section for all wavelengths. In addition, this configuration is well suited since the chromatic dispersion is never canceled in the 1.5 m window, thus reducing the FWM contribution.
Page 3.4
3.2 PMD compensation devices
3.5
Page 3.5
3 -Technical Solutions PMD Compensation Devices
3 IN (optical) polarisation controller
1
Counter-PMD
generator
OUT (optical)
Rx
control algorithm
feedback signal
3.6
A PMD compensator is necessary in practical situations where the fiber PMD is not low enough (old fibers and/or long links). Various architectures for optical and electronic compensation devices have been studied and several have been used in field trials on existing 10 Gbit/s links. Recently, PMD compensation was also demonstrated at 40 Gbits/s.
Page 3.6
3.3 FECs
3.7
Page 3.7
3 -Technical Solutions FEC Implementation

FEC insertion TWA 1 2 3 N FEC extraction 1
RWA
SDH terminal
SDH terminal
Transmitted bit sequence is encoded with specific algorithm Reed-Solomon type (good performance/redundancy ratio) 7 % redundancy (255 bytes/239 bytes) Received bit sequence is decoded with reverse algorithm error correction is performed (up to 1024 consecutive errors) line error rate (before correction) is monitored in-service
3.8
FEC is a feature provided by 2.5 Gb/s and 10 Gb/s transponders . A FEC is a performance booster. It enables per-channel digital monitoring of DWDM performance. FEC uses advanced submarine digital signal processing technology compliant with submarine standards (G.975) Alcatel has introduced out-of-band FEC for superior performance over in-band FEC. An in-band FEC uses the spare byte of an SDH frame to insert the extra traffic generated. Thus the bit rate is not modified. Whereas an out-of-band FEC adds extra traffic that depends on the type of FEC used. FEC as performance improvement booster : - 8-9 dB improvement in OSNR tolerance - 30 - 50 % increased distance between line amplifiers - Instant upgrade to 10 Gb/s of 2.5 Gb/s systems designed without FEC - Instant upgrade to 32 of 8 systems designed without FEC - x 2 - x 5 distance between O/E regenerators - x 2 tolerance to PMD - Provides additional margin for links with limitations due to non-linear effects (e.g. FWM in DSF) FEC as performance monitoring improvement : - Quality monitoring of client channel at the WDM input interface by means of B1 non intrusive monitoring in SDH frame Low_BER alarm High_BER alarm - Quality monitoring of optical channel at the WDM output interface by means of FEC: Corrected errors alarm Uncorrected errors alarm - Guarantees true monitoring of DWDM-related impairments
Page 3.8
3 -Technical Solutions FEC Principle

2.5 /s Gb 2.5 Gb/s Gb/s signal signal
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
FEC Parity Parity Bits FEC Parity Bits Added Added

1
239
255
24
FAW
SERVICE bits
DATA
64
REDUNDANCY
3.9
In parallel with modulation techniques, there is a highly effective tool that can be used to considerably increase the transmission capacity : Forward Error Correcting code. The effectiveness of a correcting code is expressed in terms of coding gain, reflecting the difference between the error ratio before and after correction in the receiver. The coding gain with a simple Reed Solomon code is around 6 dB. However, for long 10 Gbit/s WDM links, it is necessary to introduce a more powerful code formed by concatenating two Reed Solomon codes giving a coding gain equivalent to 8 dB. New types of FEC are currently being researched such as codes based on soft decision which sample the impulse on several levels; the code handles information which is no longer binary but multi-level, enabling a coding gain of 10 dB to be achieved.
Page 3.9
3 -Technical Solutions With or Without FEC ?

10 -2
Bit Error Ratio
10 -4
Without FEC With FEC

10 -6 10 -8 10 -10 10 -12 -49 -48 -47 -46 -45 -44 -43 -42 -41 -40 -39
5.7 dB
Received power (dBm)

3.10
Page 3.10
3.4 TEQs and SEQs
3.11
Page 3.11
3 -Technical Solutions Shape EQualizer

68 wavelengths with 0.4 nm spacing
SEQ
27 nm With gain flattening filters
(PASSIVE)
2 nm
Without gain flattening filter
0 Transmission (dB)
0,2 0,1
EDFA Filter ba nd (32 mn .) Equa lizer for 15 EDFA's
Ga in profile(db)
-1
EDFA Filter ba nd
(12 mn)
0 - 0,1 - 0,2 - 0,3 - 0,4
0,22 dB
-2
36 nm
-3
-4 1530
1535
1540 1545 Wavelength
1550 1555 (nm)
1560
1565
- 0,5 1525
1530
1535
1540
1545
1550
1555
1560
1565
1570
Wavelength
(nm)
3.12
The natural optical bandwidth of an EDFA is around 25 nm and the spectral response approaching peak gain is approximately gaussian. Consequently, the bandwidth of a link with, for example, 100 cascaded EDFAs is no more then 2.5 nm. It is therefore necessary to introduce optical filters to increase the optical bandwidth. Alcatel has developed a technology which can be used to etch an optical grating in few millimeters long in optical fiber. The resulting optical filter called Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) behaves like an optical rejecter at a given wavelength. By optimizing the attenuation profile of this FBG, a spectral response that is the inverse of the EDFA can be obtained creating a wide band EDFA. This technique has been used to achieve a 27 nm bandwidth. However, the gain response of an EDFA over a 27 nm band is uneven, a complex profile filter has to be created requiring several cascaded FBGs. The ability to construct such filters is the key of success in deploying long and high capacity WDM links.
Page 3.12
3 -Technical Solutions Tilt EQualizer

TEQ Active or Passive
12 nm
With 0.8 dB loss increase per section Without cable ageing
17 dB
3.13
In submarine networks, once the link is submerged, the gain profile gradually becomes distorted as the link cable ages, resulting in an additional loss per section causing the peak gain of EDFAs to shift towards the low wavelengths. As the gain tilt is a linear function of the wavelength, these gain distortions can be compensated by inserting a few linear profile variable optical TEQs, which can be remotely controlled from the terminal.
Page 3.13
3.5 Modulation formats
3.14
Page 3.14
3 -Technical Solutions Modulation Formats
Formats Non Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Return-to-Zero (RZ), Solitons, Carrier-Suppressed RZ Duobinary, Phase Shaped Binary Transmission (PSBT) Criteria Resistance to propagation effects (Att., GVD, PMD) Resistance to amplification noise Low spectral width Compatibility with all optical regeneration Cost
3.15
Page 3.15
3 -Technical Solutions PSBT
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 11 0.75 0,75
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 180 150
T=100ps
0.5 0,5
I(t)
(t)
120 90 60
0,25 0.25
30 0
150 350 550 750 950 1150 1350 1550 150 350 550 750 950 1150 1350 1550
0 0
Rebonds
Time (ps)
Time (ps)
phase shift+ energy in 0 improved transmission ! (PSBT, Phase-Shaped Binary Transmissions)
phase shift in the middle of 0
3.16
Page 3.16
3 -Technical Solutions Solitons
soliton power
low power
3.17
In 1850, John Scott-Russel , while riding along a channel, noticed that after a boat stopped suddenly, he created a wave that propagated downstream without being noticeably bent out of shape. But he didnt noticed that after colliding with other waves of different amplitudes those waves recover their original shape. They keep trace of this collision by only experiencing a phase shift. These very stable waves are called solitons. A soliton is a wave that propagates without complying with the energy scattering laws. Generally speaking, this wave is intense enough to excite a non-linear effect that compensates for the normal effect of energy dispersion. The pulse preserves its shape in the optical fibre under specific conditions : very short pulses and specific power spectrum. Due to the required pulse narrowness, RZ modulation is suitable.
Page 3.17
3 -Technical Solutions Exercise

