2.

1
MECH1230





SOLID MECHANICS





Dynamics





Unit 2





RIGID BODY
KINEMATICS
AND MECHANISMS

2.2


Contents

2.1 Rigid Body Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
2.1.1 Plane Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
2.1.2 Relative Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
2.1.3 Relative Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9
2.2 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
2.3 Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12
2.3.1 Diagrammatic representation of mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12
2.3.2 Alternative mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15
2.3.3 Analysis of Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
2.3.3.1 A single link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
2.3.3.2 Two connected links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18
2.3.4 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.22
2.4 Analysis of Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24
2.4.1 Slider Crank Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24
2.4.2 The Four Bar Chain Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.41
2.4.3 Quick Return Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.43
2.3


2.1 Rigid Body Kinematics
In order to analyse the kinematics of a particle, all that is required is a complete
description of the location of the particle at all instants of time. For a rigid body a
corresponding description of the motion requires the definition of the location and
orientation of the body. Thus a kinematic analysis of a rigid body involves both linear
and angular quantities.

There are five types of rigid body motion:
1. Translation, which may be one of either:
- rectilinear (a straight line in 3-D space);
- curvilinear (along a curve in space but with the body having the same
orientation);
- co-planar (within a 2-D plane).
2. Rotation about a fixed axis.
3. General plane motion.
4. Rotation about a fixed point.
5. General motion.
In this part of the course, general plane motion is studied since there exists a vast range of
engineering problems which are amenable to solution through application of the
techniques described in the following sections.

When considering plane motion, every particle in the body remains in a single plane. As
all points along all lines drawn perpendicular to the plane have the same motion, only the
motion in a single plane need be considered. This may be, but is not limited to, the plane
on which the mass centre lies.

As particles cannot move out of the plane of motion, the position of the rigid body in
plane motion is completely determined by providing the location of one point and the
orientation of one line in the plane of motion. The orientation of the line may be given
by:
1. the angle the line makes with a fixed direction, see Figure 2.1, or by;
2. specifying the location of any two points on the line, see Figure 2.2.
School of Mechanical Engineering


MECH 1230 Solid Mechanics

2.4














Figure 2.1: Position of a point on a rigid body














Figure 2.2: Position of two points on a rigid body

The angular motion of lines in the plane of motion is the same for every straight line in a
rigid body. Consider the situation depicted in Figure 2.3 which shows a rigid body on
which two lines AB and CD are drawn and which are separated by the angle |. The line
AB forms an angle u
AB
to the reference direction and the line CD forms an angle u
CD
to
the reference direction. Clearly,

u
CD
=u
AB
+|. (2.1)

As the rigid body rotates the angles u
AB
and u
CD
change but as the body is rigid, the angle
| remains fixed. Differentiation of equation (2.1) with respect to time gives:

,
AB AB CD CD
= = =

(2.2)

where e is the angular velocity or rate of change of angular position. Thus every line in
the body has the same angular velocity, e.
u A
r
A

O
x
y
A fixed line across the
body
r
A

O
x
y
A fixed line across the
body
r
B

B
A
2.5













Figure 2.3: Angular motion of a rigid body


Similarly, the angular acceleration of every line within the body is the same:

,
AB AB AB CD CD CD
= = = = =

(2.3)

where o is the angular acceleration or the rate of change of angular velocity.
2.1.1 Plane Motion
Consider any two points A and B on a general plane rigid body. Since the body is rigid it
is important to appreciate that the distance AB will remain constant regardless of the
motion. We view the body at two instants of time, t and t + dt, as shown.
















Figure 2.4: Plane motion of a rigid body


D
O
x
y
B
A
C
u
AB

u
CD

|
|
|
|
A
B
C
B'
C'
B
1

C
1

|
Time t
Time t + dt
dl
dl
x
y
O
du
A
1

2.6
Figure 2.4 shows that the motion over the time interval dt may be thought of as:
- a translation from A to A
1
of dl and from B to B' of dl;
- plus, a rotation du about A
1
to bring B' into position B
1
.
A point C has been included in the diagram representing another point on the body such
that AC is at an angle of | with respect to AB. It can be seen that the angle | remains
unchanged throughout the processes of translation and rotation. It follows therefore that
in moving from position AB to position A
1
B
1
the body has a velocity of translation given
by:

, l
dt
dl
v

= = (2.4)

and a rotational velocity or angular velocity, e, given by:

.
dt
d

= = (2.5)

Hence every point on the body is treated as having a velocity of translation, v, and every
line joining any two points the angular velocity, e.
2.1.2 Relative Velocity
Once again consider a plane rigid body and any two points A and B within it having
velocity v
A
and v
b
respectively - see Figure 2.5. For a rigid body v
A
does not have to be
equal to v
B
as there can be rigid body rotation about an axis located at some arbitrary
position in the plane.
















