EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB

Dot convention: Examples

LEARNING EXAMPLE
The coupled inductors can be connected in four different
ways. Find the model for each case
CASE I
+
1
V +
2
V
I L j MI j V
MI j I L j V
2 2
1 1


+ =
+ =
Currents into dots
CASE 2
+
1
V +
2
V
Currents into dots
I I
I I
2 1
V V V + =
2 1
V V V =
I L j MI j V
MI j I L j V
2 2
1 1


=
=
I L j M L L j V
eq
= + + = ) 2 (
2 1
I L M L j V ) 2 (
2 1
+ =
eq
L
M
L
eq
of value the on
constraint physical a imposes 0 >
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
CASE 3
Currents into dots
1
I
2
I
+ V + V
2 1
I I I + =
2 2 1
2 1 1
I L j MI j V
MI j I L j V


+ =
+ =
1 2
I I I =
) (
) (
1 2 1
1 1 1
I I L j MI j V
I I M j I L j V
+ =
+ =


I L j I M L j V
MI j I M L j V
2 1 2
1 1
) (
) (


+ =
+ =
) /(
) /(
1
2
M L
M L


( )I M L L M L M j V M L L ) ( ) ( ) 2 (
1 2 2 2 1
+ = +
I
M L L
M L L
j V
2
2 1
2
2 1
+

=
CASE 4
Currents into dots
1
I
2
I
+ V + ) ( V
1
I
2
I
2 1
I I I + =
2 2 1
2 1 1
I L j MI j V
MI j I L j V


=
=
I
M L L
M L L
V
2
2 1
2
2 1
+ +

=
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXAMPLE
0
V VOLTAGE THE FIND

+
1
V

+
2
V
2
I
1 1
2 30 24 V I + = Z : KVL
0 2 2
2 2 2
= + I I j V - : KVL
) ( 6 2
) ( 2 4
2 1 2
2 1 1
I j I j V
I j I j V
+ =
+ =
CIRCUIT INDUCTANCE MUTUAL
2 0
2I V =
S
V
2 1
2 1
) 6 2 2 ( 2 0
2 ) 4 2 (
I j j I j
I j I j V
S
+ + =
+ =
1
I
4 2 /
2 /
j
j
+

( )
2
2
) 4 2 ( 4 2 I j V j
S
+ + =
16 8
2
2
j
V j
I
S
+
= =

j
j
j
V
S
8 16
2
+
j
V
I V
S
2 4
2
2 0
+
= =
Z
Z
=
57 . 26 47 . 4
30 24
Z = 42 . 3 37 . 5
1. Coupled inductors. Define their
voltages and currents
2. Write loop equations
in terms of coupled
inductor voltages
3. Write equations for
coupled inductors
4. Replace into loop equations
and do the algebra
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXAMPLE Write the mesh equations

+
1
V
2 1
I I

+
2
V
3 2
I I
1. Define variables for coupled inductors
2. Write loop equations in terms of
coupled inductor voltages
1
2 1
1 1 1
C j
I I
V I R V

+ + =
0 ) (
1
1 2
3 2 3 2 2 2 1
=

+ + + +
C j
I I
I I R V I R V

0 ) (
2 3 3 3 4
2
3
2
= + + + I I R I R
C j
I
V

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
3 2 2 2 1 2
3 2 2 1 1 1
I I L j I I M j V
I I M j I I L j V
+ =
+ =


3. Write equations for coupled inductors
4. Replace into loop equations and
rearrange terms
3 2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
MI j I
C j
M j L j
I
C j
L j R V

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
( )
3 3 2
2
1
3 2 2 2
1
1
1
1
1
0
I R L j M j
I
C j
R L j M j R M j L j
I
C j
M j L j
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

( )
3 3 4
2
2
2 3 2 1
1
0
I R R
C j
L j
I R M j L j MI j
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ =

EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXTENSION
0 2 1
, , V I I FIND

+
1
V
+

2
V
1. Define variables for coupled inductors
2. Loop equations
S
V
0 4
1 1
= + + I V V
S
0 ) 4 2 (
2 2
= + I j V
2 1 2
2 1 1
8
4
I j jI V
jI I j V
+ =
+ =
3. Coupled inductors equations
0 ) 4 2 (
) 4 4 (
2 1
2 1
= + +
= + +
I j jI
V jI I j
S
4. Replace and rearrange
2 0
4I j V =
) 4 4 /(
/
j
j
+

S
jV I j j = + + +
2
)) 2 1 )( 1 ( 8 1 (
j
jV
I
S
24 7
2
+
=
j 7 24
0 24
+
Z
=
j
j

