1 The importance of mother tongue-based schooling for educational quality Commissioned study for EFA Global Monitoring Report

!!" Carol #enson$ %h&'& Centre for Research on #ilingualism (toc)holm *ni+ersity 1, April !!, %art A- .+er+ie/ 0hile there are many factors in+ol+ed in deli+ering quality basic education$ language is clearly the )ey to communication and understanding in the classroom& Many de+eloping countries are characteri1ed by indi+idual as /ell as societal multilingualism$ yet continue to allo/ a single foreign language to dominate the education sector& 2nstruction through a language that learners do not spea) has been called 3submersion4 5()utnabb-6angas !!!7 because it is analogous to holding learners under /ater /ithout teaching them ho/ to s/im& Compounded by chronic difficulties such as lo/ le+els of teacher education$ poorly designed$ inappropriate curricula and lac) of adequate school facilities$ submersion ma)es both learning and teaching e8tremely difficult$ particularly /hen the language of instruction is also foreign to the teacher& Mother tongue-based bilingual programs use the learner9s first language$ )no/n as the :1$ to teach beginning reading and /riting s)ills along /ith academic content&1 The second or foreign language$ )no/n as the : $ should be taught systematically so that learners can gradually transfer s)ills from the familiar language to the unfamiliar one& #ilingual models and practices +ary as do their results$ but /hat they ha+e in common is their use of the mother tongue at least in the early years so that students can acquire and de+elop literacy s)ills in addition to understanding and participating in the classroom& #ilingual as opposed to monolingual schooling offers significant pedagogical ad+antages

/hich ha+e been reported consistently in the academic literature 5see re+ie/s in #a)er !!1; Cummins !!!; CA: !!171 2n cases /here t/o or more languages are spo)en in the home or locality$ schooling may be pro+ided in one of the learner9s home languages$ in another local language$ or in a lingua franca; for lac) of a better term for these conte8ts$ this paper uses 3mother tongue4 or :1 to refer to any language in /hich schoolaged children are competent&

2n <orth American and European conte8ts$ languages are considered 3second4 or 3foreign4 depending on /hether or not learners are e8posed to them in the outer community& 0hile the school language is often foreign to children and adults in de+eloping countries$ the blan)et term : is used since it is still appropriate in terms of the sequence in /hich languages are learned& = *se of a familiar language to teach beginning literacy facilitates an understanding of sound-symbol or meaning-symbol correspondence& :earning to read is most efficient /hen students )no/ the language and can employ psycholinguistic guessing strategies; li)e/ise$ students can communicate through /riting as soon as they understand the rules of the orthographic 5or other /ritten7 system of their language& 2n contrast$ submersion programs may succeed in teaching students to decode /ords in the : $ but it can ta)e years before they disco+er meaning in /hat they are 3reading&4 = (ince content area instruction is pro+ided in the :1$ the learning of ne/ concepts is not postponed until children become competent in the : & *nli)e submersion teaching$ /hich is often characterised by lecture and rote response$ bilingual instruction allo/s teachers and students to interact naturally and negotiate meanings

together$ creating participatory learning en+ironments that are conduci+e to cogniti+e as /ell as linguistic de+elopment& = E8plicit teaching of the : beginning /ith oral s)ills allo/s students to learn the ne/ language through communication rather than memori1ation& 2n submersion schooling teachers are often forced to translate or code-s/itch> to con+ey meaning$ ma)ing concept learning inefficient and e+en impeding language learning$ /hile bilingual programs allo/ for systematic teaching of the : & = Transfer of linguistic and cogniti+e s)ills is facilitated in bilingual programs& .nce students ha+e basic literacy s)ills in the :1 and communicati+e s)ills in the : $ they can begin reading and /riting in the : $ efficiently transferring the literacy s)ills they ha+e acquired in the familiar language& The pedagogical principles behind this positi+e transfer of s)ills are Cummins9 51??1$ 1???7 interdependence theory and the concept of common underlying proficiency$ /hereby the )no/ledge of language$ literacy and concepts learned in the :1 can be accessed and used in the second language once oral : s)ills are de+eloped$ and no re-learning is required&, Consistent /ith these principles$ it is possible for children schooled only in the : to transfer their )no/ledge and s)ills to the :1$ but the process is highly inefficient as /ell as being unnecessarily difficult& > Code-s/itching and code-mi8ing in+ol+e alternation bet/een languages$ and are common communication strategies in bi- and multilingual conte8ts& Code alternation functions best /hen all parties are competent spea)ers of the languages in+ol+ed$ but in submersion classrooms it is more of a coping strategy for dealing /ith a foreign instructional medium and does not necessarily contribute to second language learning&

, As specialists :anau1e @ (no/ e8plain$ transfer means that 3language s)ills acquired in a first language can$ at least if de+eloped beyond a certain point in :1$ be recruited at relati+ely early stages of : acquisition for relati+ely s)illed performance in : $ thus shortcutting the normal de+elopmental progression in : 4 51?A?- >>B7&> = (tudent learning can be accurately assessed in bilingual classrooms& 0hen students can e8press themsel+es$ teachers can diagnose /hat has been learned$ /hat remains to be taught and /hich students need further assistance& 2n submersion schooling cogniti+e learning and language learning are confounded$ ma)ing it difficult for teachers to determine /hether students ha+e difficulty understanding the concept itself$ the language of instruction$ or the language of the test& = The affecti+e domain$ in+ol+ing confidence$ self-esteem and identity$ is strengthened by use of the :1$ increasing moti+ation and initiati+e as /ell as creati+ity& :1 classrooms allo/ children to be themsel+es and de+elop their personalities as /ell as their intellects$ unli)e submersion classrooms /here they are forced to sit silently or repeat mechanically$ leading to frustration and ultimately repetition$ failure and dropout& = (tudents become bilingual and biliterate& #ilingual programs encourage learners to understand$ spea)$ read and /rite in more than one language& 2n contrast$ submersion programs attempt to promote s)ills in a ne/ language by eliminating them from a )no/n language$ /hich may actually limit learner competence in both& All of these ad+antages are based on t/o assumptions- one$ that basic human needs are being met so that schooling can ta)e place; and t/o$ that mother tongue-based bilingual schooling can be properly implemented& (imply changing the language of instruction /ithout resol+ing other pressing social and political issues is not li)ely to result in

significant impro+ement in educational ser+ices& Co/e+er$ because language cross-cuts race$ ethnicity$ gender$ and po+erty$ e+en minimally implemented bilingual programs ha+e the potential to reach those /ho ha+e traditionally been left behind by : submersion schooling& This paper /ill discuss ho/ choosing an appropriate language of instruction has positi+e implications for education in terms of both increasing access and impro+ing quality& %art #- %olicy de+elopment and implementation of bilingual programs 1& 0hy bilingual policies ha+e been introduced The introduction of mother tongue-based policies and programs normally goes beyond pedagogical moti+ations to address social and political aims& 0hile it should be remembered that any one program represents a combination of aims$ the follo/ing illustrate a samplingCistorical precedents& There ha+e been a fe/ historical precedents for use of the :1 in de+eloping countries$ /ith both positi+e and negati+e implications for current practice& For e8ample many e8-#ritish colonies inherited mother tongue schooling as part of separate and unequal de+elopment& 2n the case of 2ndia this meant marginali1ation of 2ndian languages /ith regard to po/er$ yet 3contact /ith English triggered renaissance in the maDor 2ndian languages and set in process their moderni1ation4 5Annamalai 1??"- , 1E7; in the case of (outh Africa unequal de+elopment e+ol+ed into #antu education during apartheid$ /hich furthered racist goals yet de+eloped methods and materials for mother tongue instruction that can be applied today to more equitable schooling 5Ceugh !!>7& Another historical precedent is missionary use of local languages throughout the /orld /hich$ /hile focusing on communication of religious messages$ has contributed to the de+elopment of orthographies$ grammars and basic literacy materials and s)ills in many of the /orld9s languages 5see e&g& Grimes !!!7& (ome initiati+es ha+e come more recently as reactions to colonial systems$ /ith results such as the gro/th of 6is/ahili in