Figure 2.5: Relative velocity of two points on a rigid body
A
B
x
y
O
v
B

v
A

u
A

u
B

2.7


Using the idea of the triangle law for vector addition write the velocity at A and B in
component form - one parallel to the direction of AB the other perpendicular to AB - see
Figure 2.6, where:


. v v , v v
v v , v v
B B Perp B A A Perp A
B B Par B A A Par A
sin sin
cos cos
_ _
_ _
= =
= =


















Figure 2.6: Velocity components

Since the body is rigid the distance between A and B must remain fixed. Consequently
v
A_Par
= v
B_Par
and the magnitude of the velocity of B relative to A, v
BA
, is given by:

v
BA
= v
B_Perp
v
A_Perp,
(2.6)

whose direction is perpendicular to AB - see Figure 2.7.













A
B
x
y
O
v
B

v
A

v
A_Par

v
A_Perp

v
B_Par

v
B_Perp

u
A

u
B

2.8

















Figure 2.7: Velocity of B relative to A


Thus the motion of B as seen by A is one of rotation about A - it follows therefore that the
angular velocity, e, of the body is given by:

.
d
v

BA
= (2.7)

The absolute velocity of the point B is then given by:

v
B
= v
A
+ v
BA.
(2.8)

Clearly, these must be added vectorially - see Figure 2.8. Equation (2.8) states that the
absolute velocity of B is the resultant of the absolute velocity of A and the velocity of B
relative to A.



A
B
x
y
O
v
BA

d
e
v
BA

v
A

v
B

Parallel to BA
2.9




Figure 2.8: Vector addition for relative velocities
2.1.3 Relative Acceleration
Since the velocities at the points A and B will, in general, vary with time they will
accelerate. As in the case of relative velocity, the absolute accelerations a
A
and a
B
of the
points A and B can be reduced to component form - see Figure 2.9.
















Figure 2.9: Acceleration components


So, the acceleration of B relative to A has two components:

( a
B_Par
a
A_Par
) along AB;
( a
B_Perp
a
A_Perp
) normal to AB.

If the angular acceleration of the body,

, is denoted by o, then for a point moving on a
circular path it has accelerations R e
2
and Ro, parallel and perpendicular to the radius R
from the centre of rotation, respectively. (Recall that an angular velocity gives a
tangential, or perpendicular velocity component with respect to AB, and this angular
velocity generates an acceleration that is radial or parallel to AB).

A
B
x
y
O
a
B

a
A

a
A_Par

a
A_Perp

a
B_Par

a
B_Perp

d
e
2.10
Now considering the motion of B relative to A, which are separated by a distance d , the
components of acceleration are given by:

( a
B_Par
a
A_Par
) = e
2
d along AB;
( a
B_Perp
a
A_Perp
) = od normal to AB.

These accelerations are those that an observer at A would see.
- The angular velocity, e is found from the velocities, v
A_Perp
and v
B_Perp
and the
geometry.
- The angular acceleration, o is found from the accelerations, a
A_Perp
and a
B_Perp
and
the geometry.
Now,

a
B
= a
A
+ a
BA.
(2.9)

but, a
BA
has two components (unlike relative velocity which has only one). Also,

a
A
= a
B
+ a
AB
.

So, for the point B, a
BA
has components od ( normal to AB) and e
2
d (parallel to AB) as
shown in Figure 2.10.





Figure 2.10: Acceleration components of B relative to A


2.2 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation
a
B

a
A

a
BA_Par
=e
2
d
a
BA_Perp
=o d
a
BA

Parallel to BA
2.11
Consider the rigid body shown in Figure 2.11. The points A and B have absolute velocity
v
A
and v
B
, respectively.



If v
A
= v
B
the rigid body will have an angular velocity e at a particular instant. So A and B
can be considered to be rotating about some point along a perpendicular to the velocity
vectors v
A
and v
B
at these points. These perpendiculars lie along A A
'
and B B
'
as shown in
Figure 2.11. We conclude therefore, that at this particular instant the body must be
rotating about the point of intersection of A A
'
and B B
'
- that is, about the point I, the
instantaneous centre of rotation.