Z
Z
=
26 . 16 25
0 24
) ( 26 . 16 96 . 0
2
A I Z =
Voltages in Volts
Impedances in Ohms
Currents in ____
2 1 2 1
) 4 2 ( / 0 ) 4 2 ( I j j I j I j jI + = = + +
Z Z Z = 26 . 16 96 . 0 43 . 63 47 . 4 90 1
1
I
) ( 17 . 137 29 . 4
1
A I Z =
Z Z = = 26 . 16 96 . 0 4 90 1 4
2 0
I j V
) ( 26 . 106 84 . 3
0
V V Z =
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXTENSION
WRITE THE KVL EQUATIONS
1. Define variables for coupled inductors
1
I
2
I
+
a
V +
b
V
2. Loop equations in terms of inductor voltages
0 ) (
1 1 1 2 1 2
= + + + I R V I I R V
a
0 ) (
1 2 2 1 2 3
= + + I I R V I R V
b
3. Equations for coupled inductors
) (
2 1 1
I M j I L j V
a
+ =
) (
2 2 1
I L j MI j V
b
+ =
4. Replace into loop equations and rearrange
( ) ( )
1 2 2 1 1 2 1
V I M j R I L j R R = + + +
( ) ( )
1 2 2 3 2 1 2
V I L j R R I M j R = + + + +
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXAMPLE
) ( 1 3 O + = j Z
S
) ( 1 1 O = j Z
L
) ( 2
1
O = j L j ) ( 2
2
O = j L j
) ( 1O = j M j
DETERMINE IMPEDANCE SEEN BY THE SOURCE
1
I
V
Z
S
i
=
1
I
2
I

+
1
V

+
2
V
S S
V V I Z = +
1 1
1. Variables for coupled inductors
2. Loop equations in terms of coupled
inductors voltages
0
2 2
= + I Z V
L
3. Equations for coupled inductors
) (
2 1 1 1
I M j I L j V + =
) (
2 2 1 2
I L j MI j V + =
4. Replace and do the algebra
( )
0 ) ( ) (
) (
2 2 1
2 1 1
= + +
= +
I L j Z I M j
V I M j I L j Z
L
S S


M j
L j Z
L

/
) /(
2

+
( )
S L
L S
V L j Z
I M j L j Z L j Z
) (
) ( ) )( (
2
1
2
2 1

+ =
+ +
2
2
1
1
) (
) (
L j Z
M j
L j Z
I
V
Z
L
S
S
i

+
+ = =
1 1
) 1 (
3 3
2
j
j
j Z
i
+
+ =
j
j
+
+ + =
1
1
3 3
j
j

1
1
) ( 5 . 2 5 . 3
2
1
3 3 O + =

+ + = j
j
j Z
i
) ( 54 . 35 30 . 4 O Z =
i
Z
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXTENSION
DETERMINE IMPEDANCE SEEN BY THE SOURCE
) ( 1 2 O = j Z
S
) 1 || 2 ( 2 j j Z
L
+ =
) ( 2 2
2
2 O + =

+ = j
j
Z
L
4. Replace and do the algebra
2
2
1
1
) (
) (
L j Z
M j
L j Z
I
V
Z
L
S
S
i

+
+ = =
| |
j j
j
j j Z
i
2 ) 2 2 (
) 1 (
2 ) 1 2 (
2
+ +
+ =
) 2 1 ( 2
1
) 2 (
j
j
+
+ + =
) 2 1 (
) 2 1 (
j
j

) ( 8 . 0 1 . 2
) 2 1 ( 2
2 1
2
2
O + =
+

+ + = j
j
j Z
i
) ( 85 . 20 25 . 2 O Z =
i
Z
0
2 2
1 1
= +
= +
I Z V
V I Z V
L
S S
2 2 1 2
2 1 1 1
I L j MI j V
MI j I L j V


+ =
+ =
1
I

+
1
V
+

2
V
2
I
1. Variables for coupled inductors
One can choose directions
for currents.
If I2 is reversed one gets the
same equations than in
previous example.
Solution for I1 must be the
same and expression for
impedance must be the same
2. Loop equations
3. Equations for coupled inductors
S
V
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
ENERGY ANALYSIS We determine the total energy stored in a coupled network
This development is different from the one in the book. But the final
result is obviously the same
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
1
2
2 1
1 1
t
dt
di
L t
dt
di
M t v
t
dt
di
M t
dt
di
L t v
+ =
=
INDUCTORS COUPLED FOR EQUATIONS
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t i t v t i t v t p
T
+ =
NETWORK TO SUPPLIED POWER TOTAL
) ( /
) ( /
2
1
t i
t i

