RetainingWall Lecture

Project Report
On
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL OF
GANGES VALLEY SCHOOL
A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
CIVIL ENGINEERING
By
D.LOHITH REDDY (09241A0174)
Y.NAGA HARISH (09241A0177)
K.N.S PAVAN KUMAR VARMA (09241A0186)
T.SANDEEP KUMAR REDDY (09241A01A0)
T.MAHESH (09241A01B5)
Under the esteemed guidance of
S.P RAJU.V
Assistant Professor Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(AFFILIATED TO JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY)
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
(AFFILIATED TO JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
A RETAINING WALL OF GANGES VALLEY SCHOOL being submitted by

Name Reg. No. Email id
D.Lohith Reddy 09241A0174 lohithreddy.174@gmail.com
Y.Naga Harish 09241A0177 harish.naga07@gmail.com
K.N.S Pavan Kumar Varma 09241A0186 varmakalidindi99@gmail.com
T.Sandeep Reddy 09241A01A0 reddy.sandeep11@gmail.com
T.Mahesh 09241A01B5 munnamachoman@gmail.com

in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology to the
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University. This record is a bonafide work carried out
by him under my guidance and supervision.
The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other
University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma

INTERNAL GUIDE HOD EXTERNAL EXAMINER
Mr. S.P RAJU.V Dr. G.VENKATA RAMANA

DECLARATION:
We hereby declare that the work presented in this project titled Analysis and
Design of a Retaining Wall of Ganges Valley School submitted towards completion of
project in IV year of B.Tech (CIVIL ENGINEERING) at the Gokaraju Rangaraju
Institute of Engineering and Technology affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University, under the guidance of S.P RAJU (Asst. Professor) is authenticate work and
had not been submitted to any University or Institute for any award.


ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are fortunate enough to have an opportunity to present a project report for the
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF A RETAINING WALL OF GANGES VALLEY
SCHOOL. This project is very good example of team work and is an outcome of
rigorous and painstaking effort of all the group members, without which one cannot
imagine to materialize the dream of perpetuating such a tremendous task which not only
adds valuable information to our knowledge but also increases our experience in field of
building construction.
We would like to express my gratitude to all the people behind the screens who
helped me in this project work.
We profoundly thank Dr. G. VENKATA RAMANA, professor, Head of the
Department of Civil Engineering who has been an excellent guide and also a great source
of inspiration, which has been very much valuable to us.
We would like to take this opportunity to thank our internal guide and our mentor
Mr. S.P RAJU.V Assistant Professor for all that he had done in making our work grand
success. His unstinting help was great asset to our project and without it we would not
have accomplished what we have done now.
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of the
task would be great but incomplete without the mention of the people who made it
possible with their constant guidance and encouragement crowns all the efforts with
success. In this context, we would like to thank all the other staff members, both teaching
and non-teaching, who have extended their timely help and eased our task.
ABSTRACT
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF A RETAINING WALL OF GANGES
VALLEY SCHOOL
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral
pressure of soil when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle
of repose of the soil. The most important consideration in proper design and installation
of retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to
move down slope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which
depends on the angle of internal friction () and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained
material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure
undergoes.
In present project, analysis will be carried out on different types of pressures
acting on retaining wall due to the back fill viz. Earth pressure at rest, Active earth
pressure ( when the wall moves away from the backfill ), Passive earth pressure ( when
the wall is pushed towards the backfill ).
The retaining wall is designed by using the limit-state approach. A number of
limiting condition modes are analyzed and in each case, a minimum acceptable factor of
safety against their occurrence is specified as the criterion for design. The retaining wall
must satisfy the following basic conditions:
a. The maximum base pressure must not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
b. The base pressure must remain compressive over the entire base width (since
masonry used in the retaining wall construction cannot resist appreciable tension).
c. The factor of safety against sliding between the base of the wall and the soil
below must not be less than 1.5.
d. There should be adequate safety against overturning of the wall by rotation about
its toe.