Tan1ania under <yerere9s Education for (elf-Reliance campaign& There ha+e been more abrupt impositions of bilingual schooling as part of political ideologies$ for e8ample by TourF in Guinea and later #anda in Mala/i$ promoting indigenous language de+elopment but pro+o)ing resentment& Finally$ countries li)e China$ Gietnam$ and the former (o+iet *nion ha+e practiced the communist ideal of pro+iding local language instruction to promote comradeship and equality bet/een groups$ and /hile this has not necessarily resulted in equal distribution of educational resources it has supported a great deal of enabling legislation 56osonen !!,7& Compensatory moti+ations& <e/$ more inclusionary policies are being directed to/ard traditionally marginali1ed groups$ particularly in :atin American conte8ts& For e8ample$ Guatemala initiated mother tongue-based schooling to remedy the situation /here only about ,! percent of its rural Maya language-spea)ing population enrolled in school and half of them dropped out by the end of first grade 5'utcher$ 1??"7& #oli+ia$ /hose indigenous population is t/o to three times that of the monolingual (panish-spea)ing elite$ is in the process of implementing a comprehensi+e education reform that promises bilingual intercultural schooling for all$ /hile complementary decentrali1ation and popular participation measures set up structures for more democratic decision-ma)ing about schooling and other social issues 5AlbH @ Anaya$ !!>7& <e/ ideologies& More recent efforts in mother tongue schooling bring some ne/ dimensions to the practice& %erhaps the most dramatic and challenging is implementation of (outh Africa9s post-apartheid policy of 11 official languages; this can be seen in the conte8t of a continent-/ide mo+ement for re+alori1ation of indigenous )no/ledge no/ )no/n as the African Renaissance 5Ale8ander !!>7$ /hich holds that 3cultural freedom and African emancipationIcannot be culti+ated$ e8panded or de+eloped4 /here the languages in /hich people are 3most creati+e and inno+ati+e4 are not languages of instruction 5%rah !!>- 1B7& 2n :atin America there ha+e been corresponding demandsJ

perhaps less united but increasingly acti+eJby original peoples for appropriate cultural and educational policies 5+on Gleich$ !!>7& (ome Asian countries ha+e e8plicitly +alued linguistic and cultural pluralism$ as demonstrated in the constitutions of Myanmar$ Thailand and Gietnam$ and the 2ndonesian constitution goes further to guarantee the use and de+elopment of local languages in education$ though in most cases implementation is far from meeting stated goals 56osonen !!,7& Educational de+elopment obDecti+es& There are bilingual schooling programs /ith clear de+elopment goals; for e8ample$ e8perimentation in Mo1ambique began follo/ing a conference on ho/ to reduce the high repetition$ failure and dropout rates plaguing basic " education& This /as also a principal moti+ation in the /ell-documented (i8-Kear %rimary %roDect in <igeria 5Fafun/a et al& 1?A?7 /hose results clearly supported longterm mother tongue de+elopment& (ome countries ha+e follo/ed up on the successes of mother tongue use in nonformal education and in community schools by adapting their models and materials for use in formal schooling$ /hich Cambodia has Dust begun doing in se+eral languages of the eastern highlands 5Thomas !!>$ cited in 6osonen !!,7 and /hich %apua <e/ Guinea has been doing for some years in about ,!! languages 56laus !!>; 6osonen !!,7& (uch initiati+es ha+e recei+ed more attention and support in recent years from donor agencies interested in impro+ing educational quality and equity /hile promoting democracy 5see e&g& (ida !!17& & Co/ programs ha+e been introduced &1Forms of introduction (mall-scale to large-scale introduction through e8perimentation& E8perimentation is a common means for introducing mother tongue-based schooling& (uch piloting is useful for determining ho/ a bilingual model can be implemented gi+en local conditions$ and /hat types of technical and material input are required to ma)e the program successful before going to scale& E8perimentation has led to /ider-scale implementation in countries li)e #oli+ia$ Guatemala and <igeria$ but it has also been associated /ith

stagnation and deterioration of models in countries li)e <iger and Guinea-#issau 5Co+ens !!>7 despite ha+ing met /ith relati+e success& The gap bet/een e8perimentation and implementation is often deepened due to unreasonable e8pectations for pilot studies to pro+e or dispro+e the effecti+eness of bilingual schooling$ and this based solely on test scores 5#enson !!,a7; as Fishman 51??17 notes$ this misguided recourse to 3scientific proof4 is simply a delay tactic for authorities /ho /ish to seem sympathetic to language issues /ithout committing themsel+es to establishing policies or allocating resources& 2n more supporti+e political climates$ e8perimentation has pa+ed the /ay for official decision-ma)ing& Top-do/n introduction through legislation& 2n some conte8ts mother tongue-based programs ha+e been introduced on a national scale by top-do/n methods$ /here go+ernment has legislated change and e8pected the education sector to implement it$ /hether or not piloting has been done and /hether or not adequate resources ha+e been mobili1ed& (uch /as the case of the original imposition of Chiche/a-English bilingual schooling on all Mala/ians$ /hich fa+ored Chiche/a spea)ers o+er spea)ers of other languages$ and again in 1??E /hen the policy changed to include all mother tongues /ithout regard for teacher training and posting or materials de+elopment 5MtenDe @ Mcha1ime !!17& Tan1ania9s implementation of 6is/ahili-English schooling /as more successful because it reached both first- and second-language spea)ers of 6is/ahili and /as part of an ideological mo+ement under a respected leader$ yet the policy appears to be deteriorating from both endsJfailure to use mother tongues and the pressure of global EnglishJas /ell as from the middle$ because 6is/ahili has not been used as planned at the secondary or tertiary le+els 5Abdula1i1 !!>; Rubagumya 1??1; .uane !!>7& 2n the E case of #oli+ia$ legislation /as passed and implementation begun before the support of all the actors had been secured$ so the early years /ere marred by resistance on the part of teachers9 unions and communities$ requiring +igorous local indigenous group efforts as

/ell as national public relations campaigns to e+entually con+ince those concerned 5AlbH @ Anaya !!>7& #ottom-up introduction through nonformal education practices& 2ntroducing mother tongue schooling from the grassroots le+el is not easy from a large-scale organi1ational standpoint$ yet it is the most promising in terms of community commitment and sustainability& #ecause communities and <G.s may already be using local languages for community de+elopment$ literacy$ informal and nonformal education and other participatory )no/ledge-sharing mechanisms$ they are empo/ered to ma)e decisions about /hich languages are used and for /hat purposes& .ne e8ample of this is a primary impro+ement proDect in Gietnam that has begun to use the mother tongue for 1" percent of the school day as part of a 3local curriculum4 component 5CA: !!1- ?A7& 2n addition$ locally-produced materials raise the status of home languages and may contribute to de+elopment of these languages by establishing orthographies$ grammars and dictionaries along /ith publishing stories and materials co+ering rele+ant themes; such is the case in Mauritius$ /here an <G. )no/n as :%T has been publishing creati+e literature along /ith basic reading materials in 6reol and #hoDpuri for o+er " years$ contributing to their standardi1ation and diffusion in anticipation of a future /hen they /ill be allo/ed into formal schooling 5Ah-Gee !!17& Ale8ander 51?A?7 suggests that bottom-up practices are a good foundation for strong programs because they allo/ all sta)eholders to contribute to raising the status of the mother tongue in the community and classroom$ but their efforts must be enabled by legislation at the official le+el$ so that they meet some/here in the middle& To this end$ Ale8ander and others ha+e formed a consortium called the Multilingualism Action Group 5Ceugh !!>7 that helps grassroots organi1ations lobby for more coherent language policy and practice in (outh African schools& Cornberger /ould agree- 3<o matter /hat the goal$ languageLliteracy de+elopment proceeds best if goals are pursued along se+eral