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2 2 2
1
2
1
1
1 1
t
dt
di
t i L t i t
dt
di
M
t
dt
di
t Mi t
dt
di
t i L t p
T
+
=
) (
2 1
t
dt
i di
M
) (
2
1
2
2
t
dt
di
) (
2
1
2
1
t
dt
di
|
.
|

\
|
+ = ) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
2 2 2 1
2
1 1
t i L t i t Mi t i L
dt
d
t p
T
}

t
) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
2 2 2 1
2
1 1
t i L t i t Mi t i L t w + =
2
1
2
2 2
2
1
2
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
= t i
L
M
t i L t i
L
M
L t w
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
t i
L
M
t i
L
M
+
0 ) (
2
2
1
> >
L
M
L t w
2 1
L L M s
2 1
L L
M
k =
Coefficient of
coupling
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
Coefficient of coupling
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Compute the energy stored in the mutually coupled inductors
1 = k
mH L mH L 61 . 10 , 653 . 2
2 1
= =
ms t 5 =
) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
2 2 2 1
2
1 1
t i L t i t Mi t i L t w + + =
Assume steady state operation
We can use frequency domain techniques

2 1 2 1
, , L L k M k L L =
) ( ), ( ,
2 1
t i t i M COMPUTE MUST
mH M 31 . 5 =
O = =

1 10 653 . 2 377
3
1
L
O = O = 2 , 4
2
M L
Circuit in frequency domain

+ +
1
I
2
I
Merge the writing of the loop and coupled
inductor equations in one step
0 ) 4 2 ( 4
0 24 ) 2 1 ( 2
2 1 2
2 1 1
=
Z = +
I j I j I
I j I j I
) ( 69 . 33 33 . 3 ), ( 31 . 11 41 . 9
2 1
A I A I Z = Z =
GET TO SOLVE
) )( 69 . 33 377 cos( 33 . 3 ) (
) )( 31 . 11 377 cos( 41 . 9 ) (
2
1
A t t i
A t t i
+ =
=
radians! in is term The : WARNING t 377
= = = 108 ) ( 885 . 1 377 005 . 0 rad t s t
) ( 61 . 2 ) 005 . 0 ( ), ( 10 . 1 ) 005 . 0 (
2 1
A i A i = =
) ( ) 61 . 2 ( 10 61 . 101 5 . 0
) 61 . 2 ( ) 10 . 1 ( 10 31 . 5
) 10 . 1 ( 10 653 . 2 5 . 0 ) 005 . 0 (
2 3
3
2 3
J
w
+
+
=

mJ w 5 . 22 ) 005 . 0 ( =
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXTENSION
ms t 10 = AT STORED ENERGY DETERMINE
Hz f 60 =
+
+
) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
2 2 2 1
2
1 1
t i L t i t Mi t i L t w + =
Z = + + 30 12 ) 1 2 ( 2
2 1 1
I j I j I
0 ) 2 2 ( ) 2 1 (
2 2 1
= + + I j I j I j
0 2
30 12 ) 2 2 (
2 1
2 1
= +
Z = + +
I jI
jI I j
Z = + + 30 12 ) 5 . 0 2 2 (
1
I j
1 2
5 . 0 jI I =
Z
Z
=
+
Z
=
66 . 38 20 . 3
30 12
2 5 . 2
30 12
1
j
I ) ( 66 . 8 75 . 3 A Z =
Z =
Z Z = =
66 . 98 875 . 1
66 . 8 75 . 3 90 5 . 0 5 . 0
1 2
jI I
) ( 9 . 378 60
1
= = s Hz f
) )( 66 . 98 9 . 378 cos( 875 . 1 ) (
) )( 66 . 8 9 . 378 cos( 75 . 3 ) (
2
1
A t t i
A t t i
=
=
= = 1 . 217 ) ( 789 . 3 (sec) 010 . 0 sec) / ( 9 . 378 rad rad
) ( 91 . 0 ) 010 . 0 (
) ( 3 . 3 ) 010 . 0 (
2
1
A i
A i
=
=
) ( ) 91 . 0 ( * 00528 . 0 * 5 . 0
) 91 . 0 )( 3 . 3 ( * 00264 . 0
) 3 . 3 ( * 00528 . 0 * 5 . 0 ) 010 . 0 (
2
2
J
w
+