Note that in general v
A
and v
B
are not constant, so I is not a fixed point - but a point
regarded as being instantaneously at rest.
If e is the angular velocity of the body at that instant, then (from v = re):

.
IB
v
IA
v

B A
= = (2.10)

The concept of an instantaneous centre of rotation is a useful and quick way of finding
the velocity of the moving parts of a mechanism. Mechanisms are examined more fully
subsequently but in the meantime consider the schematic of an up-and-over garage door
shown in Figure 2.12 (not to scale). As the door QS opens the slider S moves to the left,
as it closes the slider moves to the right. If PR is the pivot arm for the garage door where
is the instantaneous centre of rotation of the garage door in the position shown?
2.12


2.3 Mechanisms
There exists a vast range of mechanisms, which find application throughout mechanical
engineering. Mechanisms are made up of combinations of links, slides, gears and cams
which may operate at low or high speeds and may either transmit power or modify
motion. The word mechanism is derived from the Greek word meaning machine and in
fact dictionary definitions of the word mechanism include "the working parts of a
machine" and system whose parts work together as in a machine". Mechanisms vary
greatly in their size and complexity ranging from simple engine mechanisms to high-
speed textile equipment.
2.3.1 Diagrammatic representation of mechanisms
A convenient way to represent the kinematic behaviour of a mechanism is to use a so-
called stick diagram. A stick diagram accurately conveys the ways in which the various
components can move relative to one another. The basic elements of a stick diagram are
shown in Figure 2.13 together with some examples of commonly encountered
mechanisms in stick form in Figure 2.14 in which the arrows indicate a typical input to
the mechanism.
Q
2.13

2.14


2.15
2.3.2 Alternative mechanisms
Many mechanisms involve motion in three-dimensional space, for example an excavator
shovel, vehicle suspension system (because the spring/damper axis is normally angled
and the suspension linkages pivot generating complex 3D motion) or robotic device.
Fortunately there are a significant number whose motion can be described in a 2D plane.
Some examples found in everyday life are shown in Figure 2.15 and a number of
engineering applications are provided in Figure 2.16.


2.16


2.17
2.3.3 Analysis of Links
2.3.3.1 A single link
The application of velocity and acceleration components in polar coordinates (see unit 1,
page 1.26) may be illustrated through consideration of the crank element of a slider crank
mechanism. The crank can be represented as a link, OA, of fixed length, which is pivoted
at one end. Figure 2.17 shows how the generalised velocity and acceleration terms
simplify for this case.


(Note in the diagrams above, o e u e u = = =

and )

The restriction of fixed length means that all terms involving r and r must be zero. The
velocity and acceleration components shown are very important as they form the basis for
the graphical method of mechanism analysis which follows.

Figure 2.17
2.18

2.3.3.2 Two connected links
Now consider a situation involving a second fixed length link, AB, attached to the free
end of the pivoted link OA. This might, for example, represent the connecting rod of a
slider crank mechanism. The motion of the link AB can involve translation in both X and
Y directions and rotation. This is depicted in Figure 2.18.

In comparison to AB, the link OA may only rotate about O and is said to be kinematically
constrained. This means that the motion of OA is simply a function of the angle u
1
and
the link geometry.
Velocity
The direction and magnitude of the velocity of the free end of the link AB can be
determined by application of the idea of relative velocity:
The velocity of point A relative to ground at O is the absolute velocity of A, which has a
magnitude v
A
given by:


1 1
e OA OA v
A
= =

(2.11)

which is perpendicular to the line OA as shown in Figure 2.18.

Calculation of the velocity of point B relative to point A is complicated by the fact that
point A is itself moving. Relative to an observation position at A, point B can only have a
r velocity term since its length is fixed. Thus, the velocity of point B relative to point A
has a magnitude equal to:

Figure 2.18
2.19

2
AB v
BA
= (2.12)

where e
2
is the angular velocity of AB and v
BA
has a direction which is perpendicular to
the link AB, see Figure 2.18. From this follows the important result that allows an
expression for the absolute velocity of point B (velocity of B relative to ground at O) to
be derived as:

v
B
= v
A
+ v
BA
. (2.13)

A pictorial representation of this result is shown in the velocity vector diagram of Figure
2.19, which provides a means of calculating the magnitude and direction of the resulting
velocity v
B
.


EXAMPLE TO TRY YOURSELF
Using the data provided below in conjunction with the figure, calculate the resultant
magnitude and direction of the velocity of point B at this instant.

v
B
= v
A
+ v
BA

Figure 2.18 Figure 2.19
2.20


Data: OA=0.4 m, AB=0.5 m, u
1
=20

, u
2
=75

,
1
2
1
1
5 4 2

= = rads . , rads e e
Answers: v
A
= 0.8 ms
-1
, v
BA
= -2.25 ms
-1
, v
B
= 1.91 ms
-1
, at an angle of 5.1 to the positive
x-axis.
Acceleration
The same principles of relative motion can be applied to the calculation of the
accelerations of the interconnected links.
The point A on the link OA can only have two components, namely
1
o r and
2
1
r .
However if the link OA is rotating with constant angular velocity, e
1
then the
1
o r term is
zero, leaving a single component
2
1
r directed towards the point O.

The acceleration of B relative to A has two components:
-
2
2
AB along AB ;
-
2
AB perpendicular to AB ;
which are shown in Figure 2.20.