1- Where are generally located DCF spans in an optical link ? 2- What is the difference between an in-band FEC and an out-ofband FEC ? Which one is more efficient ? 3- What is the bit rate at the output of an STM-16 transponder implementing an in-band FEC with a Reed-Solomon code (7 % redundancy) ? 4- In which kinds of networks TEQs and SEQs must be used ? 5- What are the different modulation formats used in current optical networks ?
3.18
1- DCFs are generally located at both ends of a WDM link, in the terminal equipment. 2- An in-band FEC uses the free overhead bytes of an SDH frame whereas an out of band FEC uses extras bytes. The redundancy factor is better in the latter case,hence improving the efficiency of the FEC. 3- Approximately 2.66 Gbit/s
Supprimer ce rectangle pour voir la solution
4- Equalisers are only used in submarine networks where the length of the links requires such devices due to the accumulation of repeaters. 5- RZ, NRZ
Page 3.18
3 -Technical Solutions Evaluation
Objective: to be able to describe the technical solutions used to compensate for optical fiber impairments
3.19
Page 3.19
3 -Technical Solutions Notes
3.20
Page 3.20
4 - Optical Components
4.1
Page 4.1
4 - Optical Components Session presentation
Objective: to be able to describe the function of optical components used in WDM systems. Program: 4.1 Receivers 4.2 Lasers 4.3 Modulators 4.4 Optical filters, multiplexers and de-multiplexers 4.5 Wavelength adapters 4.6 Miscellaneous devices 4.7 Optical amplifiers
4.2
Page 4.2
4.1 Receivers
4.3
Page 4.3
4 - Optical Components Detection Devices

Transparent Absorptive Transparent
PIN photodiodes
Optical Input
P InP
I InGaAs
N InP
VR
Conduction Band
Electron
E=hc/ Photon
Absorption Hole
E<hc/
Valence Band
APD photodiodes
4.4
The PIN photodiode is a semiconductor device that consists of an intrinsic region that is sandwiched between a p-type and an n-type layer. When this device is reversed biased, is exhibits an almost infinite internal impedance with an output current that is proportional to the input optical power. The input-output relationship define a responsivity R and a quantum efficiency as follows : R= output current I/ input optical power (amperes/watt) = number of output electrons/number of input electrons. The capacitance of the reversed biased PIN diode is a limiting factor to its response (and switching speed) The APD (Avalanche Photo Diode) is a semiconductor device that, when reversed biased, creates strong fields in the junction region. When a photon causes an electron-hole pair, the pair flows through the junction. Because of the strong fields in the junction, the electron gains enough energy to create secondary electron-hole pairs, which in turn cause more. Thus a multiplication (or avalanche) process takes place.
Page 4.4
4.2 Lasers
4.5
Page 4.5
4 - Optical Components Lasers
Fabry-Perot Lasers Monolithic BRAGG Lasers (DBR) DFB lasers Semiconductor Quantum Well Lasers VCSEL Lasers
4.6
Optical components are key enablers of the communication revolution which started with the Internet at the end of the 20th century. Associated with WDM, they are the answer to the capacity dilemma for transport switching and routing. At the transmit side, multicolor lasers now offer precise and stable wavelengths : typically +/- 0.1 nm over 15 years and within the temperature variations that are standard for telecommunications (from -5 to +70 C). These multicolor l asers require Multi-Quantum Well vertical structures for wavelength accuracy and adapted horizontal structures such as Buried Ridge Stripe (BRS) for high performance. The deposition process is based on crystal growth techniques such as Molecular Beam Epitaxy which allow atom by atom deposition so that the nanometer layers are accurately controlled. Currently it is possible to to manufacture laser emitters with a spacing of 0.4 nm between two adjacent wavelengths. This corresponds to a frequency spacing of 50 GHz. As wavelength density increases, reaching 25 GHz spacing in the future, the inherently low variation of BRS laser wavelengths as a result of aging will nevertheless be too large compared with the required stability. Thus optical loops are mandatory to lock the laser to the desired channel. This locking function can be integrated in the same butterfly package allowing the final accuracy of 20 picometers. New devices like tunable lasers capable of being tuned over a range of wavelengths are now becoming available. They take advantage of the natural variation in the emission wavelength with temperature (0.1 nm/ C). Fabry Perot lasers : Fabry Perot lasers can generate several longitudinal frequencies at once. The semiconductor material, the frequency spacing and the laser length determine the range of frequencies. Monolithic BRAGG Laser (DBR) : cleaved edges of Fabry-Perot lasers result in laser light with insufficiently narrow line width. Narrower line widths may be accomplished by employing Bragg gratings as reflectors. DFB lasers : DFB lasers are monolithic devices that have an internal structure based on InGaAsP waveguide technology and an internal grating to provide feedback at a fixed wavelength determined by the grating pitch. Semiconductor Quantum Well Lasers : these diode lasers have a very thin active region (50 to 100 A or 7 to 10 atomic layers). Then small currents produce large amounts of coherent light within a narrow line width. 1 A(Angstrm) = 10 -10 m VCSEL lasers : Fabry-Perot lasers, DFBs, DBRs, require substantial amounts of current to operate (tens of milliamperes). Moreover, their output beam has an elliptical cross section which doesnt match the cylindrical cross section of the core of an optical fiber. A structure that produce a cylindrical beam is known as Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser.
Page 4.6
4.3 Modulators
4.7
Page 4.7
4 - Optical Components External Modulators
Waveguide Phase control Voltage
Mach-Zehnder
Fiber
P-type MQW stack N-type
Waveguide
Voltage
N-type substrate
MQW
Lm
Electrorefraction
4.8
Optical modulators are integrated components designed to control the amount of optical power transmitted to an optical waveguide. So they can be positioned in line with CW lasers or monolithically integrated with the laser source. The major advantage of external modulators is that they have negligible chirp (phase jitter) compared with direct modulation. Chirp along with dispersion is another limiting factor for long distance transmission. In addition, external modulators can modulate high power CW lasers. Mach-Zehnder modulator : it consists of a Y-splitter junction, two phase modulators and a Y-combiner junction. The incoming signal is split into two parts. One of them is phase adjusted (by controlling the refractive index) and then the two parts recombine. Depending on the phase delay, light destructively or constructively recombines and an on or off signal is obtained at the output. MQW ( Multiple Quantum Well) directional couplers operate on light absorption properties. Light is absorbed when a voltage is applied. Electro-absorption modulators are on and off devices. They display an almost logarithmic attenuation that depends on the voltage applied. They can generate bit rates in excess of 40 Gbit/s with a modulation depth in excess of 45 dB. The electrorefraction modulator directly controls the phase of an optical wave through it when a voltage is applied.
Page 4.8
4 - Optical Components Direct versus External Modulation
Direct Modulation
Iin Electrical signal IN Electrical signal OUT DC Iin
External Modulation
Electrical signal IN
Unmodulated optical Signal External modulator
Modulated optical signal
Laser diodes bias current is modulated with signal input to produce modulated optical output
low
Laser diodes bias current is stable

more
cost, but
expensive, but
high chirp (spectral broadening) higher dispersion
low chirp (spectral broadening) better dispersion performance