dimensions at once4 51??,- A 7& Cornberger adds that increasing numbers of mother tongue readers and /riters /ill ine+itably lead to fuller social participation as /ell as facilitating progress in implementation of mother tongue schooling$ especially in terms of a+ailable teachers and /ritten materials& & Challenges and ho/ they ha+e been confronted Mother tongue-based bilingual schooling is seldom disputed on the basis of its pedagogical reasoning$ and if decision-ma)ing /ere to be based solely on ho/ to pro+ide the highest quality education for the learner many more of the /orld9s languages /ould be used in education today& The structural challenges to implementation related to political decision-ma)ing ha+e Dust been discussed; this section begins /ith some /idely belie+ed myths$ then ta)es up more practical aspects of implementation& B The follo/ing myths and attitudes are regularly used to challenge use of mother tongues in education$ yet their false arguments are easily re+ealed= The one nationJone language myth& The colonial concept that a nation-state requires a single unifying language has influenced policy-ma)ers in many parts of the /orld$ yet imposition of a so-called 3neutral4 foreign language has not necessarily resulted in unity$ nor ha+e relati+ely monolingual countries li)e (omalia$ #urundi or R/anda been guaranteed stability& 2n fact$ go+ernment failure to accept ethnolinguistic di+ersity has been a maDor destabili1ing force in countries li)e #angladesh$ %a)istan$ Myanmar and (ri :an)a 5.uane !!>7& = The myth that local languages cannot e8press modern concepts& Another colonial concept is the supposed inherent /orth of European languages in contrast to others$ but all human languages are equally able to e8press their spea)ers9 thoughts and can de+elop ne/ terms and structures as needed& :Fopold (enghor once illustrated this by translating Einstein9s Theory of Relati+ity into 0olof$ a lingua franca of (enegal& The difference lies in /hich languages ha+e historically been chosen for

3intellectuali1ation$4 or de+elopment$ through /riting and publishing 5Ale8ander !!>7& = The either-or myth& This myth holds that bilingualism causes confusion and that the first language must be pushed aside so that the second language can be learned& The research e+idence to date sho/s the opposite to be true- the more highly de+eloped the first language s)ills$ the better the results in the second language$ because language and cognition in the second build on the first 5Cummins 1???$ !!!; Ramire1 et al& 1??1; Thomas @ Collier !! 7& Further$ there is no e+idence that the : must be a medium of instruction to be learned /ell; countries li)e (/eden achie+e high le+els of : competence by teaching it as a subDect and preser+ing the :1 for instruction& = The : as global language myth& The foreign : is often seen as necessary for further education$ /or) and other opportunities$ yet as %hillipson 51?? 7 points out this has not happened in a political +acuum but is the result of deliberate promotion by po/erful countries or groups of their respecti+e languages& Mean/hile$ employment in the informal sector of lo/-income countries in+ol+es "! percent or more of the population and is increasing$ and primary schooling is still terminal for most& The +ast maDority /ill not be integrated into the global mar)etplace and /ill ha+e little use for the : 5#ruthiau8 !! 7& = The myth that parents /ant : -only schooling& The poorest and most marginali1ed are acutely a/are that their access both to education and to the high-status language has been limited$ and they ha+e a right to e8pect the school to teach their children the same language that has benefited the elite& *ndoubtedly parents /ill choose the : /hen presented /ith an either-or proposition; ho/e+er$ studies 5see e&g& Ceugh !! 7 ha+e sho/n that /hen parents are allo/ed to ma)e an educated choice from appropriate options$ they o+er/helmingly opt for bilingual rather than all-: A

programs$ and most bilingual program e+aluations report high le+els of community support 5CA: !!17& The attitudes reflected by these myths pro+ide a bac)ground for understanding other more practical challenges of implementing mother tongue-based bilingual schooling& The logistics of school reform in economically disad+antaged countries are admittedly daunting no matter /hich inno+ations are being considered$ and the use of pre+iously underde+eloped languages raises special issues& 0hile these issues continue to challenge use of the mother tongue in school$ as Cornberger points out$ 3<early allIobDections and limitations ha+e met /ith creati+e and effecti+e solutions in one case or another o+er the past forty years4 51??,- BB7& The follo/ing are the most challenging logistical aspects%o+erty and the meeting of basic needs& Mother tongue-based schooling is often directed at the most marginali1ed of populations /ho ha+e suffered from lac) of ser+ices of all )inds$ not only of schooling& Failure to meet basic human needs for food$ shelter and health is the single greatest obstacle to pro+iding quality primary schooling for all$ and /hen bilingual schools are characteri1ed by chronic illness among students and teachers$ inadequate nutrition$ and lac) of basic facilities Dust as non-bilingual schools are$ it is unli)ely there /ill be dramatic differences in school performance& 0hile more /ideranging ser+ices are recommended$ the follo/ing are attempts to deal /ith human needs along /ith linguistic ones= 2n #oli+ia$ preschools and bilingual primaries for remote indigenous populations are also ser+ed by school feeding programs$ /hich ha+e significantly raised both school attendance and le+els of nutrition 5*<2CEF 1??A7& = E8perimental bilingual programs such as those in Guinea-#issau and <iger 5Co+ens !!>7 included curricular adaptations$ adding more rele+ant subDects li)e pre+enti+e health& Cuman resource de+elopment& Teacher training must be addressed no matter /hat the inno+ation$ and bilingual schooling should not be underta)en /ithout serious

consideration for inser+ice 5especially in the short run7 and preser+ice training 5in the long run7& %ro+ision of short inser+ice trainings during school +acations often lea+es bilingual teachers /ith limited language s)ills" and inadequate understanding of the bilingual teaching methodologies required by the adopted model& An added challenge is to find or train teachers proficient in the : & The challenge gro/s e8ponentially /hen policy dictates nation/ide implementation before there has been adequate in+estment of time and resources in teacher training& This ta8es systems beyond their capability$ resulting in e+en less training$ the hiring of unqualified teachers$ inappropriate linguistic placement of teachers$ and so on$ undermining implementation of the model and limiting the degree to /hich it can demonstrate results& The follo/ing measures ha+e been ta)en to remedy this situation= #ilingual intercultural education in #oli+ia /as implemented in stages$ /here schools /ere considered 3traditional$4 3in transformation4 or 3under the reform4 depending " E+en trained teachers ha+e traditionally had fe/ opportunities to become proficient in the :1 in /ritten form or the : in spo)en form$ so these s)ills require further de+elopment through instruction and practice&? on the degree to /hich teacher training had been done and materials had been distributed 5ETARE 1??>7& = 'esigned to meet acute personnel needs$ #oli+ia has a bachillerato pedagHgico program that pro+ides indigenous youth 5currently all female7 /ith secondary schooling along /ith : s)ills and pedagogical training$ preparing them to be bilingual teachers in their o/n communities& Another measure instituted in !!1 /as to pay financial incenti+es for teachers /or)ing in bilingual classrooms$ in remote areas$ and in multi-grade classrooms$ all of /hich benefited bilingual teachers as

intendedE 5AlbH @ Anaya !!>7& = 2nser+ice training for <amibian teachers in the #asic Education (trengthening proDect 5reported in CA: !!17 /as done completely in <amibian languages$ /hich has been found to facilitate both communication and de+elopment of pedagogical +ocabulary in the :1 5(troud !! 7& = Cigh-quality academic and practical training preparing bilingual education specialists at a post-graduate diploma or M&A& le+el is currently being offered for indigenous language spea)ers of the Andean region through the %R.E2# Andes program in Cochabamba$ #oli+ia 5AlbH @ Anaya !!>7 and for professionals from southern African countries through the T.T(A program in Cape To/n$ (outh Africa 5ref& %RAE(A7& C2E(A( in Me8ico City offers an M&A& program in applied linguistics and anthropology in 2ndoamerican languages$ and plans to e8tend its academic training to the doctoral le+el /hile preser+ing applied elements so that graduates can meet the technical needs of bilingual programs 5see C2E(A( !! for curriculum7& :inguistic and materials de+elopment& A serious in+estment of time and resources$ along /ith a commitment to collaboration bet/een linguists$ educators and community members is required to prepare materials for bilingual programs$ particularly if the :1 is to be used o+er a period of many years 5as /ould be suggested for the gradual transitional or maintenance models described belo/7 and particularly if the languages in question ha+e not traditionally been used in /ritten form& Corpus planning$ /hich e8pands the functions of a language$ has three main elements 5Cooper 1?A?7- harmoni1ation$ /hich determines the degree to /hich a range of +arieties can be considered one language; standardi1ation$ /hich selects a norm and determines its orthography and grammar; and elaboration or intellectuali1ation$ /hich adapts the language for more abstract forms of e8pression li)e those needed for school learning&B