2.21

The absolute acceleration of B relative to A is given by the vector expression:

a
B
=a
A
+a
BA
(2.14)

from which a diagram showing the acceleration vector, Figure 2.21 (which assumes OA
is rotating at constant angular speed), can be drawn. In order to calculate a
B
, a value for
o
2
is required which is the instantaneous rotational acceleration of the link AB.

Note that calculations of this type refer to one position of the links. This can be thought
of as equivalent to analysing a still frame taken from a motion picture.

Figure 2.20
2.22



When considering the dynamic behaviour of a body, or an assembly of bodies, in a
machine the first step is to reduce the actual system to an idealised model by making
appropriate assumptions. One should remember that it is very important to bear in mind
at all times the assumptions made in setting up the model, particularly when interpreting
the results of any analyses. If the assumptions are invalid, the results will also be
invalid. Once the model has been defined, a free body diagram must be drawn before
proceeding further, for each body in the system, showing the forces which act on them.
The appropriate equations of motion can then be applied. Next, any kinematic constraints
must be identified and the resulting equations then solved for the required variables.

Figure 2.21
2.23
2.3.4 Case studies
In order to demonstrate the techniques used to analyse the kinematic behaviour of plane
mechanisms it is appropriate to concentrate on a small number of mechanisms from the
vast range available. What follows will concentrate on the analysis of two mechanisms,
namely the slider crank and the four bar chain. Together these make an excellent vehicle
through which to introduce the basic concepts and techniques associated with the analysis
of linkages and mechanisms. The four bar chain typifies a particularly large class of
mechanisms.

Slider cranks are commonly found in internal combustion engines and a typical layout is
shown in Figure 2.22 along with the equivalent stick diagram in Figure 2.23. Note the
differences and the fact that the stick diagram captures all the essential kinematic
information.
2.24


The main elements of the slider crank are the piston, crank and connecting rod. These
perform the following types of motion:
- Piston - Rectilinear (translational) motion;
- Crank - Rotational motion;
- Connecting rod - Combination of translational and rotational motion.
Rocker arm
Valve
Figure 2.22
2.25

2.4 Analysis of Mechanisms
In this section we focus our attention on the analysis of the slider crank and four bar
chain. The former is a convenient vehicle by which to introduce the basic concepts
involved; the latter is fundamental in the design of mechanisms - it is simple, fairly
inexpensive, widely used and takes many different shapes and sizes.
2.4.1 Slider Crank Mechanism.
This mechanism is very common and therefore of great interest.















Cylinder
Valves
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft
Crank axis
Pivot of connecting
rod about the crank
Piston
Figure 2.23
2.26
Method of Analysis
First reduce the mechanism to a `Stick' Position Diagram (SPD) as shown below:



There are three approaches that can be adopted to analyse this and other mechanisms:
1. Trigonometric.
- Write down analytic expression(s) for position and then differentiate twice to
obtain explicit expressions for velocity and acceleration.
- This is a lengthy process even for simple mechanisms.
- Almost impossible for complex ones!
2. Graphical - scale drawings.
- Gives velocity and acceleration for one position only and hence this process
must be repeated many times to produce an overall picture of the motion for one
complete cycle.
- Its use as an aid to physical understanding is questionable.
- Long winded and tedious.
3. Computational.
- This is vector based and is usually implemented on a computer. It is
straightforward to write down the displacement vectors and then to perform
subsequent velocity and acceleration analysis via numerical methods. This
approach is:
- quick (if the programme already exists);
- convenient (use the computer to plot out the results);
- and flexible (easy to solve for any input, different link lengths, etc).

Clearly the latter approach is the preferred one, particularly if the necessary software is
readily available.
2.27
Trigonometric Analysis Slider Crank
For simple mechanisms, algebraic expression(s) may be formulated to describe the
position of an output of interest relative to some known input. This expression can then
be differentiated once with respect to time to obtain an explicit expression for the velocity
and again to derive an explicit expression for the acceleration. Note that simplifying
assumptions may be required to effect the differentiation.

Consider the slider crank mechanism shown in the figure below, which is assumed to
have its crank driven at a constant speed of e rads
1
. If the output of interest is the piston
then an expression for piston displacement x as a function of the crank angle u is
required.



The main idea is to find x as a function of u, x = f(u), and then differentiate this function
w.r.t. time, t, to obtain x v = and x a = . Now:

( ) ( ) rcos lcos x + = | (2.15)

and clearly (from the sine rule),


| u sin sin
r l
= rsin() = lsin(|) (2.16)

Now from equation (2.16) ( ) ( ) sin
l
r
sin = | and:

( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
sin 1 cos | = |
2
since ( ) ( ) . 1 cos sin
2 2
= | + |

So

2.28
( ) ( ) . sin
l
r
1 cos
2
1
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
= | (2.17)

Hence substituting for cos(|) from equation (2.17) into (2.15) gives:

( ) ( ) . sin
l
r
1 l rcos x
2
1
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = (2.18)

The velocity and acceleration of the piston are found by the successive differentiation of
equation (2.18) with respect to time. In order to simplify this process it is appropriate to
expand the term within the square root sign using a Binomial expansion of the form

( )
( )
...., k
2 1
1 m m
mk 1 k l
2 m
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

which leads to:


( ) ( )
( ) ( ); sin
2l
r
l rcos
; sin
2l
r
1 l rcos x
2
2
2
2
2
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
(2.19)

where higher order terms are ignored based on the assumption that they will contain
terms of diminishing magnitude.