4.9
Page 4.9
4.4 Optical filters, multiplexers and demultiplexers
4.10
Page 4.10
4 - Optical Components Optical Filters

Incident beam Reflected beams
Dielectric filters
High index
Multi layer structure
Low index Transmitted beam
Bragg gratings
1 2 3 4 2
Cladding
Optical Fiber
1
Grating Core
3 4
Arrayed Waveguide Gratings

Directional coupler
L+L
Directional coupler
Mach-Zehnder filter
1+ 2 L
Mach-Zehnder filter
Diffraction gratings
4.11
Optical filters are key elements for the transmission and routing of WDM signals. Various solutions have been demonstrated to perform optical filtering, the most popular being : - Dielectric thin film interference filters : they consist of alternating quarter-wavelength thick layers of high refractive index and low refractive index. 200 or more layers of material are deposited in a carefully controlled manner on a glass substrate in large deposition chambers. Chips are diced, polished, and precision mounted in metallic housings along with collimators to yield a wavelength-specific, free-space device. Thin-film dielectric devices are the most broadly deployed filters for low-channel-count DWDM systems in the 400 and 200 GHz channel spacing regime. The mature technology offers good temperature stability, channel-to-channel isolation, and a broad passband. Fibre Bragg gratings : it consist of a fibre segment of which index of refraction varies periodically along its length. These devices perform better at narrower channel spacing and moderate channel counts (less than 16). Insertion loss and uniformity is very good for these components as they are fabricated from standard single mode fibre. Channel spacing as narrow as 2.5 GHz (0.04 nm) have been demonstrated using the Mach-Zehnder approach Arrayed Wave Guide : they consist of a few layers of glass deposited on a silica or silicon substrate. The composition of the glass must be carefully controlled to present the correct index of refraction to the incident light. These layers are patterned and etched using variants of standard semiconductor process techniques, photolithography and reactive ion etching. A strong advantage of AWG solution is that it can be manufactured using semiconductor technologies leading to highly reproducible performance, high manufacturing yields and cost-effectiveness. The Mach-Zender filter is based on the interference of two coherent monochromatic sources that are based on the length difference, and thus on the phase difference of two paths. In fibre optic systems, a phase difference between two optical paths can be artificially created.
Page 4.11
4 - Optical Components Optical Mux-Demux
n1 n2 4 1+2+...4 Lens Lens
1 2 3
Prism
1 2 4
Diffraction gratings
1+2+...4
4.12
The main function of an optical demultiplexer is to receive from a fiber a beam consisting of several wavelengths and separate it into frequency components which are coupled in as many individual fibers as there are frequencies. An optical multiplexer functions exactly in the opposite manner. There are two kinds of optical demultiplexer devices : passive and active. Passive demultiplexers are based on prisms, diffraction gratings, spectral filters. Active demultiplexers are based on a combination of passive components and tunable detectors. A diffraction grating is a passive optical device that takes advantage of the diffraction property of light and reflects light in a direction that depends on the angle of incidence, the wavelength and the grating constant (number of strips per unit length). Then a diffraction grating reflects wavelengths in different directions when a mixed-wavelength beam impinges on it.
Page 4.12
4 - Optical Components Filters Advantages and Disadvantages

Filter type Thin-film dielectric interference Planar array waveguide Advantages Mature technology Good temperature stability Good wavelength selectivity Uses IC manufacturing processes Scalable to high channel counts Can integrate multiple functions on a single chip Mature technology Easy coupling to fiber Low insertion loss and polarization effects Can produce very narrow channel spaced devices Easy coupling to fibre Generates filter combs rather than wavelength-specific filters Low insertion loss Good temperature stability Desavantages Difficult to produce narrow channel spaced filters (<100 GHz) Filters can only be manufactured for a fixed wavelength Difficult fibre interface Capital intensive Requires large infrastructures Mechanical stability problems High back reflection : isolators must be used High channel count devices require cascaded devices that result in a larger form device
Fiber Bragg gratings
Mach-Zendher interferometers Diffraction gratings
Devices can be rather bulky Typically used in a free space mode requiring careful assembly techniques
4.13
Page 4.13
4.5 Wavelength adapters
4.14
Page 4.14
4 - Optical Components Transmit Wavelength Adapter
SDH network element Coloured optical interface

Electrical multiplexing stages
Transmitter Driver
Electrical signal
Colored Transmitter
Optical signal
Electrical tributary signals
W D M M U X
SDH network element B & W optical interface

Transmit Wavelength Adapter (TWA)

Standard Receiver
Optical signal Electrical signal
Electrical multiplexing stages
Transmitter Driver
Electrical signal
Standard Transmitter
Optical signal
3R Regeneration
Electrical signal
Colored Transmitter
Optical signal
Electrical-optical conversion
Optical-electrical conversion
Re-timing Electrical-optical Re-shaping conversion Re-transmitting
Coloured optical signals
4.15
On the transmit side: - new requirements imposed by WDM transport systems (precise wavelengths, long-haul capabilities) which were not taken into account by network elements originally designed for single-channel applications (compliant with ITU-T Recommendation G.957) - necessity either to design specific coloured transmit optical interfaces to be included in the network elements or to develop transmit wavelength adapters On the receive side: - because of the use of in-line optical amplifiers, optical signals in WDM transport systems travel over longer fiber distances than in former single-channel regenerated transport systems, they suffer from a lot of sources of optical degradations, including new impairments due to multi-channel propagation along the line. - since these new optical degradations were not taken into account when designing the optical receive interfaces of network elements, the use of receive wavelength adapters (including an optimised receiver module) allows to make the optical channels propagate over longer fiber distances For both transmit and receive sides: - TWAs and RWAs also allow to modify the signals carried by the optical wavelengths - additional signalling for OAM&P (e.g.: pilot tones, bit insertion - increase in the system performance (e.g.: forward error correction code) Alcatel has designed three types of transponders so far : - a transparent interface from 100 Mbit/s to 1.25 Gbit/s to support any type of low bit rate applications (Gigabit Ethernet,) - a synchronous interface at 2.5 Gbit/s : two types to support either 6400 ps/nm or 12800 ps/nm chromatic dispersion - a synchronous interface at 10 Gbits/s
Page 4.15
4 - Optical Components Black & White and Colored Interfaces

