Paisey

Florence Miller Paisey

Week 5: Essays

1. What is generalizability and what does it mean for the collection of data?

Generalizability refers to the degree that the sample (population or elements)
selected for study represents the broader or general population that one wants to
study. So, the results or conclusions of a study will be representative of the
population one aims to study and can then be applied or generalized to this general
population.

2. Define, compare and contrast, and provide examples for the following
concepts:

a.
Random sample

A random sample refers to an unbiased sample from the population one wants to
study. To be random, each unit in the sample must have the same chance of being
selected as any other unit in the population. If each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected, this ensures that the sample will be representative of
the population.
b.
Voluntary sample

Voluntary samples also known as convenience samples refer to a sampling
procedure where participants agree to be participants. Examples include studies
that ask individuals if they would be interested in answering some questions or
participating in a particular (usually identified) study. When one receives a phone
call and is asked to answer some questions pertaining to a particular activity or
attitude, this is a voluntary sample and systematically biases the sample. In contrast

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to a random sample, the participants of a voluntary sample do not have an equal

chance of being selected. For example, while most people (in affluent economies)
have phones, everyone does not. So, if one selects subjects as potential participants
by using a phone directory, those people who do not have phones or are not listed
do not have a chance of being selected. This is one bias. Another bias, just as serious,
is that those who decide to participate usually have an interest in the study. Those
who do not have an interest, decide not to participate. Such voluntary samples, then,
do not represent all available participants and are less generalizable.
c.
Convenience sample

Convenience samples are voluntary samples. The distinction between them
relates to selecting ones sample simply by convenience (natural gatherings).
Perhaps one is interested in attitudes toward making Spanish language an official
language in the United States. So, as a resident in Miami, Florida, one calls or asks
other residents in Miami. This is convenient the potential participants are at hand.
Although one may find the study interesting, the chances of the results being
extrapolated to represent the entire population of the United States would be weak.
The majority of residents in Miami have a Hispanic origin or background; they
would be more likely to want Spanish recognized as an official language. However, a
resident of Muncie, Indiana, where much fewer Hispanic individuals reside would be
unlikely to want Spanish recognized as an official language. So, the convenience
sample in Miami would be highly unlikely improbable of representing peoples
attitudes toward Spanish as an official language in the United States. Therefore, the
convenience sample would have very low generalizability.

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3. Specify the relationship between a population, a sample, and the ability to
make inferences.

A population refers to the specific, formally defined, population that one intends
to study. For example, if one wants to determine how well undergraduates
understand the research process, the population under study will be
undergraduates. Graduate students, high school students, non-students, and so on,
would not be part of the undergraduate population. The sample for this study would
come from the population one intends to study in this case undergraduates.
A large study, involving a random sample would include undergraduates across
the country, randomly selected, perhaps, from a database of undergraduates
(sampling frame). The results from this study a large, randomly selected sample
could be extrapolated to represent the general undergraduate population; one could
infer that the findings generalize to the broad undergraduate population. However,
these results could not be extended or inferred to represent any other population
except undergraduates.
4. Explain what a "non-response" bias is and what it means for research
findings.

Non-response involves contacting potential participants in a study, reaching
them, but finding them uncooperative. In other words, researchers collect data from
those who are willing to participate. Those who are contacted, but will not
participate, produce no data. Such non-response produces bias, doubtlessly a high
degree of bias.
Taking the case of making the Spanish language official in the United States again
lets consider the population frame of registered voters in Miami, FL. This would

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include both those who are bilingual (English and Spanish) as well as those who are
monolingual (English or Spanish). Voting materials are available in both English and
Spanish, so the population frame would represent both linguistic populations.
Those who speak Spanish, whether they are bilingual or monolingual and from
any ethnic background, would likely favor endorsing Spanish as official. However,
those who speak only English may not like the idea and, as a result, may be
disinclined to participate in the study. This non-response will produce a bias their
propensity for endorsing Spanish as official is low.
Conversely, we can say that those who favor endorsing Spanish have a high
propensity to participate. So, while the sample may be random, findings from such a
study would not represent the general voting population, both non-response and
response can introduce bias.

