Chapter 7 - Static Electromagnetic Fields in Matter 175 177

Classical Electromagnetic )heor%

paramagnetic and diamagnetic, netic. In this latter case the relation

1. When

1, the material is ferromagM is $s$all%

B = & H ! M " still holds, #$t

a 'er% complicated, nonlinear, m$lti'al$ed f$nction of H. It is (orth pointing o$t that to this point H and D appear to #e nothing #$t mathematical constr$cts deri'a#le from the fields B and E . )he *orent+ force on a charged particle is F = q E ! v B ". )his means the fields E and B are detecta#le thro$gh forces the% e,ercise on charges. )he magnetic $, thro$gh a loop remains F = B dS . -o(e'er, as (e are grad$all% con'erting to the 'ie( that fields, possessing moment$m and energ% ha'e an e,istence independent of interacting Figure particles, there)he is no reason to s$ggest that D and H sho$ld ha'e less 7. ! mean dipole moment of a molec$le in thermal e0$ili#ri$m realit% thanin an electric E and . .s Ma,(ell/s e0$ations into form, 1 p8their field.B )he lo( (e fieldrecast s$scepti#ilit% is E/kT e'ent$al . 5 H and D (ill ass$me an e0$al footing (ith E and B . It is (orth(hile to shift o$r perspecti'e on the fields, regarding E and B as the fields responsi#le for forces on charged particles, (hereas H and D are the fields generated #% the so$rces. x ! e- x 1 1 In gra'itational theor%, p #% cos contrast, = the p gra'itational coth x - mass=and pe inertial mass are 7455" x ex - e - x x identical meaning that the so$rce and force fields are the same. )his e,pression ma% #e e,panded for small x as 8! x 1 8 ! x 8 " 1 - x 8 / 59" 1 p In the follo(ing sections 8 (e x !(ill x 5 #rie / 59"% disc$ss x p the microscopic #eha'ior 8x of materials x responsi#le for polari+ation and magneti+ation. We also to$ch #rie % on cond$ction 1 x 8 - x 8 / 5" 1 in metals for the sa1e of completeness. p ! x 8x x 7.3.1 Polar Molecules (Langevin-Debye Formula) px p8 E = 7457" 5 = 5 kT . polar molec$le has a permanent dipole moment. If the nearest neigh#or inter)he *ange'in-:e#%e res$lts as (ell made as their x normall% limit areha'e plotted in Fig$re 7.7. action energies are small, a material ofsmall s$ch molec$les (ill We dipoles o#tain the polari+ation #% m$ltipl%ing the a'erage dipole moment n ,the the oriented randoml% to ma,imi+e entrop%" in the a#sence of#% an electric n$m#er of dipoles per $nit 'ol$me; field. In an e,ceedingl% strong field all the dipoles (ill align (ith the electric field, gi'ing a ma,im$m polari+ation P = np n is the n$m#er densit% of molec$les and np 8 E p is the dipole moment of each". .t field normall% enco$ntered, thermal Pstrengths = = e & E 5 kT randomi+ing (ill oppose the alignment to some e,tent. )he a'erage polari+ation ma% #e fo$nd from )he s$scepti#ilit% isthermod%namics. read directl% from 7457". 7457"

7.3 Microscopic Properties of Matter 8

.ccording to 2olt+mann statistics, the pro#a#ilit% of finding a molec$le in a state of 7.3." #onpolar energ% Molecules W is proportional to e- W/k T . We consider onl% the energ% of the dipole in the electric field, W = -p E = -pE cos . )he mean 'al$e of p m$st )a1ing a simple classical harmonic oscillator model for an atom or molec$le (ith 3$st #e the component along E , the perpendic$lar components a'eraging to +ero. <spring/ constant m 8 , (e find that the displacement of charge at fre0$encies (ell & is -ence the mean polari+ation #elo( the resonant ang$lar" fre0$enc% is gi'en #% & p cos e p cos =
! pE co s /kT

r =

d qE m
8 = &

kT - kT pE e! pE c o s / kT d (here q and m are, respecti'el%, the charge and the red$ced mass of the electron. )he ind$ced molec$lar dipole moment is then a res$lt 1no(n as the *ange'in form$la. )he lo( field limit of the polari+ation is readil% fo$nd. q8We E a##re'iate p = q r = pE/kT to (rite m 8
&

coth

pE

745=" 7456"

x = 745>"

Chapter 7 - Static Electromagnetic Fields in Matter 177

Figure 7.7! )he electric field in the ca'it% is e0$al to the field in dielectric a$gmented #% the field res$lting from the e,posed ends of the molec$lar dipoles.