Terminal line equipment rack

Transmit shelf
Optical transmit interface unit
Output optical signal
Developed for single-channel applications (ITU-T G.957) Wide range of the output wavelength (1500-1580 nm) Usually based on direct laser modulation + up to 150 km at 2.5 Gbit/s over standard fiber Moderate launched power (lower than +2 dBm) Large range for the launched power: from -3 to +2 dBm Carrying only the SDH signal
Developed for multi-channel applications Selected and stable output wavelength with respect to the system design (mux, amplifier) Based on external modulation + up to 600 km at 2.5 Gbit/s over standard fiber Large launched power is desired Stable and adjustable launched power is wanted Can carry additional signal for OAM&P purposes
4.16
Page 4.16
4 - Optical Components Receive Wavelength Adapter

In this implementation scheme, the standard optical receive interface limits the degradations that can experience the optical channels before proper detection
SDH network element Standard optical interface

Standard Receiver Electrical demultiplexing stages
Electrical signal

W D M D E M U X
Pulse peaking due to self-phase modulation
Thick upper rail due to amplifier noise/signal beat noise
Optical signal
Electrical tributary signals
SDH network element Receive Wavelength Adapter (RWA)

Optimized Receiver
Standard optical interface

Standard Receiver
3R Regeneration
Short-Reach Transmitter
Electrical signal Optical signal
Electrical demultiplexing stages
Re-timing Electrical-optical Re-shaping conversion Re-transmitting
4.17
Page 4.17
4.6 Miscellaneous devices
4.18
Page 4.18
4 - Optical Components Multi-rate Clock Card
Multi-rate clock card

Multi-rate clock on board
MCC
Bi-directional transponder 100mbit/s 2.5gbit/s application range 3R O/E/O regeneration Transparent protocol support: SDH/SONET (STM-n/OC-n), fast Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet, ATM, FC, ESCON, FC, 2FC, FICON, FDDI, digital video
1234
2 to 4 wavelengths tunable laser
Inventory Saving !!
4.19
This Multi-Clock Card is a 3R-transponder that supports all bit rates from 100 Mb/s to 2.5 Gb/s: e.g. Fast Ethernet, FDDI, ESCON, Digital Video, STM-1/OC-3, STM-4/OC-12, Fiber Channel (FC), 2FC, Gigabit Ethernet, STM-16/OC-48. The bit rate is configured remotely by the Network Manager, enabling telecom operators to provide differentiated tarification according to the bandwidth made available. This transponder covering all most common bit rates in the metro, including 2.5 Gb/s and tunable over 2 (soon 4) wavelengths is a real true universal transponder, ideally suited for Metro Access applications where operators require high flexibility and fast availability for new service turnup. The MCC transponder supports performance monitoring for SDH/SONET signals, based on the B1 byte.
Page 4.19
4 - Optical Components 4 x ANY TDM Concentrator Plug-in cartridge Optical b&w connection
ESCON
GbE
2.5 Gb/s MCC or OCC

4 x ANY is no WLA. So it should get its own chapter.
STM-4
FE
TDM concentrator card
4.20
The TDM concentrator allows to multiplex in the time domain up to 4 signals into one single 2.5 Gb/s optical channel, e.g. 4 x ESCON into a STM-16/OC-48. Concentration provides cost-efficient transport for low bit rate traffic by reducing the number of required optical channels, i.e. minimizing the number of transponders and the size of the mux/demux gear. The TDM concentrator can be used to mix signals of different bit rates into one single 2.5 Gb/s optical channel: e.g. 2 x ESCON and 2 x STM-4/OC-12 or 2 x GbE. One of the distinctive features of the TDM concentrator is that it does not use a proprietary TDM multiplexing scheme but delivers a fully compliant SDH/SONET frame. A concentrated 2.5 Gb/s signal can hence be directly and cost-efficiently connected to a SDH/SONET ADM/DXC without requiring prior de-concentration. The TDM concentrator has a highly modular fabric, consisting of a housing card that can accommodate up to 4 cartridges, one for each aggregated traffic. Cartridges come into three types: - low bit rate cartridge: for Fast Ethernet, FDDI, ESCON and Digital Video - SDH/SONET cartridge: for STM-1/OC-3 and STM-4/OC-12 - GbE/FC cartridge: for Gigabit Ethernet and Fiber Channel
Page 4.20
4.7 Optical amplifiers
4.21
Page 4.21
4 - Optical Components Optical Amplification Principle

Signal in Pump coupler Pump laser diode Active fibre Signal out
fibre core doped with erbium ions
Excited state electron Ground state
Energy supply
(pumping)
Spontaneous emission
photon
Stimulated emission
Noise generation
Optical amplification
4.22
Page 4.22
4 - Optical Components EDFAs Structure

980 nm pump Input 1480 nm pump Output
Double-stage amplifier:
1530 - 1560 nm +14, +17 or +20 dBm output power
Preamp
Postamp
Monitor
Monitor
Loss
Attenuator 9 - 15 dB Or...
OADM
Monitor
Low-noise (NF < 6 dB) Allows insertion of optical devices with no impact on the power budget:
OADM DCU
Or/and...
DCU
4.23
Page 4.23
4 - Optical Components Optical Amplifier Response

Conventional EDFAs Gain-flattened EDFAs
Limited flat-gain bandwidth Low SNR
Pch
50 dB
40 nm
16 channels, 200-GHz channel spacing, 440-km transmission, 100-dB amplifier chain (1 booster + 3 in-line EDFAs)
4.24
Improvement of optical erbium-doped fiber amplifiers originally designed for single-channel applications was required for multichannel purposes. Flat gain/noise spectral responses are obtained using spectral filtering techniques in order to compensate for and to tailor the intrinsic non-uniform spectral responses of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. With conventional EDFAs, designed for single wavelength applications, the spectral response was non-uniform : - large per-channel power excursion - least favored channels suffering from low signal to noise ratio WDM approach for line systems: - with 2.5-Gbit/s channel bit rate, 16-fold increase in fiber distances with respect to 10-Gbit/s TDM - allow effective fiber capacity increase by changing only the terminal equipment - transparency to bit rates and standards, modularity, upgradability... BUT at the expense of new technical challenges: - transmitter wavelength selection and stabilisation, optical de-multiplexing - optical amplification of WDM channels, noise accumulation - non-linear effects along line fiber...
Page 4.24
4 - Optical Components Signal to Noise Ratio
Amplifier output power
Optical power
Signal
Optical SNR
Amplifier noise Distance
4.25
Optical amplifiers work at constant output level determined by pumping power. Since some noise is added to the signal while it is traveling through the optical fiber, this noise is amplified in each repeater and consequently depends on the number of repeaters. In parallel, some noise is generated in the optical amplifiers themselves and cumulated all along the link. The quality of the link depends on the OSNR (Optical Signal to Noise Ratio).
Page 4.25
4 - Optical Components BER Versus SNR