=
2 1 1
) ( 00528 . 0 2 L H L L = = =
) ( 00264 . 0 H M =
Go back to time domain
) 91 . 0 ) 91 . 0 )( 3 . 3 ( 3 . 3 ( * 00264 . 0 ) 010 . 0 (
2 2
+ = w
mJ J w 30 030 . 0 ) 010 . 0 ( = =
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
THE TRANSFORMER
Here we introduce the transformer transformeras a new circuit element. A transformer is a
magnetic device that takes advantage of the phenomenon of mutual inductance.
The coil that is directly connected to the voltage source is called the primary
winding. The coil connected to the load is called the secondary winding.
The resistances R1 and R2 are included to account for the losses (power
dissipation) in the coils.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
The transformer is said to be linear if the coils are wound on a magnetically linear
materiala material for which the magnetic permeability is constant. Such
materials include air, plastic, Bakelite, and wood. Linear transformers are
sometimes called air-core transformers, although not all of them are necessarily
air-core. They are used in radio and TV sets.
THE LINEAR TRANSFORMER
Permeability: Permeability:it is the degree ofmagnetizationthat a
material obtains in response to an appliedmagnetic
field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented
by the Greek letter.
B: flux density B: flux density
H: magnetic field intensity; H: magnetic field intensity;
Simplified comparison
of permeabilities
for:ferromagnets(
f
),
paramagnets(
p
), free
space(
0
)
anddiamagnets(
d
)
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
Applying KVL to the two meshes
The input impedance is
Notice that the input impedance comprises two terms. The first term, (R1 + jL1), is
the primary impedance. The second term is due to the coupling between the primary
and secondary windings. It is as though this impedance is reflected to the primary.
Thus, it is known as the reflected impedance ZR, and
It should be noted that Zinand ZRare not affected by the location of the dots on the
transformer, because the same result is produced when M is replaced by M.
THE LINEAR TRANSFORMER
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
An ideal transformer is one with perfect coupling (k =1). It consists of two (or
more) coils with a large number of turns wound on a common core of high
permeability. Because of this high permeability of the core, the flux links all the
turns of both coils, thereby resulting in a perfect coupling.
Insures that no magnetic flux
goes astray
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to
the primary winding, the same magnetic
flux goes through both windings.
According to Faradays law, the voltage
across the two windings are
n
N
N
v
v
t
dt
d
N t v
t
dt
d
N t v
= =

=
=
2
1
2
1
2 2
1 1
) ( ) (
) ( ) (

First ideal
transformer
equation
We can use the phasorvoltages V1 and V2
rather than the instantaneous values v1 and v2.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
1
2
2
1
N
N
i
i
=
Second ideal transformer
equation
Circuit Representations
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
;
N
N
i
i
N
N
v
v
= =
Since the equations are algebraic, they
are unchanged for Phasors. Just be careful
with signs
For the reason of power conservation, the energy supplied to the primary must
equal the energy absorbed by the secondary, since there are no losses in an ideal
transformer. This implies that
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t i t v t i t v =
When n =1, we generally call the transformer an isolation transformer.
If n >1, we have a step-up transformer, as the voltage is increased from primary to
secondary (V2 >V1). On the other hand, if n <1, the transformer is a step-down
transformer, since the voltage is decreased from primary to secondary (V2 <V1).
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
A step-down transformer is one whose secondary voltage is less
than its primary voltage.
A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage is greater
than its primary voltage.
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The ratings of transformers are usually specified as V1/V2. A transformer with
rating 2400/120 V should have 2400 V on the primary and 120 V in the secondary
(i.e., a step-down transformer). Keep in mind that the voltage ratings are in rms.
1. If V1 and V2 are both positive or both negative at the dotted terminals, use
+n , otherwise, use n.
2. If I1 and I2 both enter into or both leave the dotted terminals, use n.
Otherwise, use +n.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
REFLECTING IMPEDANCES
dots) at signs (both+ =
2
1
2
1
N
N
V
V
r) transforme leaving I (Current
2
1
2
2
1
N
N
I
I
=
Law) s (Ohm'
2 2
I Z V
L
=
2
1
1
1
2
1
N
N
I Z
N
N
V
L
=
1
2
2
1
1
I Z
N
N
V
L
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
Z
N
N
Z
I
V
2
2
1
1
1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
side primary the into
reflected , impedance,
L
Z Z =
1
The complex power in the primary winding is
2
*
2 2
*
1
2
2
2
1
2
*
1 1 1
S I V
N
N
I
N
N
V I V S = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
ratio turns = =
1
2
N
N
n
2 1
2
1
2 1
2
1
S S
n
Z
Z
nI I
n
V
V
L
=
=
=
=
Phasorequations for ideal transformer
showing that the complex power
supplied to the primary is delivered to
the secondary without loss. The
transformer absorbs no power. Of course,
we should expect this, since the ideal
transformer is lossless.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Determine all indicated voltages and currents
25 . 0 4 / 1 = = n
Strategy: reflect impedance into the
primary side and make transformer
transparent to user.
2
1
n
Z
Z
L
=
L
Z
16 32
1
j Z + =
Z =
Z
Z
=
+
Z
= 5 . 13 33 . 2
5 . 13 42 . 51
0 120
12 50
0 120
1
j
I
Z
+
= = 0 120
2 1
1
1 1 1
Z Z
Z
I Z V
120
5 . 13 42 . 51
16 32
0 120
5 . 13 33 . 2 ) 16 32 (
2 1
1
1 1