We ded$ce that the polari+a#ilit% is a = q8 /e & m 8 and the s$scepti#ilit% #ecomes & = nq 8 /e & m 8 . )h$s for molec$lar h%drogen (ith its lo(est electronic resonance & near 1 . = 1& 1 7 sec - 1 1&&nm" at S)? standard temperat$re and pres& 8 5 5 s$re", n =8 . 7> 1& m " (e o#tain 8 . 76 1& - 6 . )he e,perimental 'al$e is also some(hat fort$ito$sl%" 8 .76 1& - 6 . S$ch good agreement sho$ld not #e e,pected for s$#stances other than h%drogen and heli$m@ generall% a s$m o'er all resonant fre0$encies is re0$ired to o#tain reasona#le agreement. It is (orth noting that this 'al$e sho$ld #e fairl% good $p to and a#o'e optical fre0$encies. 2% contrast, the orientation of polar molec$les fails for fre0$encies approaching rotational fre0$encies of the molec$le, t%picall% a fe( A-+. )h$s (ater has =& it has a strong dependence on temperat$re, 'ar%ing from =7 at & Cto55at1&& C" at lo( fre0$encies, decreasing to . = at optical fre0$encies. It (ill #e recogni+ed that an e,act calc$lation of the molec$lar dipole moment (ill re0$ire the 0$ant$m mechanical e'al$ation of the e,pectation 'al$e of the dipole moment |e , i ri | (here | is the gro$nd state of the atom or molec$le in'ol'ed. 7.3.3 Dense Me$ia%&'e (lausius-Mosotti )*uation In the foregoing treatment, (e ha'e tacitl% ass$med that the electric field e,perienced #% a molec$le is in fact the a'erage macroscopic field in the dielectric. In gases, (here the molec$lar distances are large, there is little di erence #et(een the macroscopic field and the field acting on an% molec$le. In dense media, ho(e'er, the closel% spaced neigh#oring dipoles gi'e rise to an internal field E i at an% gi'en molec$le that m$st #e added to the e,ternall% applied field E . . $sef$l do dge is to e,cl$de the field arising from molec$les (ithin some small sphere of radi$s R a#o$t the chosen molec$le small on the scale of inhomogeneities of P #$t still containing man% molec$les" and then to add the near fields of the molec$les contained in the sphere. .s (e (ill sho( in e,ample 7.=, the electric field in the spherical ca'it% formed #% the remo'al of all the near neigh#ors is gi'en #% E = E& ! P 5 e& 746&"

av

)he ph%sical origin of the polari+ation contri#$tion to the field is e'ident from

17=

Classical Electromagnetic )heor%

Fig$re 7.7. )he calc$lation of the field from the near#% molec$les is more di c$lt, depending on the str$ct$re of the medi$m. In a simple c$#ic lattice of dipoles this field 'anishes at an% lattice point, and it seems reasona#le that the field (ill also 'anish for amorpho$s materials incl$ding li0$ids. Bnder this condition the polari+ing field for the molec$le of interest is 3$st the electric field in the ca'it% 746&". )herefore, (e find p = e& a E )he polari+ation d$e to
&

P 5 e&

7461"

n s$ch ind$ced dipoles per $nit 'ol$me is P = ne & a E ! P 5 e& 7468"

&

(hich, sol'ed for

P , gi'es P =

na 1 - na/ 5

e& E

7465"

)he electric s$scepti#ilit% ma% no( #e read from 7465" = na 1 - na/ 5 7466" na is

)he relationship 7466" is 1no(n as the Cla$si$s-Mosotti e0$ation. When small, as is the case for a dil$te gas, the na C5 in the denominator is inconse0$ential. For denser li0$ids, na is of order $nit% and is not negligi#le. 7.3.+ (rystalline ,oli$s