10 -5
10 -6
Bit error rate
10 -7 10 -8 10 -9 10 -10 10 -11 10 -12 10 -13 10

-14
Back-to-back (without EDFA) SNRRx = 25 dB/0.1 nm SNRRx = 23 dB/0.1 nm SNRRx = 22 dB/0.1 nm SNRRx = 20 dB/0.1 nm SNRRx = 18 dB/0.1 nm SNRRx = 16 dB/0.1 nm
-36 -34 -32 -30 -28 -26 -24 -22 -20
10 -15 10 -16
Received power
4.26
Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers intrinsically behaves in an analogous way. For instance, the gain/noise spectral responses depend on: span loss number of channels... Typical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) requirements (for BER << 10-15): SNR > 21 dB/0.1 nm at 2.5 Gbit/s SNR > 27 dB/0.1 nm at 10 Gbit/s Signal-to-noise ratio figures are favoured by: large per channel power (+ high amplified total output power required for large channel count) small amplifier gain (+ the smaller the amplifier spacing, the higher the output end SNR) small amplifier noise figure, pre-emphasis technique on the transmit side
Page 4.26
4 - Optical Components Repeater Spacing in WDM Networks
90 Repeater spacing (km) 80 70 60 50 40 30 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 16 42 68 105 x 10 Gbit/ s x 10 Gbit/ s x 10 Gbit/ s x 10 Gbit/ s
Link length (km)
4.27
Page 4.27
4 - Optical Components Q Factor
Optical power
1 m1 m0 o
Q=
m1 - m0 1 + 0
Decision threshold
PDF
Gaussian noise distribution
BER =
1 e Q erfc 2 Q 2 2
Q 2 2
When noise only is considered 20 log(Q) proportional to SNR (useful for margin evaluation)
4.28
M0represents the average value of 0 and M1 the average value of 1. 0 and 1 represent the standard deviation of 0 and 1 respectively Optical amplification is obtained at the expense of wide-band optical noise spectral density (Amplified Spontaneous Emission or ASE added to the signals). The ratio of the per-channel power [dBm] to the ASE noise power [dBm/0.1nm] is the optical signal to noise ratio (SNR [dB/0.1nm])
Page 4.28
4 - Optical Components Raman Amplification
System configuration
Tx Rx
1455 nm pump
Raman effect
Pump wave Pump wave
fibre molecular vibration
Energy transfer Peak at 440 cm-1
Stokes wave
dIs = C I I R p s dz
Gain spectrum vs pump wavelength

0,30 0,25
Peak gain coefficient versus fibre

CR = gR Aeff
related to fibre dopants effective surface area
@1480 nm @1455 nm
gR (arb. unit)
0,20 0,15 0,10 0,05
0,00 1450 1470 1490 1510 1530 1550 1570 1590 1610 1630 1650
fibre type Peak CR coefficient (m-1 W-1) PSCF 0.3 x10-3 typical NDSF 0.45 x10-3 typical DSF 0.6 x10-3
wavelength (nm)
4.29
A Raman amplifier uses intrinsic properties of silica fibers to obtain signal amplification. This means that transmission fibers can be used as a medium for amplification, and hence that the intrinsic attenuation of data signals transmitted over the fiber can be combated within the fiber. An amplifier working on the basis of this principle is commonly known as a distributed Raman amplifier (DRA). The physical property behind DRAs is called SRS (Stimulated Raman Scattering). This occurs when a sufficiently large pump wave is co-launched at a lower wavelength than the signal to be amplified. The Raman gain depends strongly on the pump power and the frequency offset between pump and signal. Amplification occurs when the pump photon gives up its energy to create a new photon at the signal wavelength, plus some residual energy, which is absorbed as phonons (vibrational energy). As there is a wide range of vibrational states above the ground state, a broad range of possible transitions are providing gain. Generally, Raman gain increases almost linearly with wavelength offset between signal and pump peaking at about 100 nm and then dropping rapidly with increased offset. The position of the gain bandwidth within the wavelength domain can be adjusted simply by tuning the pump wavelength. Thus, Raman amplification potentially can be achieved in every region of the transmission window of the optical transmission fiber. It only depends on the availability of powerful pump sources at the required wavelengths. The disadvantage of Raman amplification is the need for high pump powers to provide a reasonable gain. This opens a new range of possible applications. It is possible, for instance, to partially compensate fiber attenuation using the Raman effect and, thus, to increase the EDFA spacing. The Raman pump wave can be conveniently placed at the EDFA locations. This saves costs as less EDFAs are needed on the link, and the number of sites to be maintained is reduced. Raman amplifiers offer several advantages compared to EDFAs, including the following: Low noise buildup Simple design, as direct signal amplification is achieved in the optical fiber, and no special transmission medium is needed. Flexible assignment of signal frequencies, as Raman gain depends on the pump wavelength and not on a wavelength-sensitive material parameter of the medium, such as the emission cross-section of dopant in the erbium-doped fiber (EDF). Broad gain bandwidth is achievable by combining the Raman amplification effect of several pump waves that are placed carefully in the wavelength domain. However, despite the many advantages of Raman amplification, there can be some degradation effects. For example, not only the specially launched pump waves but also some of the WDM channels may provide power to amplify the other channels. This would result in power exchange between WDM channels and thus cross-talk leading to signal degradation.
Page 4.29
4 - Optical Components Raman Amplification Experimental Results

10-3
BER
Tx 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11

0 mW 200 mW 400 mW 600 mW 800 mW 1W 1.1 W
Tx
Pump
Att. 1480 nm pumped experiment
About 1 dB improvement expected with 1455 nm pumping System guaranteed improvement : 6 dB 1.5 dB repair possible in 50 last km
-58 -56 -54 -52 -50 -48 -46 -44 -42

Experimental equivalent sensitivity (dBm)
4.30
Page 4.30
4 - Optical Components Raman Amplifier Applications
TDM
Terminal Terminal
Terminal
Pump
TDM Terminal TDM TDM
+ Raman preamplification + Remote preamplification (1 or 2 fiber pumping)
TDM TDM
Terminal
Erbium doped fiber
Pump
Terminal
TDM
Terminal
Pump Pump
Terminal
TDM
TDM
Terminal
Pump
Pump
Terminal
TDM
+ Remote postamplification (1 or 2 fiber pumping)
TDM
Terminal
Pump
Pump Pump
Terminal
TDM
TDM
Terminal
Pump Pump
Pump Pump
Terminal
TDM
Unrepeatered submarine links 4.31
Page 4.31
4 - Optical Components Exercise

1- Which kind of laser cannot be used in WDM transmission systems ? 2- Which type of photodiode is used in high sensitivity receivers ? 3- Why external modulators are used in high performance optical systems ? 4- Quote three types of optical filters. 5- What is the function of a wavelength adapter ? 6- Explain the reason why wide-band optical amplifiers have a double-stage structure.

7- In which kind of links Raman amplification is used ?
4.32
1- Fabry Perot lasers cannot be used in WDM due to the width of the emitted spectrum incompatible with the channel spacing. 2- APD photodiodes are used in high sensitivity receivers. 3- External modulators are used in high performance systems due to their low chirp and thier ability to support high modulation bit rates. 4- Thin film dielectric filters, Bragg gratings, Mach-Zendher interferometer, diffraction gratings.