Z
+
= Z
+
Z + =
j
Z Z
Z
j I Z
SAME
COMPLEXITY
Z = Z Z = 07 . 13 36 . 83 5 . 13 33 . 2 57 . 26 78 . 35
1
V
dot) into (current
1
1
2
4I
n
I
I = =
dot) to opposite is (+ = =
1 1 2
25 . 0 V nV V
CAREFUL WITH POLARITIES AND
CURRENT DIRECTIONS!
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
LEARNING EXTENSION
1
I current the Find
2 = n
Strategy: reflect impedance into the
primary side and make transformer
transparent to user.
2
1
n
Z
Z
L
=
1
Z
O =

= 5 . 0 1
4
2 4
1
j
j
Z
O = 5 . 2 3 j Z
i
=

Z
=
5 . 2 3
0 12
1
j
I ) ( 81 . 39 07 . 3
81 . 39 91 . 3
0 12
A Z =
Z
Z
Voltage in Volts
Impedance in Ohms
...Current in Amps
LEARNING EXTENSION o
V Find
Strategy: Find current in secondary and then use Ohms Law
n
I
I
1
2
=
) ( 81 . 39 07 . 3
2
2
2
1
0
1
2
V
I
V
I
I Z = O = =
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
USING THEVENINS THEOREM TO SIMPLIFY CIRCUITS WITH IDEAL TRANSFORMERS
Replace this circuit with its Thevenin
equivalent
0
0
1
2 1
2
=
)
`

=
=
I
nI I
I
1 1 S
V V =
1
1 2
1 1
S OC
S
nV V
nV V
V V
=
)
`

=
=
To determine the Theveninimpedance...
TH
Z
Reflect impedance into
secondary
1
2
Z n Z
TH
=
Equivalent circuit with transformer
made transparent.
One can also determine the Thevenin
equivalent at 1 -1
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
USING THEVENINS THEOREM: REFLECTING INTO THE PRIMARY
Find the Theveninequivalent of
this part
0 0
2 1
= = I I and circuit open In
n
V
V
S
OC
2
=
Theveninimpedance will be the
secondary impedance reflected into
the primary circuit
2
2
n
Z
Z
TH
=
Equivalent circuit reflecting
into primary
Equivalent circuit reflecting
into secondary
LEARNING EXAMPLE
o
V Find
secondary into reflect to better is compute To
o
V
But before doing that it is better to simplify the primary using TheveninsTheorem
Theveninequivalent of this part

+
d
V
Z = 90 4
d OC
V V
Z

= 0 24
4 4
4
j
j
V
d
) 4 || 4 ( 2 j Z
TH
+ =
) ( 69 . 33 47 . 14 V V
OC
Z =
) ( 2 4 O = j Z
TH
4 4
16 8 8
4 4
16
2
j
j j
j
j
Z
TH

+ =
2
4 8
1
1
1
6 2 j
j
j
j
j
Z
TH

=
+
+

=
j
Z
=
1
90 24
This equivalent circuit is now transferred to
the secondary
LEARNING EXAMPLE (continued)
Theveninequivalent of primary side
2 = n
Circuit with primary transferred to secondary
Z

= 69 . 33 84 . 28
5 20
2
j
V
o
Z
Z
=
04 . 14 62 . 20
69 . 33 84 . 28 2
Transfer to
secondary
LEARNING EXTENSION
1
I Find
Equivalent circuit reflecting
into primary
2 = n
O 5 . 0
) ( 2 2 O j
Z0 36
1
I
5 . 1 2
0 6 0 36
1
j
I

Z + Z
=
Z
Z
=
86 . 36 5 . 2
0 36
1
I
2
0 12 Z
= Notice the position of the
dot marks