Thus since u varies with time, the velocity can be determined using the chain rule as:

,
d
dx
dt
d
d
dx
dt
dx
x

= = = (2.20)

such that:


( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ). 2 sin
2l
r
rsin
; cos 2sin
2l
r
rsin
d
dx
2
2
=
=
(2.21)

If the input speed

is a constant, say e, then:

2.29

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) . 2 sin
2
sin
2 sin
2
sin
2
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

l
r
r
;
l
r
r x
(2.22)

Similarly, for acceleration:

,
d
x d

dt
d
d
x d
x

= = (2.23)

where:


( ) ( )
( ) ( ) .
l
r
r

l
r
r
d
x d
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 cos cos
, 2 cos 2
2
cos
e
e

(2.24)

Combination of equations (2.23) and (2.24) and noting once again that =

leads to
the desired result:


( ) ( )
( ) ( ) . 2 cos
l
r
cos r
; 2 cos
l
r
cos r x
2
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =


(2.25)

Equations (2.18), (2.22) and (2.25) can be expressed as a function of time given that e is
constant and the crank angle u can be written as:

u = et. (2.26)

Substitution of (2.26) into equations (2.18), (2.22) and (2.25) leads to the following
expressions for the position, velocity and acceleration of the piston under the assumption
that e is constant:

Postion ( ) ( ) ; t sin
l
r
1 l t rcos x
2
1
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = (2.27)
Velocity ( ) ( ) ; t 2 sin
2l
r
t sin r x |
.
|

\
|
+ = (2.28)
Acceleration ( ) ( ) . t
l
r
t r x |
.
|

\
|
+ = e 2 cos cos
2
(2.29)
2.30

Graphical Analysis Slider Crank
This is the traditional approach to solving mechanism problems. There are two types of
graphical analysis. The first uses the concept of an instantaneous centre of rotation.

Method of Instantaneous Centre
The following diagram shows a scaled drawing of the displacements for a slider crank at
some particular angle of input, where P is the piston, O the axis of rotation of the crank
and A is the pivot between the connecting rod and the crank.



The following steps are involved in performing a graphical analysis:
(i) Draw the mechanism to scale (on graph paper) at the desired position.
(ii) Locate the instantaneous centre, I, in this particular position. This can be
determined as the direction of motion of each end of the connecting rod is known.
The end at the piston must move with the piston which is modeled as a slider and
hence moves horizontally (in the diagram as drawn). The other end of the
connecting rod is at the end of the crank which is rotating with uniform circular
2.31
motion about O, hence the velocity at A must be a tangent to OA.
(iii) Calculate v
A
( the tangential velocity of the point A = er, where e here refers
to the angular speed of the crankshaft).
(iv) The angular velocity of the connecting rod (PA) is then given by:

IA
r
IA
v

A
rod
= = ,
where IA is scaled from the position diagram.
(v) The velocity of the piston, v
P
is given by (again IP is scaled from the position
diagram):

.
IA
IP
v IP v
A rod P
= = e


WORKED EXAMPLE

Consider the garage door problem introduced earlier, with the dimensions shown. Given
that PR rotates about P at the constant angular speed indicated, find the velocity of the
door and the slider (at this instant) together with the length d. Note that by defining SF in
the position diagram defines the position of the whole mechanism.

2.32

Solution
To determine the velocities and distances a Scaled Position Diagram (SPD) must be
drawn:

(i) The distance d is easily measured off the above scaled diagram and is found to
equal 0.9m.

(ii) The position of the instantaneous centre, I, is as shown in the above scaled
position diagram and lies at the intersection of perpendiculars to the velocity
vectors v
S
and v
R
from the points S and R respectively.

(iii) { }. 0.349rads rads
360
2 20
20degs
1 1 1
= =

=

The velocity of
{ }
1
R
0.314ms PQ 0.9 0.349 v R,

= = and hence the angular velocity of the
door is = . .
.
.
1 R
rads 218 0
44 1
314 0
IR
v

= = (Where IR is measured from the SPD).