5- A wavelength adapter converts a black & white signal into a coloured signal. 6- An optical amplifier doesn't have a linear transfer function. Using two amplifiers allows to linearize the response in the transmission band. Moreover, this double-stage structure is very convenient since it allows to insert devices such as variable attenuators or OADMs. 7- Raman amplification is mainly used in unrepeatered long haul links.
Page 4.32
4 - Optical Components Evaluation
Objective: to be able to describe the function of optical components used in WDM systems
4.33
Page 4.33
4 - Optical Components Notes
4.34
Page 4.34
5 - Optical Networks
5.1
Page 5.1
5 - WDM Optical Networks Session presentation
Objective: to be able to identify the systems used in WDM networks and the architecture of these networks. Program: 5.1 Optical network elements 5.2 Optical network structure 5.3 Protections of optical networks 5.3 Supervision of WDM networks 5.5 WDM applications 5.6 Alcatel references in WDM
5.2
Page 5.2
5 - WDM Optical Networks
5.1 Optical network elements
5.3
Page 5.3
5 - WDM Optical Networks WDM Terminal

STM-16 STM-16 STM-16 STM-16 XY XY STM-64 STM-64 STM-16 STM-16 STM-16 STM-16 XY XY STM-64 STM-64
WLA
D E M U X E X P D E M U X
WLA
M U X E X P M U X
ASYN
Booster
Pre-amplifier
5.4
The signals connected to a WDM terminal are either coloured or black and white tributaries. Coloured signals can be directly multiplexed whereas black and white ones must be coloured thanks to a WLA board (WaveLength Adapter). Depending on their wavelength, theses signals are then multiplexed by groups of eight ( blue and red channels, or long and short band channels). The EXP (expansion unit) multiplexes the blue and red channels.
Page 5.4
5 - WDM Optical Networks Optical Add & Drop Multiplexer
28 ch D E M U X
Ch1
32 32ch ch WDM WDM
Ch2
M U X
ALC
32 32ch ch WDM WDM
Ch3
Ch4
Add Add ports ports
Drop Drop ports ports
Transponder Transpondershelf shelfor orSDH SDHequipment equipment

5.5
As the number of channels transported by WDM networks increase, the number of added and dropped channels also increase. Initially it was considered desirable to be able to extract 25 % of the channels at each node. With increasing traffic, this value can rapidly grow to 100 %. The approaches and technologies available for developing add and drop modules fall into three main categories : - full de-multiplexing and multiplexing of channels - cascaded single-channel add an drop devices : attractive for few channels (4 to 8) but limitations for high number of channels. Cross talk, high insertion losses and bandwidth filtering are the main issues. - multi-channel add and drop devices : using the liquid crystal technology, this approach has the following advantages . Low insertion loss . Suitable for 50 GHz, 100 GHz and 200 Ghz spacing . Transparency to the bit rate
Page 5.5
5 - WDM Optical Networks Alcatel WDM NEs 240 channels 160 channels 80 channels 40 channels
1640 WM
International and national applications
1686 WM
National and regional/metro applications
32 channels 16 channels
32 channels
1696 MS
Access/metro and enterprise applications
5.6
Alcatel 1640 WM Alcatel 1686 WM : Alcatel's long-haul DWDM solution maximizes fiber bandwidth, relieves fiber bottlenecks, and offers seamless integration into existing and future optical networks. It increases flexibility with simplified turn-ups and expansions, and uses a modular architecture that allows incremental growth to meet unpredictable demand. As a key components of Alcatel's DWDM solution, the Alcatel 1640 OADM/WM and Alcatel 1686 WM, enables efficient migration toward all-optical networks while extending the life of legacy components. Their advanced error detection and correction method, pioneered by Alcatel, translates into significant performance and cost advantages as compared to industry-standard DWDM systems. Alcatel's solutions increases the distance between in-line amplifiers by 30 percent to 50 percent and quadruples the number of DWDM channels without increasing span budget. They also increase the distances between regenerators by four to five times, improves the optical signal-to-noise ratio by 8 to 10 dB, and effectively removes the residual bit error rate (BER) floor . Multi-vendor environments require an open architecture for DWDM equipment. Open systems use transponders that are capable of translating wavelengths in the 1260nm to 1575nm range to one of the ITU-compliant frequencies. Truly open solutions, such as Alcatel's solution, use transmit and receive adapters to maximize flexibility. This approach allows the use of low cost "short reach" 1310nm optics in SONET and SDH network elements and provides an easier migration path to an all-optical layer. Alcatel 1696 MS : Alcatel's Metro DWDM can carry huge amounts of bandwidth coming from multiple services on a single optical fiber. This makes it the transport of choice for mega-bandwidth services such as Gigabit Ethernet, storage area networking, streaming video, as well as fiber relief for traditional applications. For end users, metro DWDM offers significantly higher-speed data services at a price-per-bit that is much more cost effective than current service offerings. Carriers can efficiently deliver this low-cost service because Alcatel's metro DWDM solution, the Alcatel 1696 Metro Span, meets three fundamentals. First, it is highly flexible, adapting to the many metro network topologies -- from the largest metro core to much shorter metro access rings -- as well as transmission formats, protocols (ATM, IP, FICON, ESCON) and bitrates from 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps. Secondly, it is compatible with existing networks, since it maps sub-lambda services onto VC4s and delivers them in an STM16/OC-48 output frame. Our solution thus interworks fully with any SDH/SONET equipment, enabling economical exploitation of SONET/SDH deployed capacity. Finally, it meets stringent footprint requirements. A full 1696 Metro Span system, with 32 + 32 protected channels, takes up to four shelves and fits in a single 300 mm deep (ETSI) or 12-inch deep (NEBS) rack. The Alcatel 1696 Metro Span, a carrier-class metro WDM product, supports lambda and sub-lambda services, Gigabit Ethernet, optical leased line services, and storage area networking (SAN) via ESCON and FICON interfaces.
Page 5.6
5 - WDM Optical Networks Optical Cross-Connect
O/E
E/O
1 2
1 2
Electrical core OXC
Fiber switching (FXC)
1 O/E/O O/E/O 2
Optical core OXC Wavelength selection (WSXC)
1 2
1 2
All Optical OXC Wavelength selection and conversion (WIXC)
3 2
5.7
Up to now, the deployment of WDM has been limited to point to point links. With the increase of optical channels on the same fiber, it is necessary to manage and to protect these channels in a way more cost-effective than at the STM-1/STS-1 level or even at STM16/STS-48. Network planners envisage to use the optical layer to interconnect the existing point to point WDM links so as to make an extensible and robust optical network and to offer end to end wavelength services to the customer. In that case, the customer has a complete control of the content and of the format of the information transported without having to pay the cost of a dedicated network infrastructure. OXCs will the corner stone of this optical layer. The main function of an OXC will be to dynamically reconfigure the network at the wavelength level, either to protect it or to adapt it to the fluctuations of the bandwidth demand. To-day the optical cross-connect have actually an electronic heart and not an optical one. The ideal solution would consist in having an all optical core. Nevertheless, so as to get rid of signal degradation (chromatic dispersion, polarization mode dispersion, non-linear effects,..) the opto-electronic regeneration is an interesting alternative even if the independence to the format, to the modulation, to the bit rate is suppressed. This solution has some advantages : - it eases the growth of the optical layer by eliminating the accumulation of degradation and by supplying the wavelength conversion for free. - it facilitates the fault location and the performance monitoring, thus simplifying the network management. - it allows the inter-operability between manufacturers. - it allows to speed up the introduction of optical switching and routing in the existing WDM networks. - it facilitates the introduction of new technologies as soon as they are available. As far as all optical cross-connect are concerned, three class have been defined : - FXC : fiber switch cross-connect - WSCX : wavelength selective cross-connect - WIXC : wavelength interchanging cross-connect
Page 5.7
5 - WDM Optical Networks Alcatel 1674 Lambda Gate
DWDM
DWDM
DWDM
DWDM
OCh Matrix
DWDM
DWDM
VC-4nc/4 Cross Connect
VC-4nc/4 Matrix
5.8
1674 Lambda Gate is: an Optical Multiservice Core Gateway a CrossConnect optimized for broadband and ultraband applications. Release 1 is based on the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy SDH. It provides: SDH I/O interfaces (STM1/4/16/64) an SDH matrix with an actual capacity of up to 8192 STM1 equiv. Release 1 is optimized for broadband applications (VC4 and VC4nc connecting level). Release 2 is an evolutionary step of Release 1. It provides: additionally I/O interfaces and a matrix for the new Optical Transport Hierarchy OTH. Release 2 is optimized for ultraband applications (VC4nc and ODU1/ODU2 connecting level). Note: In a first step Release 2 is a pure OTH system. The connection of the SDH and OTH parts to one system is planned for a future release. Lambda Gate supports network protection and restoration and is embedded in the Alcatel Network Management systems.
Page 5.8
5 - WDM Optical Networks Alcatel 1660 Cross-Light
Optical Layer Cross-Connect (OLX)