2mplementation is often challenged by decision-ma)ers9 failure to allocate resources to these efforts$ but other obstacles are created by failure of linguists to reach agreement$ or imposition of decisions on the linguistic community /ithout ha+ing in+ol+ed them in the process& To meet the demands for educational materials$ most programs do not /ait for all of the linguistic decisions to be made but become part of the process by in+ol+ing communitiesE E+en though this policy helped )eep bilingual teachers in remote areas$ it /as opposed by nonbilingual teachers and had to be abandoned t/o years later 5AlbH @ Anaya !!>7& B 2n the case of less de+eloped languages$ all of these corpus planning efforts must be underta)en in a relati+ely short period of time$ /hereas more pri+ileged languages li)e Mandarin$ Arabic or English ha+e had centuries to de+elop in different domains of usage&1! = :ocally-produced materials are ine8pensi+e and can be done in many languages$ as demonstrated by efforts in %apua <e/ Guinea 56laus !!>7$ the Ri+ers Readers proDect in <igeria 50illiamson 1?A"7$ and other community-based programs supported by <G.s such as /or) /ith minority languages in China 5Malone !!>7& 2n %apua <e/ Guinea the communities themsel+es decide /hich languages /ill be used in their schools 56osonen !!,7& = Flores FarfMn 51???7 in Me8ico and #loch 5 !! 7 in (outh Africa argue that producing +isually appealing$ high-quality materials in the :1 andLor :1 plus other languages is moti+ational and raises the status of the :1$ so they con+ince donors to fund publication of poetry$ riddles$ big boo)s$ little boo)s$ and other literature for ne/ readers& = The <G. promoting mother tongue literacy in Mauritius has story /riting contests

and publishes a /ide +ariety of literature in 6reol and #hoDpuri; they also play a leading role in efforts to reach agreement on orthographies 5Ah-Gee !!17& = A GTN-supported field test in Ghana published te8tboo)s$ teacher9s guides and readers in t/o national languages and documented positi+e results in terms of synergy among donors$ impro+ed educational practices$ complementary policy decisions and economic benefits to the local publishing industry 56omare) !!17& Educational decision-ma)ing in countries /ith linguistically di+erse regions& Centrali1ed decision-ma)ing creates conflict if it contemplates only one language-in-education model for all /ithout considering +ariation in language use& 0hile rural areas are often relati+ely homogeneous /ith only one :1 to deal /ith in a bilingual program$ urban or suburban areas may require more creati+e classroom organi1ation models&A The educational language policy needs to be fle8ible enough to allo/ for decentrali1ed decision-ma)ing& This /ay$ implementation of mother tongue-based bilingual schooling in linguistically homogeneous areasJ/here it is most urgently needed and most easily operationali1edJ/ill not be postponed indefinitely because the same model might not /or) else/here& (ome /ays that ha+e been found to address this issue are= %RAE(A$ an <G. speciali1ing in academic research and based at the *ni+ersity of Cape To/n$ aims to help operationali1e (outh Africa9s ne/ language policy by doing school- and community-based research& .ne proDect has in+ol+ed linguistic mapping in the 0estern Cape pro+ince to determine the languages spo)en and degree of heterogeneity of homes and schools; other proDects support indi+idual schools in adopting their o/n language policies$ /or) /ith teachers to implement bilingual methodologies$ and de+elop Ohosa terminology in the sciences 5ref& %RAE(A7& = (peciali1ation of : teachers in the (i8-Kear Koruba Medium proDect$ /hile ne+er generali1ed$ achie+ed positi+e results 5Fafun/a et al& 1?A?7 and has been suggested

by #enson 5 !!,b7 as one /ay to deal /ith mi8ed classes and limited teacher s)ills$ among other options such as team teaching$ trading classes and using paraprofessionals from the community& A 2t should not be assumed that urban areas are so di+erse as to render mother tongue programs unmanageable; for e8ample$ many African cities ha+e remar)ably homogeneous neighborhoods /ith their o/n schools&11 Allocation of material resources& Education ministries often obDect to the percei+ed cost of changing the language of instruction$ contemplating the large in+estments needed particularly in teacher preparation and materials de+elopment& This may pre+ent decision-ma)ers from considering large-scale implementation$ allo/ing them to maintain submersion programs or minimal use of the mother tongue 5in preschool programs or only oral use in early primary7$ or it may limit the effects of other/ise /ell designed policies& Resource allocation is essential to any educational inno+ation$ but bilingual programs are initially more costly than others$ due primarily to the need for intellectuali1ation of pre+iously unde+eloped languages and production of instructional and supplemental materials in those languages& 2n places characteri1ed by e8treme linguistic di+ersity$ this may mean small print runs for minority languages$ ma)ing them less attracti+e to commercial publishers&? (ome of the strategies for producing materials cheaply ha+e already been mentioned; the follo/ing are strategies for balancing the costs /ith the benefits of implementing bilingual education= (ome 0orld #an) scholars 5Chis/ic) et al& 1??E; Ga/da @ %atrinos 1??A7 ha+e been /or)ing on cost-benefit analyses that relate the costs of status quo schooling 5repetition and dropout as con+erted into per-pupil e8penditure7 to the costs of implementing bilingual schooling 5teacher training and materials de+elopment7$ gi+en

that bilingual schooling greatly reduces student /astage& Applied to bilingual education in Guatemala$ they ha+e found that the initially higher costs of implementing mother tongue programs are out/eighed by the sa+ings due to more efficient schooling after only t/o years 5%atrinos @ Gele1 1??E7& &>EffectsLimpact on quality of schooling 0ell-documented empirical studies of mother tongue-based bilingual programs in de+eloping countries began appearing in the 1?B!s and still form the basis of /hat is done in the field today& (ome of the benchmar) studies are these= Modiano9s 51?B>7 study in the Chiapas highlands of Me8ico found that indigenous children efficiently transferred literacy s)ills from the :1 to the : and out-performed monolingual (panish spea)ers& Modiano also qualitati+ely e8plored ho/ teachers from the same linguistic and cultural communities as their students /ere uniquely suited for their /or)& = The (i8-Kear Koruba Medium %rimary %roDect 5Fafun/a et al& 1?B"; A)innaso 1??>; see Adegbiya !!> for other references7 demonstrated unequi+ocally that a full si8-year primary education in the mother tongue /ith the : taught as a subDect /as not only +iable but ga+e better results than all-English schooling& 2t also suggested that teachers should be allo/ed to speciali1e in : instruction& ? 2t should ne+ertheless be remembered that 3minority4 groups can number in the hundreds of thousands$ so linguistic sur+eying is important to this effort&1 = The Ri+ers Readers %roDect$ also in <igeria$ sho/ed ho/ mother tongue materials of reasonable quality could be de+eloped e+en /here resources /ere scarce and e+en for pre+iously unde+eloped languages /ith small numbers of spea)ers 50illiamson$ 1?BE7& Communities themsel+es pro+ided competent nati+e spea)ers and funds for language de+elopment$ producing o+er forty publications in fifteen languages&