5. Identify the difference between random sampling and a randomized
experiment.

Random sampling involves obtaining an unbiased sample from a population
frame or the population under study. A random sample, by definition, means the
each unit in the population frame, has an equal chance of being selected for
participation in the study.
A randomized experiment employs the same principle as a random sample each
unit in the population under study has an equal chance of being selected. However, a
randomized experiment specifically involves experimental design where there is
one independent variable with two (or more) experimental conditions or levels. For
example, if one intends to measure the effectiveness of exercise (independent

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variable) on blood pressure (dependent variable), one could test two levels of
exercise or two groups of exercisers. One group would perform exercises for a
specified time, specified equipment, and specified trainer. The other group would
perform the exact same exercises, for the same time and at the same hour of day,
with the same equipment, and trainer. In other words, all conditions (independent
variable) for the experiment would be the same between the two groups, except for
a single factor one group (independent variable) would also include weight
training.
To minimize as much potential experimental bias, all subjects or participants in
both experimental groups (independent variables) would be randomized and
assigned to one of the groups at random. So, any one of the subjects would have an
equal chance of being assigned to one group as the other. The experiment minimizes
bias and also increases control of extraneous variables or factors. If participants of
each group have an equal chance of ending up in either experimental group,
differences between the two groups on the dependent variable (blood pressure) can
be attributed to the treatment or independent variable.
6. Explain what a confidence interval, confidence level, and margin of error
are.

A confidence interval or margin of error refers to the precision of sampling
distribution or sampling variability. In order to establish an unbiased estimate of the
sample average or mean, one needs to construct a confidence interval. In other
words, if one obtains a random sample from a population frame, a researcher may
calculate findings based on that particular sample. Then, if one wants to use the
same population frame, but a different sample, the findings might result in a

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different value or estimate. Each random sample from the same population frame
will be an approximation few, if any, will yield precisely the same result or finding.
So, one repeats this sampling procedure many times and establishes a frequency
distribution or the range of precision in the sampling. The confidence interval is a
calculated construction based on the distribution frequency. The confidence level
refers to the level of confidence that the sample population results in true or precise
findings.

7. If you have a standard error of 2 (SE = 2), what are the confidence intervals
at the 68, 95, and 99 percent confidence levels for a sample statistic of 55 (for
instance, 55% of the population stated that they intended to vote for Obama in
the next presidential election)?

With a standard error of 2 and the confidence interval at 68, I think the
confidence level that 55% of the population stated they would vote for Obama,
would fall at 68%. With a confidence level at 95, we can be 95% confident that the
population statement is accurate. And at the confidence level of 99, we can be 99%
sure of the population.

8. Select four (4) types of non-probability sampling procedures and explain
what they entail. Provide an example to illustrate the process of each.

Non-probability sampling does not involve random sampling. It includes
convenience sampling, as defined previously. Convenience sampling simply means
that one is selecting participants based on natural groupings. For example, those
examiners who may be in a mall and ask anyone passing if they would answer some
questions is an example. This is not a random or probability sample. It is convenient.

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Purposive sampling is another form of non-probability sampling. In this case, the

sample is drawn from people who already demonstrate or show interest in a
particular cause or activity. In some qualitative research, purposive samples are
drawn from people who have a unique perspective. This does not eradicate the
value of some qualitative studies as those who have a unique perspective may
contribution to a richer, more information-laden perception that will foster
deepened understanding or lead to specific research studies. Many online polls or
inventories are problematic due to purposive sampling those who are already
motivated by the topic will be most interested in answering.
Snowball sampling or respondent-driven sampling is another form of purposive
sampling with snowball sampling there is no random sample. Rather, the
researcher asks participants to recommend other participants. Expert sampling may
constitute a form of purposive and snowball sampling, although as stated in a
previous chapter, experts are often called in to validate a construct or criterion. In
the latter case, while purposive, there are often credible reasons to elicit responses
from experts.