O/E/O
Optical switching matrix
O/E/O
Client layer
O/ E/ O
5.9
Alcatel 1660 Cross Light Photonic Cross-Connect : The 1660 Cross Light Photonic Cross-connect is a key component of Alcatel's all-optical network solution. Its innovative architecture eliminates costly optical-electrical-optical (OEO) conversions common in existing broadband cross-connects. Cross Light offers a wide range of in-service growth, enabling deployment flexibility and future scalability. This innovative system simplifies operations and enables new revenue generating opportunities through the implementation of a common intelligent control plane, Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching. GMPLS enables point-and-click provisioning ease, reduced service delivery time, unprecedented network agility, and new revenue opportunities. Complete hardware redundancy, robust protection and a variety of software selectable restoration schemes ensure the highest level of network reliability. Cross Light simply empowers carriers to provide new, differentiated managed wavelength services faster and more efficiently. The result: reduced network cost and increased revenues at the best value per managed wavelength demanded by carriers and providers today.
Page 5.9
5.2 Optical network structure
5.10
Page 5.10
5 - WDM Optical Networks Emergence of an Optical Layer
OADM for linear links
OXC for mesh networks

OXC
OADM for ring networks

WDM fiber
DM er fib
M WD
er fib
OADM
Optical Layer
Wavelength division multiplexing High-level protection and restoration Dynamic transport reconfiguration
D W M fib er
W
WDM
WDM fiber
OADM OADM
ADM ADM ADM ADM ADM ADM ADM ADM ADM DXC ADM ADM ADM
ADM ADM
ADM
SDH/SONET Layer
High-speed protection and restoration Time division multiplexing Time slot grooming
Services Layer
Delivery of services to end users
5.11
Page 5.11
5 - WDM Optical Networks End to End Optical Services

In-line OADM WDM terminal
OXC OXC
Meshed optical networks

OXC OXC
OXC OXC
OXC OADM
OADM
OXC
Optical rings
OADM
OXC
Optical Gateway
Optical rings
Optical Gateway
OXC OXC
Multi-rate optical networks

OXC
OXC OXC
5.12
Page 5.12
5 - WDM Optical Networks Network Evolution

Ultra/Long Haul Network distances: 600 to 3000+ km 8 to 160+ channel DWDM
Ultra Long Haul
10 Gb/s Raman amplification, Dispersion Management Lowest cost per bit
Long Haul
Metro Network Distances: 40 to 250 km

Metro
Wavelength routing for flexibility, dynamic bandwidth provisioning 2.5 Gb/s and 10 Gb/s Lowest cost per bit
5.13
Page 5.13
5.3 Protections of optical networks
5.14
Page 5.14
5 - WDM Optical Networks Optical Safety : APSD

WDM Terminal Equipment WEST TRIB. EXP WDM Terminal Equipment WEST TRIB. OADM OADM EXP EXP EXP WDM Terminal Equipment EAST TRIB.
Without OADM
WDM Terminal Equipment EAST TRIB.
With OADM
5.15
Page 5.15
5 - WDM Optical Networks Linear Protection : OMS protection

WDM Terminal Equipment WEST
WLA
M U X
WDM Terminal Equipment EAST Selector

D E M U X
Splitter
WLA
SP
E X P
SW
Working line
E x p
WLA
WLA
WLA
M U X
SP
SW
WLA
D E M U X
WLA
WLA
E X P
Protected line
E x p
5.16
OMS : Optical Multiplexing Section
Page 5.16
5 - WDM Optical Networks Ring Protection : OCh-SNCP

Working line Terminal SP SW SDH SDH Terminal Protecting line
Repeater
OADM
SDH SDH
Repeater
OADM
SDH SDH Terminal SP SW Terminal
SDH SDH 5.17
Page 5.17
5 - WDM Optical Networks Ring Protection: O-SNCP with D&C

SP SP WDM terminal WDM terminal WDM terminal WDM terminal WDM terminal WDM terminal
SW SW
WDM terminal WDM terminal
SW SW
SP SP
5.18
Page 5.18
5.4 Supervision of WDM Networks
5.19
Page 5.19
5 - WDM Optical Networks Optical Supervisory Channel

Line Terminal Equipment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tx sup
In-line Amplifier
Line Terminal Equipment