(iv) The velocity of the slider, S is (where IS is measured from the SPD):
. 0.174ms
1.44
0.8
0.314
IR
IS
v v
IR
v
IS
v
1
R S
R S
= = = =

2.33


The second is based on drawing scale velocity and acceleration diagrams derived from a
scale position diagram. Note that the velocity and acceleration relate to one instantaneous
position and so many scale drawings are required to obtain a picture of the kinematic
behaviour of a mechanism over a complete cycle. With the advent of computer based
methods the graphical approach is declining in its use. However, from an educational
standpoint, the graphical method does serve to reinforce the concepts behind vector
mechanics. Below, the slider crank on the previous page and a four-bar chain mechanism
is analysed in this way for purely illustrative purposes.

Graphical Analysis for Kinematics using velocity and acceleration diagrams
Another way of finding the velocity and acceleration (at any point) for one position only
is as follows:

2.34
(i) Draw a position (stick) diagram of the mechanism to scale (repeated below).


(ii) Construct the velocity vector diagrams (to scale):
- Draw v
A
= er = eOA and therefore the magnitude and the direction
of this vector are known.
- v
P
must be horizontal and therefore only its direction is known.
- The velocity of P relative to A must be perpendicular to the line PA
and thus again only its direction is known.





2.35







- the intersection of v
P
and v
PA
determines their magnitudes (their
directions are already known) and therefore it is possible to read off
the value of v
P
and v
PA
from the scale of the velocity diagram.

(iii) To determine the accelerations when the mechanism is in this position draw
an acceleration diagram to scale:
- Consider the case when e = constant

= 0, i.e., A has no
tangential acceleration but only radial (r

2
), that is OAe
2
and hence
the magnitude and direction of this vector is known.
- The acceleration of the point P, a
P
must be horizontal and so its
direction only is known.
- The acceleration of the point P relative to A has two components. As
we are considering the rotation of P relative to A, the component of
acceleration parallel to PA is in the direction from P to A and has
magnitude PA|

2
denoted by a
,,
. The other component is perpendicular
to PA (PA|

) denoted by a

. In this case the magnitude and direction

of a
,,
is known ( |

= v
PA
/PA and v
PA
is known from the velocity
diagram), but only the direction of a

is known.





90-u
|
v
A

v
PA

v
P

2.36








- The intersection of the vectors a

and a
P
defines the magnitudes of
these vectors, and for a
PA
and from the scaled diagram their values can
be obtained (note that their direction is already known).
WORKED EXAMPLE

A four bar linkage is shown below in which the crank AB rotates clockwise with a
constant angular velocity of 10 rads
1
. Using velocity and acceleration diagrams
calculate the angular velocities and accelerations of the links BC and CD. (Note the
diagram is not to scale and fixed pivots A and D should be on the same horizontal line).



u
|
a
A

a
P

a
||

a

a
PA

Parallel to PA
2.37
Solution

1. Draw a position diagram (SPD) to scale:
From this diagram, measure the angles of the links, angle of BC to the horizontal
is 32, and of CD to the horizontal is 24.












2. Construct the corresponding velocity diagram as follows:


(i) The velocity of B relative to A is AB e = 30 10
Therefore 300 mms
1
perpendicular to AB (at 30 to horizontal).
60
32
24
A
B
C
D
2.38

(ii) The velocity of C relative to D is of an unknown magnitude but its
direction must be perpendicular to CD, i.e. at 24 to the vertical.

(iii) The velocity of C relative to B is also of unknown magnitude but its
direction must be perpendicular to BC, i.e. at 32 to the vertical.

(iv) The intersection of the two vectors with unknown magnitude define
the velocity of C, 172 mm s
-1
, and the relative velocity of C with respect to
B, 362 mm s
-1
.
The angular velocities of the links BC and DC can now be calculated, i.e.,
Angular velocity of BC =
75
362
= 4.83 rad s
1
anticlockwise.
Angular velocity of DC =
35
172
= 4.91 rad s
1
anticlockwise.

3. The acceleration diagram can be constructed as follows:


(i) The acceleration of B relative to A is AB e
2
= 30 100.
Therefore 3000 mm s
2
along BA. Note that there is no AB component
2.39
since e is considered to be constant. (Note however that the angular
rotation rates of CD and BC cannot be considered to be constant).

(ii) The acceleration of the point C relative to D has two components, of
magnitude CD
2
CD
e along CD = 35 (4.91)
2
= 843.8 mm s
2

and CD
CD
o perpendicular to CD but its magnitude is as yet unknown.

(iii) The acceleration of the point C relative to B also has two components,
of magnitude BC
2
BC
e along the link CB = 75 (4.83)
2
= 1749.7mm s
2

and BC
BC
o is perpendicular to BC but its magnitude is unknown.