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CONTENTS
S.No. Topic Page
1. CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aim 1
1.2 Importance 1
1.3 Considerations 2
2. CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Retaining Walls 4
2.2 Types of Retaining Walls 5
2.3 Forces Acting on Retaining Wall 6
2.4 Lateral Earth Pressure 7
2.5 Failure of Retaining Wall 9
2.6 Shear key and its Importance 11
3. CHAPTER-3 RETAINING WALLS
3.1 Retaining Walls 13
3.2 Different Types of Retaining Walls 13
4. CHAPTER-4 EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES
4.1 Earth Pressure 21
4.2 Three conditions of Earth Pressure 21
4.3 Derivation of Lateral Earth Pressure 24
5. CHAPTER-5 LABORATORY TESTS ON BACK FILL
5.1 Standard Compaction Test 34
5.2 Direct Shear Test 38
iii
5.3 Field Density Test by Sand Replacement method 42

6. CHAPTER-6 EARTH PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
6.1 Active Earth Pressure 46
6.2 Passive Earth Pressure 46
7. CHAPTER-7 STABILITY AND DESIGN OF A RETAING WALL
7.1 Stability of Cantilever Retaining Wall 47
7.2 Design Principle of Retaining Wall 51
7.3 Depth of Retaining Wall 56
8. CHAPTER-8 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL
8.1 Design-1 57
8.2 Design-2 70
8.3 Design-3 83
9. CHAPTER-9 CONCLUSIONS 96
10. CHAPTER-10 REFERENCES 97
11. List of figures

Fig 1.1 Backfill and Retaining Wall at site 2
Fig 2.1 Common Terminology 4
Fig 2.2 Forces Acting on Retaining Structure 7
Fig 2.3 Earth Pressure at Rest 8
Fig 2.4 Active Earth Pressure 8
Fig 2.5 Passive Pressure 9
Fig 2.6 Failure Due to overturning 9
Fig 2.7 Failure Due to Sliding 10
Fig 2.8 Failure due to Base Pressure 10
iv
Fig 2.9 Deep seated Failure 11

Fig 3.1 Gravity Wall 14
Fig 3.2 Semi Gravity Wall 14
Fig 3.3 Cantilever Wall 15
Fig 3.4 Counterfeit Retaining Wall 16
Fig 3.5 Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall 17
Fig 3.6 Anchored Sheet Pile Wall 18
Fig 3.7 Construction Stages of Diaphragm wall 19
Fig 3.8 Gabion Wall 20
Fig 3.9 Crib Wall 20
Fig 4.1 Earth Pressure at Rest 22
Fig 4.2 Active Earth Pressure 23
Fig 4.3 Passive Earth Pressure 23
Fig 4.4 At rest Pressure 24
Fig 4.5 Forces Acting 24
Fig 4.6 ko values for different soils 25
Fig 4.7 Surcharge Forces 25
Fig 4.8 Effect of Water Table 26
Fig 4.9 Rankines Active Earth Pressure 27
Fig 4.10 Active Earth Pressure State and Soil Wedge 28
Fig 4.11 Active State 29
Fig 4.12 Passive State 31
Fig 4.13 Coulombs Passive pressure and Pressure wedge 33
Fig 5.1 Standard Compaction Test Apparatus 34
Fig 5.2 Base Plate and Hammer 35
Fig 5.3 Trimming Extra soil 36
Fig 5.4 Weight of Compacted mould 36
Fig 5.5 Direct Shear Test Apparatus 39

Fig 5.6 Failure of Soil Sample 40
Fig 5.7 Sand Pouring Cylinder 42
Fig 5.8 Calibrating Container 43
Fig 7.1 Cantilever Retaining Wall subjected to forces 47
Fig 7.2 Sliding of Retaining Wall 49
Fig 7.3 Bending Failure 50
Fig 7.4 Pressure acting on Retaining Wall 52
Fig 7.5 Common Values of b for various Conditions 53
Fig 7.6 Design of Stem 54
Fig 7.7 Design Considerations of Toe and Heel Slab 55
Fig 7.8 Determination of Depth of Foundation 56
Fig 8.1 Retaining Wall 57
Fig 8.2 Forces Acting on Slab 62
Fig 8.3 Structural Detailing of Retaining Wall 69
Fig 8.6 Structural Detailing of Retaining Wall 82
Fig 8.9 Retaining Wall with Dimensions 96
12. List of Tables
Table 4.1 Wall movement for Passive Condition 32
Table 5.1 Shear Stress Values 41
Table 5.2 Calculation table for density of Soil 45
Table 7.1 Values of 50
Table 8.1 Distribution of forces 60
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TERMINOLOGY:
1. A
st
= area of steel
2. b = width
3. c = cohesive strength
4. d = effective depth
5. F = sliding friction
6.
ck
= characteristic compressive strength of concrete
7.
= characteristic strength of steel