= :arge-scale research on Filipino-English bilingual schooling in the %hilippines 5Gon1ale1 @ (ibayan$ 1?AA7 found a positi+e relationship bet/een achie+ement in the t/o languages$ and found that lo/ student performance o+erall /as not an effect of bilingual education but of other factors$ especially the lo/ quality of teacher training 5see also 'utcher 1??"7& More recent /or) demonstrates similar findings and goes beyond these to illustrate the positi+e aspects of mother tongue-based bilingual programs listed abo+e$ specificallyFacilitated bilingualism and biliteracy& 2n an effecti+e bilingual program students become bilingual$ or communicati+ely competent$ in the : as /ell as the :1$ and biliterate$ or able to read$ /rite and learn in both languages& (ince these s)ills ta)e some time to de+elop$ /hat is noticeable in the early years is the ease at /hich children learn beginning literacy and content through the mother tongue; this is a common obser+ation among teachers 5.uane !!>7& After three to four years the effects of biliteracy are more measurable 5see re+ie/s in 6omare) 1??B; 'utcher 1??"7$ /hich is consistent /ith findings from <orth America 5Ramire1 et al& 1??1; Thomas @ Collier !! 7 that the more the :1 de+elopment$ the better the results in both languages& <ot all e8perimental studies ha+e been able to demonstrate that bilingual students ha+e significantly better test performance than non-bilingual students$ but this is attributable to basic needs not being met 5as mentioned abo+e7$ to the impossibility of controlling all of the social$ cultural and logistical +ariables$ andLor to testing only in the : before bilingual students ha+e been adequately e8posed to that language& 'espite these challenges$ most studies are able to say at least t/o things- one$ that students are not disad+antaged by bilingual schooling; and t/o$ that student competence in the : is not high enough to use the language to learn content 5see e&g& 0illiams 1??A on Mala/i and Nambia7& (ome studies ha+e found positi+e differences in test scores fa+oring bilingual schooling as mentioned abo+e 5see also CA: !!17$ and a relati+ely recent study in <iger that tested bilingual and nonbilingual students in both :1 and : 5Co+ens !! $ !!>7 clearly demonstrated that those

/ho did best /ere bilingual students tested in the :1$ /hile those /ho did least /ell /ere non-bilingual students tested in the : & & Classroom participation$ positi+e affect and increased self-esteem& .bser+ational data confirm differences bet/een bilingual and non-bilingual classrooms /orld/ide& 2n contrast to students in submersion programs /ho sit listening or reciting$ bilingual students participate more often in the classroom and demonstrate greater self-confidence and higher moti+ation 5A'AE$ 1??E; 'alby$ 1?A"; 'utcher$ 1??"7& The :1 allo/s children to e8press their full range of )no/ledge and e8perience and demonstrate their competence$ /hich pedagogical approaches li)e those of %iaget and Gygots)y /ould support as producti+e for learning 5Richardson !!17& Further$ positi+e classroom affect 1> is essential to good second language learning$ as 6rashen 51???7 has established& <ot coincidentally$ bilingual programs tend to report lo/ered failure and dropout rates 5see e&g& *r1agaste 1??? on #oli+ia7& Galori1ation of the home language and culture& Another result of bilingual schooling that figures prominently in the literature is the ne/ly a/a)ened pride the community feels for its language and culture& (eeing the mother tongue in print in the official conte8t of schooling ele+ates its status and usefulness in the eyes of both spea)ers and non-spea)ers& 2n addition$ the :1 brings cultural +alues into the classroom$ /hich parents highly appreciate 5see e&g& d9Emilio !!1 on #oli+ia; #enson !!1 on Mo1ambique7& 2ncreased parent participation& Another outcome of bilingual programs is increased parent participation in school affairs$ a situation li)ely to be related to the fact that they are allo/ed to use the :1 to spea) to the teacher& 2n #oli+ia$ d9Emilio found that gi+en a 3real opportunity to participate in decision-ma)ing about their children9s schooling$ parents no longer thin) spea)ing to teachers is a P/aste of time$9 nor are they ashamed of using their nati+e language in these meetings4 51??"- A"7& %arent participation is a

/idely-cited factor in successful bilingual programs 5Cummins !!!; 'utcher 1??"7& 2ncreased participation of girls& 0hile the mechanisms remain to be e8plored$ a number of studies 5#enson !! ; Co+ens !!>7 ha+e found that bilingual schooling has positi+e effects on girls9 schooling in terms of higher enrolment and passing rates and lo/er dropout rates 5see also CA: !!17& 2nternational research indicates that girls ne+er get to school$ or stop attending after only one to three years$ due to +arious factors such as perceptions that they are less able than boys$ or lac) of trust in male teachers 5Cho/dhury 1??>7& #enson 5 !! 7 proposes that both internal and e8ternal impediments to girls9 participation may be eliminated by use of the :1$ because increased student-teacher communication allo/s girls to demonstrate their competence and teachers to see it$ and increased parent-teacher communication increases trust in the teacher /hile e8posing him to more social control& ,& Co/ programs ha+e been structured ,&1 Managing languages in the classroom- models The most common model of bilingual schooling is transitional$ /hich #a)er 5 !!17 considers a /ea) form because the :1 is used only as a bridge to the : & 0ea) models ta)e a subtracti+e approach to the mother tongue$ under+aluing the first language and culture and prioriti1ing the second language& Transitional programs range from shortterm oral use of the :1 during the preschool andLor early primary years to de+elopment of :1 literacy s)ills o+er three to fi+e years before transitioning$ or changing the language of literacy 5and usually instruction7 to the : & The : is taught first orally and then phased in gradually as a language of instruction& (tudies ha+e demonstrated that 3late-e8it4 transitional programs$ i&e& those that de+elop the :1 for four to fi+e years$ ha+e much 1, better results in terms of student performance than other models that do not in+est in :1 de+elopment 5Ramire1 et al& 1??1; Thomas @ Collier !! 7& A /ea) form made /ea)er- %rograms in economically disad+antaged countries often attempt to transition to the : after only one or t/o years$ /ithout consolidating :1

literacy or : communication s)ills& 3(hort cut4 transitions try to do too much too fast and fail to produce optimal results$ gi+ing parents and teachers the mista)en impression that the :1 has caused the confusion& Teachers may go bac) to submerging students in the : /hen /hat /ould actually help students is deeper de+elopment of :1 s)ills on /hich to base second language literacy and learning& Early-e8it programs are +ery /ea)$ but e+en some time spent in the :1 is preferable to submersion because there are so many affecti+e benefits associated /ith +alidation of the first language and culture$ and teacherstudent interaction is automatically facilitated to some degree by :1 use& (trong models ta)e an additi+e approach$ adding a second language to competence in the first and building on the learner9s s)ills and )no/ledge in the :1 /hile teaching the : in an understandable /ay$ /ith more positi+e academic and affecti+e results& T/o )no/n strong forms function only in particular conte8ts and are not readily applicable here& The first$ immersion education$ /as de+eloped in Canada /here the :1 and : are both relati+ely prestigious and /here formally educated parents /ho can assist their children choose for their children to become bilingual and biliterate& The other$ t/o-/ay bilingual education$ combines nati+e spea)ers of t/o different language groups in one classroom so that they learn from each other& <either model is li)ely to /or) in most de+eloping countries due to highly asymmetric po/er relations and the fact there are fe/ nati+e spea)ers of the : & .ne strong form of bilingual schooling that does apply is the de+elopmental maintenance or heritage language model$ /hose goal is bilingualism and biliteracy based on the longterm de+elopment of both :1 and : s)ills 5()utnabb-6angas$ !!!7& There are a +ariety of practices ranging from continued study of the :1 as a subDect follo/ing transition of all other parts of the curriculum to the : $ to mostly :1 study /ith the : e8isting mainly as a subDect& Many heritage language programs settle on a "!-"! balance of language use$ but in all maintenance programs the learner9s mother tongue remains a solid component of the school curriculum$ ideally for as long as sLhe is in school but at least throughout