1 2 3 4 5 6
Tx 1 Tx 2 Tx 3 Tx 4 Tx 5 Tx 6 Tx 7 Tx 8
Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
+ supervision
Rx sup
7 8
Rx
Tx
System Control Processor
OSC
System Control Processor
Network Management
Network Management
5.20
Through OTS and OMS overheads management, the optical supervisory channel at 1510 nm provides : i Management of the distant terminal i Management of the in-line amplifiers i User's dedicated voice & data communication channel Moreover, this channel is fully survivable with respect to EDFA failures. The same Alcatel network manager is used for both SDH and WDM products. A network element can be managed by : i a local or a remote craft terminal using F interface and Alcatel 1320 CT i a centralised management on workstation using Q interface (1353 SH, 1354 RM) The main management functions provided are : i Alarm and status monitoring i Configuration (Unit and Alarms assignment, Power level definition) i Remote inventory i Software downloading i Analogue applications (Total Optical Power, Laser Current, ) i Signal quality monitoring
Page 5.20
DATA OUT
DATA IN
5.5 WDM applications
5.21
Page 5.21
5 - WDM Optical Networks SAN : Storage Area Networks
Server Open World Fast & Gigabit Ethernet

Fiber Channel FICON @ 1Gb/s or @ 2Gb/s
Ethernet Open
Server
Ethernet
FC
FC
Open World Remote Fabric

FC/FICON
Fabric / Director
FC/FICON
SynchronousData DataReplication Replication Synchronous
ESCON / FICON Storage Remote Storage

5.22
Page 5.22
5.6 Alcatel references in WDM
5.23
Page 5.23
5 - WDM Optical Networks Alcatel References in Europe

Alcatel WDM systems are installed and operational in many countries all over the world
5.24
Page 5.24
5 - WDM Optical Networks Alcatel References : America, Asia & Africa

SAT MEDITERANNEAN NAUTILUS
South Africa
Shandong PTA
sharf t
Eastern Caribbean Fibre System
5.25
Page 5.25
5 - WDM Optical Networks 5,12 Tera bit/s on TeraLightTM

C band EDFA
1X
40 Gbit/s 215 - 1
M-Z
32
DCF
C band EDFA
1X 32 M-Z
PBS
100 Km Tera Light C C

DCF
VSB Filter
1X
40 Gbit/s 223 - 1
L M-Z
L
DCF
L Rx
32
DCF
1X 32
M-Z
PBS
L band EDFA
L band EDFA
Raman Pumps
x3
5.26
Alcatel has demonstrated the feasibility of 5.12 Tbit/s transmission capacity over 300 Km of Tera Light optical fiber, which corresponds to 100 million phone channels or 640 000 ADSL links on a single fiber. Odd and even channels are independently modulated by two Mac-Zehnder modulators fed by a 215-1PRBS and a 223-1 PRBS. Conventional optical demultiplexing of 40 Gbit/s NRZ modulated channels require filters with about 60 GHz of optical bandwidth. As both side bands of an NRZ modulated signal contain redundant information, it is tempting to filter one of them in order to bring the channels closer and increase the spectral efficiency, a technique known as VSB (Vestigial Side Band). The 40 Bgbit/s channels are alternately spaced 75 and 50 Ghz apart. This scheme makes it possible to achieve a high spectral efficiency of 0.64bit/s.Hz. Then odd and even channels are interleaved with orthogonal polarization through Polarization Beam Splitters and amplified so as to achieve an optical power of 21.5 dBm (an average of 0.5 dBm per channel).The EDFA is a dual-band amplifier made up of two amplifiers working in two distinct wavelength ranges. Each EDFA has two stages : the first having a low noise factor and the second one a large output power. At the extremity of each span, four semi conductor Raman pumps are used to amplify the 128 channels so as to improve the global SNR. An L-C band demultiplexer separates the two bands so that they are separately amplified. At the end of the last span, the EDFAs acts as optical pre-amplifiers. In that experiment, the 128 channels have been transmitted with a gain dispersion of around 4 dB. The objective was to achieve a BER < 10-9 and an SNR better than 30 dB after 300Km.
Page 5.26
5 - WDM Optical Networks Tera Light Milestones

June 1999
Introduction of TeralightTM
Sept 1999
World record 1.5 Tb/s Tb/s 150 channels, channels, 10 Gb/s, 50 GHz
Sept 2000
World record 5.1 Tb/s Tb/s 128 channels, channels, 40 Gb/s, 50/75 GHz, GHz, 400 km
March 2001
World record 10.2 Tb/s Tb/s 256 channels, channels, 40 Gb/s, 100 km
May 2001
Launch of two new TeraLightTM fibers
TeraLightTM Metro
For Metro Backbone Applications
TeraLightTM Ultra
For Long Haul and Ultra Long Haul
5.27
Page 5.27
5 - WDM Optical Networks Exercise

1- What are the components of a WDM terminal ? 2- What is the outstanding advantage of a cross-connect with an optical core and Optical /Electrical /Optical interfaces ? 3- Which kinds of protections can be implemented in a WDM network ? 4- Why is it necessary to use a dedicated wavelength to supervise a WDM link ?
5.28
1- A WDM terminal features transponders in charge of assigning a specific wavelength to the incoming signals, a multiplexer in charge of associating the wavelengths coming from the transponders so as to be able to transmit on a single optical fibre and optionally an optical amplifier in charge of amplifying the composite optical signal to the correct power before sending it to the fibre. The return path is symmetrical. 2- The main advantage of such a cross-connect is to allow the retrieval of the whole optical budget for every wavelength. 3- In WDM, every wavelength can be protected : multiplexing section protection (OMS) in linear or in ring networks, channel protection (OCh protection) in ring networks. Moreover the protection of the users is achieved thanks to a dedicated mechanism called APSD. 4- OH of transported signals cannot be used for supervising WDM network elements, hence the need to have a dedicated wavelength.
Page 5.28
5 - WDM Optical Networks Evaluation
Objective: to be able to identify the systems used in WDM networks and the architecture of these networks.
5.29
Page 5.29
5 - WDM Optical Networks Notes
5.30
Page 5.30

Introduction To WDM

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Introduction To WDM

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Introduction to WDM

Training manual 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02 Edition 2003

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Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

Self assessment of the objectives

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

Self assessment of the objectives (continued)

Thank you for your answers to this questionnaire

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 TDM versus WDM

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VT ZZA Ed.02

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM Session presentation

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 TDM versus WDM

1.1 The telecommunication market

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VT ZZA Ed.02

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM The Telecommunication Market

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM Traffic Increase Expectation

Example of Trans-Atlantic traffic

Need for easy upgrade capacity of transmission equipment

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM Solutions for a Larger Throughput

Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

increasing the fiber count

increasing the bit rate

increasing the bandwidth efficiency

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 TDM versus WDM

1.2 TDM technique

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VT ZZA Ed.02

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM What is Optical Transmission ?

Laser Fibre Cable

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM TDM Principle

Optical transmitter 10-Gbit/s

2.5 Gbit/s digital streams

10 Gbit/s digital stream

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM TDM : Plesiochronous Hierarchy

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM TDM : Synchronous Hierarchy

STS1 OC-1 51.840

STS3 OC-3 155.520

STS12 OC-12 622.080

STS48 OC-48 2448.320

STS192 OC-192 9953.280

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 TDM versus WDM

1.3 WDM technique

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VT ZZA Ed.02

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02

1 - TDM versus WDM WDM Principle

Optical transponder 2,5-Gbit/s Optical transponder 2,5-Gbit/s

Alcatel University - 8AS 90200 0667 VH ZZA Ed.02