)he near fields on a molec$le (ithin a cr%stal (ill not 'anish for all cr%stal str$ct$res@ nonetheless, the net res$lt is generall% not large. For the p$rpose of this disc$ssion let $s ass$me that the (e can replace na/ 5 in 7465" #% na/ (ith not 'er% di erent from 5 to acco$nt for the field from near#% molec$les. . n$m#er of materials, (hen cooled in an electric field, free+e in an electric polari+ation. . piece of s$ch a material is called an electret. Electrets are m$ch less noticea#le than magnets #eca$se the s$rfaces 'er% 0$ic1l% attract ne$trali+ing charges. When the polari+ation of the electret is changed, ho(e'er, a net charge (ill appear on the s$rface. )his change of polari+ation ma% #e #ro$ght a#o$t #% e,ceedingl% small changes in the ph%sical parameters (hen na is near . )h$s, heating a cr%stal decreases the densit%, n , gi'ing rise to the p%ro electric e ect. Compressing the cr%stal increases n sometimes prod$cing 'er% large 'oltages. )his and the in'erse e ect are 1no(n as the pie+oelectric e ect. .t first sight it (o$ld appear that there is nothing to pre'ent na from e,ceeding , res$lting in a negati'e s$scepti#ilit%, . ?h%sicall%, ho(e'er, as na is increased from less than , the polari+ation #ecomes greater, in t$rn gi'ing an increased local field. If, in small field, na is larger than , then the e,tra field pro d$ced #% the polari+ation is larger than the original field prod$cing it. )he polari+ation gro(s spontaneo$sl% $ntil nonlinearities pre'ent f$rther gro(th. . material (ith

Chapter 7 - Static Electromagnetic Fields in Matter 17>

Figure 7.-! .s the $, thro$gh the loop is increased, the electron is tangentiall% accelerated. )he change in field res$lting from this acceleration m$st oppose the e,ternall% imposed dB/d! .

this propert% is ferroelectric. Dn heating the material it is possi#le to decrease the densit% $ntil at the C$rie point na no longer e,ceeds and the material ceases to ha'e a spontaneo$s polari+ation. For 2a)iD the C$rie point is 11= C. Slightl% 5 a#o'e this temperat$re ma% #e as large as 5&,&&&. 7.3.. ,imple Mo$el of Paramagnetics an$ Diamagnetics .ll materials e,hi#it diamagnetism. )o #etter $nderstand its origin, let $s consider the atoms and molec$les of matter as 2ohr atoms (ith electrons in plane or#it a#o$t the n$cle$s. )he or#iting electrons ha'e magnetic moments, #$t #eca$se the moments are randoml% oriented, no net magneti+ation res$lts. When a magnetic field is intro d$ced, *en+/ la( predicts that the electron or#its o$ght to change in s$ch a manner that field from their change in magnetic moment opposes the applied field, %ielding a negati'e magnetic s$scepti#ilit%. *et $s ma1e this o#ser'ation some(hat more 0$antitati'e #% considering an electron in a circ$lar or#it Fig$re 7.=". )he electromoti'e force aro$nd the loop of the electron/s or#it is gi'en #% E =1 = - dB 7465"

eFd

d! dS

Eeplacing the force #% the rate of change of moment$m, (e e'al$ate the t(o integrals (hen the loop is perpendic$lar to the magnetic field to o#tain d|p | d! 8 pr = epr
8

dB d!

7467"

Integrating this e,pression o'er time, (e ha'e p = er B 8 7467"

We (o$ld li1e to relate the change of moment$m to the change of the or#ital" magnetic moment of the electron. )he magnetic moment of an or#iting electron (ith mass m e is gi'en #% ev r ep r m = 8= 8m e

746="

1=&

Classical Electromagnetic )heor%

leading to change in magnetic moment in response to the introd$ction of the magnetic field e| pr| e8 r8 B |m| = = 8m e 6me For se'eral electrons inside an atom, the planes of the or#it (ill clearl% not all #e perpendic$lar to the field and r 8 sho$ld #e replaced #% r 8 cos 8 , (here the inclination of the or#it the component of H perpendic$lar to the or#it and the component of m along H are each decreased #% a factor cos distri#$tion of or#its, r 8 cos 8 = = r8 r8 8
& p

746>"

is

". For an isotropic

cos 8 d 6p cos 8 sin d =

1 5

r8

745&"