primary schooling 5#a)er !!17& All of the abo+e models dra/ on the literature from the <orth& Researchers from multilingual conte8ts bring more languages into the picture; for instance$ %attanaya) 5 !!>7 describes the situation in 2ndia$ /hich has a trilingual schooling policy in+ol+ing a regional 5state7 language$ a national language 5Cindi7 and an international one 5English7 but these do not necessarily include the student9s mother tongue$ raising difficulties if the regional language is taught as if it is the :1& Considering many African conte8ts$ #amgbose 51??17 e8plores the alternati+es in terms of three types of languageJthe mother tongue$ a lingua franca or regional language$ and an international languageJand according to ho/ each is usedJas the language of literacy$ studied as a subDect$ and used as a medium of instruction& The (i8-Kear Koruba Medium %rimary %roDect$ as /ell as the findings of <orth American studies 5especially Thomas @ Collier$ !! 7 and the 1" e8perience of many European countries$ suggest that a language foreign to the learner should be taught as a subDect for fi+e to se+en years prior to being used to teach academic content& This /ould mean focusing on the mother tongue throughout primary schooling and using appropriate methodology to teach other languages as subDects$ a model that is not yet being practiced in multilingual countries& ,& #est practices concerning models 2t is difficult to highlight certain programs as 3best practice4 /hen fe/ functioning bilingual programs in de+eloping countries actually follo/ the models that 0estern research /ould see as most pedagogically sound$ and e+en countries that ha+e adopted /ell-designed models on paper ha+e had difficulties implementing them in practice& As mentioned abo+e$ short-term transitional models are the most commonly practiced$ presumably because resources are scarce and decision-ma)ers hope for a quic) solution to the school9s linguistic 3problems&4 :i)e/ise$ more appropriate models require more time$ resources and commitment to implement$ lea+ing a gap bet/een e+en /ellintentioned policies and actual practice& 2t could also be that multilingual de+eloping

conte8ts are special and that ne/$ more creati+e solutions need to be generated in the (outh& Co/e+er$ it is clear from research in both <orth and (outh that submersion or early use of a foreign medium of instruction do not pro+ide a reasonable quality of basic education& The transitional program that has had the most success has been <igeria9s e8periment /ith Koruba use throughout the si8 years of primary education /ith English taught as a subDect and phased in gradually& There is ample documentation of all of the accomplishments of this proDect$ as /ell as the steps ta)en to effect the model and pitfalls to be a+oided 5Fafun/a et al& 1?A?; see also Adegbiya !!>7& There are quite a fe/ shorter-term transitional programs$ i&e& /here the : starts ser+ing as a language of instruction in grade >; the better +ersions of these /ould be the ones that begin at preschool le+el$ and the ones that pro+ide for continued study of the :1 through the end of primary schooling 5see e&g& TadadDeu @ Mba 1??E7& 2n terms of bilingual education policy consistent /ith good models$ #oli+ia is clearly the most ad+anced$ /ith its maintenance and de+elopment model for long-term continuous study of the mother tongue and (panish taught as a second language throughout$ ha+ing arri+ed at a "!-"! model around grade four 5ETARE 1??>7& :ogistical difficulties li)e trained teacher shortages$ failure to )eep bilingual teachers in the most remote areas$ and delays related to the de+elopment$ supply and distribution of :1 and : materials ha+e meant that many schools can only pro+ide a fe/ years of mother tongue schooling to those /ho most need it 5AlbH @ Anaya !!>; 6ing @ #enson !!,7& 2n addition$ the most inno+ati+e elementsJinterculturalism$ :1 study through secondary schooling and indigenous language instruction for the monolingual (panish-spea)ing eliteJha+e yet to be put into practice in /ays that can be e+aluated& E+en so$ this educational reform has sur+i+ed o+er ten years and through a fe/ go+ernments$ so it is a case to be /atched&1E A final point /hen discussing models is that it may be instructi+e to loo) more at nonformal education 5<FE7$ /here it seems there is more being done in mother tongues as

/ell as more inno+ation& This is probably because there is simultaneously more grassroots in+ol+ement from communities and <G.s and less control from go+ernment ministries& #ilingual adult literacy progams may be an important source of ideas$ especially /here they are e8periencing success li)e in 2ndia 5%attanaya) !!>7$ %apua <e/ Guinea 56laus !!>7$ and Cambodia 56osonen !!,7& *r1agaste 51???7 has reported creati+e interactions bet/een bilingual primary and adult literacy classes in Quechua-spea)ing regions of #oli+ia that could pro+ide a model& "& 6ey lessons learned The follo/ing summari1es the points made in the te8t and )ey lessons learned from o+er thirty years of e8perience in de+eloping countries as /ell as research in the <orth& R #asic needs of students and teachers must be met for any reform to be effecti+e& *nless physical conditions are impro+ed for the most marginali1ed it is unli)ely that a change in language policy /ill dramatically impro+e educational attainment& R (ignificant in+estment of time and resources is needed in both teacher training and materials de+elopment 5including linguistic de+elopment of the :17& Cost-benefit analyses demonstrate that this in+estment is balanced by sa+ings in terms of per-pupil e8penditure because of significantly reduced repetition and dropout rates& R All sta)eholders should be in+ol+ed in the decision-ma)ing regarding implementation of bilingual schooling as /ell as /hich languages /ill be used and ho/ they /ill be de+eloped& Top-do/n processes should enable implementation through legislation and allocation of resources$ /hile bottom-up processes pro+ide grassroots commitment and linguistic community support and mid-le+el processes facilitate educational implementation& This implies some degree of decentrali1ation of educational decision-ma)ing& R (election of appropriate bilingual models is the )ey to educational quality& Gradual transitional and de+elopmental maintenance models ma8imi1e :1 de+elopment and

therefore ha+e the greatest potential to impro+e : de+elopment and content learning& Conclusion 0hat EFA means for people in de+eloping countries is access to basic literacy and numeracy as /ell as other s)ills that /ill impro+e their li+es& Mother tongue-based bilingual education not only increases access to s)ills but also raises the quality of basic education by facilitating classroom interaction and integration of prior )no/ledge and e8periences /ith ne/ learning& The effects of bilingual schooling mentioned abo+e depict the progress made by traditionally marginali1ed students in the process of-1B S #ecoming literate in a familiar language S Gaining access to communication and literacy s)ills in the : S Ca+ing a language and culture that are +alued by formal institutions li)e the school S Feeling good about the school and the teacher S #eing able and e+en encouraged to demonstrate /hat they )no/ S %articipating in their o/n learning S Ca+ing the courage to as) questions in class 5students7 or as) the teacher /hat is being done 5parents7 S Attending school and ha+ing an impro+ed chance of succeeding 5all children and especially girls7 S <ot being ta)en ad+antage of 5all children and especially girls7 0here these characteristics correspond /ith the goals of EFA and the goals people ha+e for their children$ mother tongue-based bilingual education can pro+ide a means for reaching them&1A Glossary of terms #ilingual 52ndi+idual or societal7 ability to spea) t/o 5or more7 languages$ or a model of schooling that uses t/o 5or more7 languages

#iliterate Ability to spea)$ read and /rite t/o 5or more7 languages Empo/erment (pecific efforts to gi+e learners the )no/ledge$ strategies and selfconfidence to act to impro+e their o/n situations and those of others Foreign language A language that is not spo)en in the immediate en+ironment of the learner 2mmersion Focused use of a second language for instruction$ using second language teaching methods 5/ith :1 support at school andLor at home7 2nterculturalism %romotion of mutual understanding and tolerance bet/een cultural groups :1 First language$ mother tongue : <on-nati+e language$ second language$ foreign language; may specifically refer to conte8ts /here the language is /idely spo)en outside the home$ but often used to refer e+en to situations /here there is little contact /ith the language e8cept through the school or 3official4 conte8ts& :ingua franca 0idely spo)en language used for communication bet/een linguistic groups Maintenance Continued de+elopment of a language through schooling Medium of instruction The language used in teaching and learning curricular content Mother tongue First language 5:17$ nati+e language Multilingual 52ndi+idual or societal7 ability to spea) more than t/o languages .fficial language :anguage adopted by the state for administrati+e and institutional use$ often including schools