(iv) The intersection of the above components now defines the
acceleration of C and the unknown components for both CD and BC,
i.e., perpendicular component for CD = 560 mm s
2
and hence
35
560
=
CD
o = 16 rad s
2
in an anticlockwise direction
and the component for BC = 1780 mm s
2
and hence
75
1780
=
CB
o = 23.7 rad s
2
anticlockwise.
2.40
Computational Analysis
This is a modern, vector based approach which is quick, accurate and general, i.e., it
gives a full description of position, velocity and acceleration and is therefore now the
method of choice. The computational approach relies on the fact that the position vectors
associated with any mechanism are straightforward to define. The subsequent velocity
and acceleration analysis is performed through numerical methods.

The method involves an interesting blend of numerical analysis and computing, and
hinges on the use of vector displacement/loop equations. The emphasis here, therefore, is
the derivation of such equations for a variety of mechanisms. Once you have these, it is
simply a matter of using readily available computer software to solve them.

Slider-Crank















Variables:
p
1
, p
2
which can be either a length or an angle, and in
the case of the slider crank these are enough to
completely define the mechanism.
Known: a
1
and a
2
, the fixed links
Input: the angle of input is q(t).

Displacement Loop Equations
Form the displacement loops by projecting the displacement onto the x and y axes to give
two equations:

x-direction a
1
cos(q) + a
2
cos(p
1
) + p
2
= 0;

y-direction a
1
sin(q) + a
2
sin(p
1
) = 0; (2.30)

x
y
u
Arrows indicate
positive
directions
p
1

q
a
1

a
2

C
B
A
p
2

2.41
i.e., two equations for two unknowns which are easily solved. Note that you need to be
careful of the signs of the various terms. By defining the angles with respect to the
positive x-axis and working around the loop in an ordered fashion most of the signs will
take care of themselves. For example, in the x direction equation above, starting from A
the distance is a
1
to get to B at an angle of q with respect to the positive x-axis. As q (as
drawn) is between 90 and 180, a
1
cos(q) will be negative. The next term is from B to C
and following the same methodology will be a
2
cos(p
1
) which again will be negative as p
1

is between 180 and 270. The final term is from C back to A, and is effectively p
2
cos(0),
hence +p
2
.


What about
2 1 2 1
p and p , p , p ?

These can be found by differentiating the displacement equations (2.30) with respect to
time.

Velocity Loop Equations
The velocity loop equations are therefore:

x-direction ( ) ( )
2 1 1 2 1
sin sin p p p a q q a + = 0;

y-direction ( ) ( )
1 1 2 1
p p cos a q q cos a + = 0. (2.31)

To find the two acceleration loop equations for the two unknown accelerations,
differentiate equation (2.31) w.r.t. time. This is left as an exercise.

In the computational analysis, the loop equations for the displacement, velocity and
acceleration for the slider-crank are solved using commercially available kinematics
software. The same is done in the case of loop equations derived for the other
mechanisms shown earlier.

Let us now consider a different mechanism in order to illustrate the graphical and
computational methods described above and the mathematics behind them.
2.42
2.4.2 The Four Bar Chain Mechanism








Variables: p
1
, p
2

Known: a
1
, a
2
, a
3
and a
4
, the fixed links
Input: the angle of input is q.
The variables that need to be determined to analyse the mechanism completely are:

(a) p
1
and p
2
for any given input, q and therefore the displacements of the
mechanism are known completely ;
(b)
1
p and
2
p ;
(c)
1
p and
2
p .

Displacement Loop Equations
The displacement loop equations for this mechanisms are (working around OBCDO):

x-direction
( ) ( ) ( ) ) 180 cos( a p cos a p cos a q cos a
4 2 3 1 2 1

+ + + = 0;
( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 3 1 2 1
a p cos a p cos a q cos a + + = 0;


y-direction
x
y
u
Arrows indicate
positive
directions
q
p
1

p
2

a
1

a
2

a
3

O
B
C
D
a
4
2.43
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

180 sin a p sin a p sin a q sin a

4 2 3 1 2 1
+ + + = 0
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 1 2 1
p sin a p sin a q sin a + + = 0. (2.32)

Unlike the displacement loop equations for the slider crank mechanism, these equations
are nonlinear (i.e., one cannot write explicit expressions for p
1
and p
2
as the variables are
not separable, in fact these two variables are present as the argument of trigonometric
functions which are intrinsically non-linear). The two equations have to be solved
numerically which requires initial estimates for the two unknowns p
1
and p
2
at a known
value of input crank angle q. An algorithm must be employed to increase the accuracy of
the estimates for p
1
and p
2
until the desired precision is obtained. This must be done for
every possible value of the input q. The displacement information of the mechanism is
thus completely defined.