Since the c$rrents inside atoms o( (itho$t resistance, the dipoles created #% the imposition of the field (ill persist $ntil the magnetic ind$ction field is t$rned o again. )he res$lting magnetic s$scepti#ilit% is = - 1 ne 8 r 8 & /m e . m 18 ?aramagnetism arises (hen the molec$les/ n$clei ha'e a non+ero magnetic moment that attempts to align (ith the local B in m$ch the same fashion that polar molec$les align (ith E . )his interaction tends to #e 'er% similar in si+e to the diamagnetic interaction so that it is hard to predict (hether an% partic$lar s$#stance (ill ha'e net positi'e or negati'e s$scepti#ilit%. 2eca$se the n$clear magnetic dipole4field interaction is so m$ch smaller than that for the electric field, large alignments are attaina#le onl% at 'er% lo( temperat$res. . fe( molec$les (ith $npaired electrons s$ch as D 8 , FD, and AdCl 5 ha'e a paramagnetic s$scepti#ilit% se'eral h$ndred times larger d$e to the m$ch larger spin" magnetic moment of the electron compared to that of the n$cle$s". .ltho$gh it is tempting to ascri#e ferromagnetism to a mechanism similar to that of ferro electricit%, the magnetic dipole4field interaction is so m$ch (ea1er than the electric dipole4field interaction that thermal agitation (o$ld easil% o'er(helm the aligning tendencies. . m$ch stronger 0$ant$m mechanical spin4spin e,change interaction m$st #e in'o1ed to o#tain s$ cientl% large aligning forces. With the e,change force responsi#le for the microscopic spin4spin interaction, the treatment of ferromagnetism parallels that of ferroelectricit%. In metallic ferromagnets, magnetic moments o'er large distances magnetic domains" spontaneo$sl% align. .n applied field (ill reorient or e,pand entire domains, res$lting in a 'er% large magneti+ation. Materials e,hi#iting ferromagnetism are $s$all% 'er% nonlinear, and the magneti+ation depends on the histor% of the material. 7.3. (on$uction G$alitati'el%, a cond$ctor is a material that contains s$#-" microscopic charged particles or charge carriers that are free to mo'e macroscopic distances thro$gh the medi$m. In the a#sence of an electric field these charges mo'e erraticall% thro$gh the cond$ctor in a random fashion. When an electric field is present, the charges

Chapter 7 - Static Electromagnetic Fields in Matter 1=1

accelerate #rie % in the direction of or opposite to" the field #efore #eing scattered #% other relati'el% immo#ile components. )he random component of the carriers/ 'elo cit% %ields no net c$rrent, #$t the short, directed segments %ield a drift 'elocit% along the field for isotropic cond$ctors". )his leads $s to post$late that " = # E "E For man% materials, # E " is almost independent of 7451" E , in (hich case the material

is la#elled $%mi (ith constit$ti'e relation " = #E . )he constant # is called the cond$cti'it% of the material and is generall% a f$nction of temperat$re as (ell as dislocations in the material. Man% a$thors $se & to denote the cond$cti'it%." )he resisti'it% ' 1C # is also fre0$entl% emplo%ed. . ro$gh microscopic description can #e gi'en in terms of the carriers/ mean 1 a! time #et(een collisions, ! , since v = 1 qE!/m . )he 0$antit% q!/m is commonl% called the carrier mo#ilit%. Comp$ting the net c$rrent densit% as nq v = 1 nq 8 !/m " E (here n is the carrier n$m#er densit%, leads $s to (rite the 8 cond$cti'it% as # = nq 8 ! 8m
8 8

" =

7458"

When a magnetic field is present, (e e,pect the c$rrent to #e in $enced #% the magnetic force on the charge carriers. )he modified la( of cond$ction sho$ld read " = # E ! v B " 7455"

)his form of the cond$ction la( go'erns the deca% of magnetic fields in cond$ctors. S$#stit$ting 7-55" into .mpH ere/s la( and ass$ming, that inside the cond$ctor E/ ! is s$ cientl% small to ignore, (e ha'e more (e o#tain
8

= " . )a1ing the c$rl once

B = # B

!-

v B

" 7456"

If the cond$ctor is stationar%, the e0$ation a#o'e red$ces to a di $sion e0$ation.

7.+ /oun$ary (on$itions for t'e ,tatic Fiel$s

)he time-independent simplified Ma,(ell e0$ations 5487" are modified in the presence of matter to read D B = E =& H =& = " 7455"

(here D = e& E ! P and B = & H ! M ". )he first and the last of these e0$ations ma% #e integrated to gi'e, respecti'el%, Aa$ss/ la( D dS
S

=
!

7457"