(ubmersion *se of an instructional language that is not spo)en by the learner nor taught as a language Transfer Cummins9 concept that /hat is learned in the :1 contributes to one9s competence in other languages Transition (hift in the medium of instruction from :1 to : $ or shift in the language of literacy Transitional (chooling that shifts sooner or later from the :1 to the : 1? References Abdula1i1$ M& 5 !!>7 The history of language policy in Africa /ith reference to language choice in education& 2n .uane$ A& 5ed7& A'AE 51??E7 A synopsis of research findings on languages of instruction and their policy implications for education in Africa& 0or)ing paper for the Meeting of African Ministers of Education and the (eminar on :anguages of 2nstruction$ Accra$ Ghana$ August E->! 1??E& Accra- Association for the 'e+elopment of African EducationL0or)ing Group on Educational Research and %olicy Analysis& AdegbiDa$ E& 5 !!>7 Central language issues in literacy and basic education- Three mother tongue education e8periments in <igeria& 2n .uane$ A& 5ed7$ 1EB-1A & Ah-Gee$ A& 5 !!17 The role of a Pmo+ement9 in the process of standardi1ation of the orthography of 6reol and in the process of the de+elopment of the language- A case study of Mauritius 1?B"-1???& Te8tes-Etudes et 'ocuments <o& ?& RFunion- 2bis Rouge Editions& A)innaso$ F& 51??>7 %olicy and e8periment in mother tongue literacy in <igeria& 2nternational Re+ie/ of Education ,>-1& AlbH$ O& @ Anaya$ A& 5 !!>7 <iTos Alegres$ :ibres$ E8presi+os- :a Audacia de la EducaciHn 2ntercultural #ilingUe en #oli+ia& VChildren 0ho Are Cappy$ Free$ E8pressi+e- The Audacity of #ilingual 2ntercultural Education in #oli+ia&W :a %a1-

*<2CEF& Ale8ander$ <& 51?A?7 :anguage planning from belo/& 2n Cerbert$ R& 5ed&7$ :anguage and (ociety in Africa- The Theory and %ractice of (ociolinguistics$ "E-EA& Xohannesburg- 0its/atersrand *ni+ersity %ress& Ale8ander$ <& 5 !!>7 The African Renaissance and the *se of African :anguages in Tertiary Education& %RAE(A .ccasional %apers <o& 1>& Cape To/n- %RAE(A& Annamalai$ E& 51??"7 Multilingualism for allJan 2ndian perspecti+e& 2n ()utnabb6angas$ T& @ GarcYa$ .& Multilingualism for All$ 1"- 1?& :isse- (/ets @ Neitlinger& #a)er$ C& 5 !!17 Foundations of #ilingual Education and #ilingualism& Third edition& Cle+edon- Multilingual Matters& #amgbose$ A& 51??17 :anguage and the <ation& Edinburgh- Edinburgh *ni+ersity %ress& ! #enson$ C& 5 !!17 Final Report on #ilingual Education& Results of the E8ternal E+aluation of the E8periment in #ilingual (chooling in Mo1ambique 5%E#2M.7 and some results from bilingual adult literacy e8perimentation& Education 'i+ision 'ocuments <o& A& (toc)holm- (ida& #enson$ C& 5 !! 7 #ilingual education in Africa- An e8ploration of encouraging connections bet/een language and girlsZ schooling& 2n Melin$ Mia 5ed7 EducationJA 0ay out of %o+erty[ Research presentations at the %o+erty Conference !!1& <e/ Education 'i+ision 'ocuments <o& 1 & (toc)holm- (ida$ B?-?"& #enson$ C& 5 !!,a7 #ilingual schooling in Mo1ambique and #oli+ia- From e8perimentation to implementation& :anguage %olicy >$ ,B-EE& #enson$ C& 5 !!,b7 'o /e e8pect too much from bilingual teachers[ #ilingual teaching in de+eloping countries& 2nternational Xournal of #ilingual Education and #ilingualism B- $ (pecial issue- 5Re7/riting bilingualism and the bilingual educator9s )no/ledge base& #loch$ C& 5 !! 7 Concepts of Early Childhood 'e+elopment 5EC'7$ :iteracy :earning and Materials 'e+elopment in Multilingual (ettings& %RAE(A .ccasional %apers <o& A& Cape To/n- %RAE(A&

#ruthiau8$ %& 5 !! 7 Cold your courses- :anguage education$ language choice$ and economic de+elopment& TE(.: Quarterly >E- >$ B"- ?E& CA: 5 !!17 E8panding Educational .pportunity in :inguistically 'i+erse (ocieties& 0ashington 'C- Center for Applied :inguistics& http-LL///&cal&orgLpubsLfordLeeolds&html Chis/ic)$ #&$ %atrinos$ C& @ Tamayo$ (& 5Xuly 1??E7 The Economics of :anguageApplication to Education& 0ashington 'C- 0orld #an)& Cho/dhury$ 6& 51??>7 #arriers and (olutions to Closing the Gender Gap& Cuman Resources 'e+elopment and .perations %olicy <o& 1A& CR. dissemination notes found at ///&/orldban)&org& 0ashington- 0orld #an)& C2E(A( 5Centro de 2n+estigaciones y Estudios (uperiores en AntropologYa (ocial7 5 !! 7 MaestrYa en :ingUYstica 2ndoamericana& %romociHn !!>- !!"& VMaster9s in 2ndoamerican :inguistics& %rogram for !!>- !!"&W MF8ico 'F- 'ocu Oystem (A& ///&ciesas&edu&m8 Cooper$ R& 51?A?7 :anguage planning and social change& Cambridge- Cambridge *ni+ersity %ress& Cummins$ X& 51??17 2nterdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children& 2n #ialysto)$ E& 5ed7$ :anguage %rocessing in #ilingual Children& Cambridge- Cambridge *ni+ersity %ress$ B!-A?& 1 Cummins$ X& 51???7 Alternati+e paradigms in bilingual education research- 'oes theory ha+e a place[ Educational Researcher A$ E-> & Cummins$ X& 5 !!!7 :anguage$ %o/er and %edagogy& #ilingual Children in the Crossfire& Cle+edon- Multilingual Matters& 'alby$ '& 51?A"7 The Educational *se of African :anguages in (ub-(aharan Africa- The (tate of the Art& %aris- *<E(C.& d9Emilio$ :& 51??"7 Education and the indigenous peoples of :atin America& 2n

2C'CL*<2CEF$ Children of Minorities& 'epri+ation and 'iscrimination$ BB-AA& Florence- *<2CEF& d9Emilio$ :& 5 !!17 Goices and %rocesses To/ard %luralism- 2ndigenous Education in #oli+ia& Education 'i+ision 'ocuments <o& ?& (toc)holm- (ida& 'utcher$ <& 51??"7 The *se of First and (econd :anguages in Education& A Re+ie/ of 2nternational E8perience& %acific 2sland 'iscussion %aper (eries <o&1& 0ashington 'C0orld #an)& ETARE 51??>7 %ropuesta de la Reforma Educati+a& V%roposal for the Educational Reform&W Cuadernos de la Reforma Educati+a& :a %a1- Equipo TFcnico de Apoyo a la Reforma Educati+a& Fafun/a$ A&$ Macauley$ X& @ (oyin)a$ X& 5eds7 51?A?7 Education in Mother Tongue& The 2fe %rimary Education Research %roDect 51?B!-1?BA7& 2badan- *ni+ersity %ress& Fishman$ X& 51??17 Re+ersing :anguage (hift- Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened :anguages& Cle+edon- Multilingual Matters& Flores FarfMn$ X& 51???7 <ahuatl cultural and linguistic re+itali1ation& Red 2n) B- $ E1EB& Gon1ale1$ A& @ (ibayan$ #& 51?AA7 E+aluating bilingual education in the %hilippines 51?B,-1?A"7& Manila- :inguistic (ociety of the %hilippines& Grimes$ #& 5ed7 5 !!!7 Ethnologue- :anguages of the 0orld& 1,th ed& 'allas- (2: 2nternational& ///&ethnologue&comL/eb&asp Ceugh$ 6& 5 !! 7 The case against bilingual and multilingual education in (outh Africa:aying bare the myths& %erspecti+es in Education !- 1$ 1B1-1?E& Ceugh$ 6& 5 !!>7 :anguage %olicy and 'emocracy in (outh Africa& The prospects of Equality 0ithin Rights-#ased %olicy and %lanning& %h&'& dissertation& (toc)holm- Centre for Research on #ilingualism& Cornberger$ <& 51??,7 :iteracy and language planning& :anguage and Education A- 1L $