Velocity Loop Equations
The next stage involves calculating the velocity and acceleration information so that a
complete kinematic description of the mechanism is available for the purpose of later
analysis. Differentiation of the displacement loop equations with respect to time leads to
the velocity loop equations in
1
p and
2
p .

x-direction ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 1 1 2 1
p sin p a p sin p a q sin q a - = 0;

y-direction ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 1 1 2 1
p cos p a p cos p a q cos q a + + = 0. (2.33)

Assuming the angles q, p
1
and p
2
are known and q has been defined, then solution of the
velocity equations for the angular velocities
1
p and
2
p is simple, both expressions are
linear simultaneous equations (Cramers rule can be applied for two equations with two
unknowns).

Acceleration Loop Equations
Differentiation of the velocity loop equations with respect to time yields two further
equations for the angular accelerations
1
p and
2
p :


direction - x

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ; p cos p a p sin p a p cos p a
p sin p a q cos q a q sin q a -
2
2
2 3 2 2 3 1
2
1 2
1 1 2
2
1 1
0 =







direction - y

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) . p sin p a p cos p a p sin p a
p cos p a q sin q a q cos q a -
2
2
2 3 2 2 3 1
2
1 2
1 1 2
2
1 1
0 = +
+


(2.34)

2.44
Again, the acceleration loop equations are linear and their solution for
1
p and
2
p is
straightforward particularly as the angles p
1
and p
2
and velocities
1
p and
2
p are at this
stage known.

Thus all the kinematic information is contained in the two coordinate variables p
1
and p
2

and in their derivatives.

As demonstrated by the four bar chain, the displacement loop equations are non-linear,
simultaneous equations which it is impossible to solve through the derivation of explicit
expressions. This situation is in fact commonly encountered and so a numerical, iterative
technique is used to solve the displacement loop equations and is built into available
kinematics analysis software. There are several numerical methods available to the
engineer, however they all work by using a basic trial and error process, which can be
explained as follows:
1. Begin the process by guessing a solution for p.
2. Using this estimate, calculate an incremental change, Ap, to attempt to get closer
to the solution.
3. Calculate a new estimate p'=p+Ap
4. Go back to 2 and keep going round the stages (2 to 4) until some convergence
condition is met (e.g. |Ap| < an accuracy requirement) and the estimated solution
is close to the actual one
Possible refinements to the technique involve:
1. making the iterative process as fast and as efficient as possible so that the number
of iterations is minimised,
2. ensuring the algorithm is as robust as possible so that it will deal with a wide
range of equation sets (which translates into a wide range of mechanisms), and
3. making it stable so that the algorithm always converges to the correct solution
rather that diverging away from it.

Certain simple mechanisms such the slider crank have displacement loop equations
which are explicit and so can be solved directly without recourse to any iterative solvers.
2.4.3 Quick Return Mechanism
WORKED EXAMPLE

Write appropriate loop equations in order to analyse the quick return mechanism shown
below.

2.45


Solution.

The displacement loop equations for the above mechanism are:

Considering Loop ACD:


a
4
cos(p
3
) + p
4
cos(180) + (a
1
+p
1
)

cos(270) = 0

a
4
cos(p
3
) p
4
= 0;


a
4
sin(p
3
)+ p
4
sin(180)+ (a
1
+p
1
)

sin(270) = 0.

a
4
sin(p
3
) a
1
p
1
= 0.

Considering loop ABO:

p
2
cos(p
3
) + a
2
cos(180+q)+ p
1
cos(270) = 0;

p
2
cos(p
3
) a
2
cos(q) = 0;
2.46

p
2
sin(p
3
) + a
2
sin(180+q)+ p
1
sin(270) = 0;

p
2
sin(p
3
) a
2
sin(q) p
1
= 0.

The above loop equations are not the only ones that could have been chosen. For example
loop ACD could be replaced by loop OBCD:

a
2
cos(q) + (a
4
p
2
)cos(p
3
) p
4
= 0;

a
2
sin(q) + (a
4
p
2
)sin(p
3
) a
1
= 0.

After all the object is to produce the same number of independent equations as there are
unknowns in the problem.

A point of special interest is the CofM of the link AC, denoted by G on the above
diagram. The coordinates of this point relative to the fixed axis, O are:

x
G
= a
2
cos(q) (p
2
a
3
)cos(p3);

y
G
= a
2
sin(q) (p
2
a
3
)sin(p
3
).

Deriving the loop equations for velocity and acceleration are left as an exercise.


ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES TO TRY

1) The four-bar linkage shown below has the following lengths: A
0
A =125mm, AB =
275mm, B
0
B = 225mm and A
0
B
0
= 200mm. For the position when the angle A A
0
B
0
=
120
o
calculate the angular velocity of the output and the coupler if the input angular
velocity e
1
= 25 rad s
1
clockwise.


2.47



2.48
2) The figure shown below is that of a variable stroke mechanism which allows the stroke
of a reciprocating piston to be varied by altering the position of the fixed point A. Write
down a set of displacement loop equations for the system.