B"-AE& Co+ens$ M& 5 !! 7 #ilingual education in 0est Africa- 'oes it /or)[ 2nternational Xournal of #ilingual Education and #ilingualism "- "$ ,?- EE& Co+ens$ M& 5 !!>7 Enseignement primaire bilingue- 'eu8 e8pFriences ouest-africaines& V%rimary bilingual instruction- T/o 0est African e8periences&W <iamey- Albasa& 6ing$ 6& @ #enson$ C& 5 !!,7 2ndigenous language education in #oli+ia and EcuadorConte8ts$ changes and challenges& 2n X& Tollefson and A& Tsui 5eds7 Medium of 2nstruction %olicies- 0hich Agenda[ 0hose Agenda[ Mah/ah <X- :a/rence Erlbaum& 6laus$ '& 5 !!>7 The use of indigenous languages in early basic education in %apua <e/ Guinea- A model for else/here[ :anguage and Education 1B- $ 1!"-111& 6omare)$ 6& 51??B7 Mother Tongue Education in (ub-(aharan Countries- Conceptual and (trategic Considerations& #ildungsreport nr& B,& Eschborn- GTN& 6omare)$ 6& 5 !!17 Educational publishing in African languages- The GTN proDect 3Assistance to teacher education programme4 in Ghana& 2n %RAE(A 5compiled by #ec)ett$ T& Reports on Mother-Tongue Education$ 1!>-1!E& Cape To/n- %RAE(A /ith *F(2A& 6osonen$ 6& 5 !!,7 :ocal languages in education in (outheast Asia- Comparati+e analysis& %aper presented at annual conference of C2E($ (alt :a)e City *T$ March ?-1 & http-LLcies&byu&eduLpapers&asp8 6rashen$ (& 51???7 Condemned 0ithout a Trial- #ogus Arguments Against #ilingual Education& %ortsmouth- Ceinemann& :anau1e$ M& @ (no/$ C& 51?A?7 The relation bet/een first- and second-language /riting s)ills& :inguistics and Education 1$ > >->>?& Malone$ '& 5 !!>7 'e+eloping curriculum materials for endangered language education:essons from the field& 2nternational Xournal of #ilingual Education and #ilingualism E- "$ >> - ,A&

Modiano$ <& 51?B>7 2ndian Education in the Chiapas Cighlands& <e/ Kor)- Colt$ Rinehart @ 0inston& MtenDe$ A& @ Mcha1ime$ C& 5 !!17 %reparing for mother-tongue education- The Mala/ian e8perience& 2n %RAE(A 5compiled by #ec)ett$ T&7 Reports on Mother-Tongue Education$ E1-E,& Cape To/n- %RAE(AL*F(2A& > .banya$ %& 5 !! 7 Re+itali1ing Education in Africa& :agos- (tirling-Corden %ublishers& .uane$ A& 5ed7 5 !!>7 To/ards a Multilingual Culture of Education& Camburg*<E(C. 2nstitute for Education& http-LL///&unesco&orgLeducationLuieLpublicationsLuiestud,1&shtml %atrinos$ C& @ Gele1$ E& 51??E7 Costs and benefits of bilingual education in Guatemala$ a partial analysis& Cuman Capital 'e+elopment 0or)ing %aper <o& B,& 0ashington 'C0orld #an)& %attanaya)$ '& 5 !!>7 :anguage issues in literacy and basic education- The case of 2ndia& 2n .uane$ A& 5ed7$ 1 ?-1>A& %hillipson$ R& 51?? 7 :inguistic 2mperialism& .8ford- .8ford *ni+ersity %ress& %RAE(A 5%roDect for the (tudy of Alternati+e Education in (outh Africa7 (ee T.T(A 5Training of Trainers in (outhern Africa7 program& ///&uct&ac&1aLdeptsLpraesa %rah$ 6& 5 !!>7 Going nati+e- :anguage of instruction for education$ de+elopment and African emancipation& 2n #roc)-*tne$ #&$ 'esai$ N& and Qorro$ M& 5eds7 :anguage of 2nstruction in Tan1ania and (outh Africa 5:.2TA(A7$ 1,->,& 'ar-es-(alaam- E @ ' :imited& Ramire1$ X&$ Kuen$ (& @ Ramey$ '& 51??17 Final Report- :ongitudinal (tudy of (tructured English 2mmersion (trategy$ Early-e8it and :ate-e8it Transitional #ilingual Education %rograms for :anguage-minority Children& 0ashington 'C- *nited (tates 'epartment of Education&

Richardson$ G& 5ed7 5 !!17 Candboo) of Research on Teaching$ fourth edition& 0ashington 'C- American Educational Research Association& Rubagumya$ C& 51??17 :anguage$ (ocial Galues and 2nequality in Tan1aniaReinterpreting triglossia& :ancaster *ni+ersity$ 'epartment of :inguistics and Modern English :anguage$ Centre for :anguage in (ocial :ife$ 0or)ing %apers E& :ancaster:ancaster *ni+ersity& ()utnabb-6angas$ T& 5 !!!7 :inguistic Genocide in EducationJor 0orld/ide 'i+ersity and Cuman Rights[ Mah/ah <X- :a/rence Erlbaum& (ida 5April !!17 Education for All- A Cuman Right and #asic <eed& %olicy for (ida9s 'e+elopment Cooperation in the Education (ector& Gothenburg- Elanders <o+um& (troud$ Christopher 5 !! 7 To/ards a %olicy for #ilingual Education in 'e+eloping Countries& Education 'i+ision 'ocuments <o& 1!& (toc)holm- (ida& , TadadDeu$ M& @ Mba$ G& 51??E7 :9utilisation des languages nationales dans l9education au Cameroun- :es le\ons d9une e8pFrience& VThe use of national languages in education in Cameroon- :essons from an e8periment&W Tra+au8 neuchatelois de linguistique 5TRA<E:7 E$ "?-BE& Thomas$ A& 5 !!>7 The case for a bilingual community-based approach to achie+e EFA for indigenous minorities in Cambodia& %aper presented at the 2nternational (ymposium on Rural Education& China$ !- > Xanuary& Cited in 6osonen$ 6& 5 !!,7& Thomas$ 0& and Collier$ G& 5 !! 7 A <ational (tudy of (chool Effecti+eness for :anguage Minority (tudents9 :ong-Term Academic Achie+ement& (anta Cru1 CA- Center for Research on Education$ 'i+ersity and E8cellence& http-LL///&crede&ucsc&eduLresearchLllaaL1&1]final&html *<2CEF 51??A7 %ropuesta de EducaciHn 2ntercultural #ilingUe& V%roposal for bilingual intercultural education&W %roDect document& :a %a1- *<2CEF& *r1agaste %antoDa$ <& 51???7 :e+antamiento linea de base- EducaciHn 2ntercultural

#ilingUe& V#aseline sur+ey- #ilingual 2ntercultural Education&W :a %a1- *<2CEF& Ga/da$ A& @ %atrinos$ C& 51??A7 Cost of producing educational materials in local languages& 'raft in 6Uper$ 0& 5ed7$ Mother-Tongue Education in Africa- A Reader 5 nd edition7& Eschborn- GTN& +on Gleich$ *& 5 !!>7 Multilingualism and multiculturalism in :atin America- Matters of identity or obstacles to moderni1ation[ 2n .uane$ A& 5ed7& 0illiams$ E& 51??A7 2n+estigating #ilingual :iteracy- E+idence from Mala/i and Nambia& (erial <o& ,& :ondon- 'F2'& 0illiamson$ 6& 51?BE7 The Ri+ers Readers %roDect in <igeria& 2n #amgbose$ A& 5ed7 Mother-Tongue Education- The 0est African E8perience& :ondon- Codder @ (toughton& 0illiamson$ 6& 51?A"7 0est African :anguages in Education& 0ein- Afro-%ub&