8. K
u
= coefficient of active pressure
9. K
p
= coefficient of passive pressure
10. K
= coefficient of earth pressure at rest

11. I
d
= development length
12. H
u
= ultimate bending moment
13. P
u
= earth pressure in active state
14. P
w
= water pressure
15. P
p
= earth pressure in passive state
16. P
]
= foundation pressure
17. q = surcharge load
18. q
= safe bearing capacity

19.
u
= allowable load
20.
u
= ultimate load
21. R
u
= ultimate resistance factor in limit state design
22. W = weight
23. w
w
= weight of wet soil
24. = angle of internal friction
25.
0
= shear stress
26. = bulk unit weight
27. o
h
= horizontal stress
28. o
0
= vertical stress

vii
viii
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIM
Our aim in this project is to analyse the existing retaining wall located near the
premises of Ganges Valley School and to design an economical retaining wall for the
backfill portion which is used as a playground for the school.
1.2 IMPORTANCE
As the supply of level building sites diminishes, the need to create level building
platforms for house construction on sloping sites will increase. Also, on many developed
sites there is often a need to level the front and/or back yards to fully utilize the space for
carports, gardens, and playground and entertainment areas.
Cut-and-fill is a common method of achieving level areas but if a batter is used
between the level areas so created, a maximum usable area of level ground will not be
achieved. Furthermore, on some sites suitable fill may have to be imported and on others
spoil disposed of, both of which will add to the cost. The alternative is to use retaining
walls. Apart from retaining the soil, retaining walls can also help protect against erosion
on susceptible sites.
The requirements of a functional retaining wall include:
Structural stability,
Durability against the exposed environment
Provision of drainage.
Appearance will also usually be important .Concrete retaining walls provide a
durable solution that is required of a structure in contact with soil and exposed to constant
wetting and drying. Concrete does not rot and is resistant to termites. The wide range of
available options ensures that a suitable solution can be found for any situation.
The retaining wall of Ganges Valley School plays a vital role as it supports the
backfill which is used as a playground of the School.

1.3 CONSIDERATIONS
The first step in any retaining-wall project is to check with the local authority to
see if planning approval is required. This varies between authorities and is usually related
to wall height and drainage provisions. Authorities may require drawings showing a site
plan and structural details accompanied by a consultants design certification.
Drainage is an important aspect of any retaining-wall project. Water must not be
allowed to build up behind the wall. Retaining walls are designed to resist earth pressures
exerted by only the weight of soil retained. These are much less than the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by water trapped behind the wall.
The following parameters influence the design of the retaining wall:
Wall height
Soil type
Sloping land below and/or above the retaining wall
Loads above and behind the retaining wall

Figure 1.1 Back fill and Retaining wall at the site

Our retaining wall was designed to serve the purpose of supporting leveled
ground of Ganges valley school playground. The site mostly consisted of gravelly sand
with 5-10% silt. This served as a backfill material to the retaining wall. In addition to
this, the backfill was filled with crushed boulders covered with sand serving the leveling
purposes.
We had to collect soil samples from the site so as to analyse the backfill material
to know the soil properties by conducting different laboratory experiments.
Various tests to analyse the backfill included:
Standard compaction test (To find the dry density and optimum moisture
content)
Direct shear Test (To evaluate c- parameters)
Sand replacement Test (To get the bulk density of soil)
With these laboratory results, we analysed the wall (by considering the Rankines
Earth Pressure theory) for different failure conditions like:
Failure by Sliding
Failure by Overturning
Failure of soil due to excessive pressure at toe or tension in the heel
Bending failure of stem or base
After the analysis, the design of more economic section of retaining wall should
be done. For this design we have adopted the LIMIT STATE METHOD, considering all
possible economic iterations in the material of the wall. We have used M20 concrete and
steel of Fe 415 grade according to Indian standard code IS: 456. We have designed 3
sections with different dimensions in every part of the wall and analysed its stability
towards a safer end. The most economic design of the three is considered as final design.
For the detailing and drawings of the sections of retaining wall we have adopted a
software from AUTODESK known as AutoCAD STRUCTURAL DETAILING 2013.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Retaining Walls
Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to unnatural slopes. They
are used to bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain
possessing undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped
severely and engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway
overpasses.
It is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil when
there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.
A cantilever retaining Wall is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its
top. These are cantilevered from a footing and rise above the grade on one side to retain
a higher level grade on the opposite side.

Figure 2.1 Common Terminology
Every retaining wall supports a wedge of soil. The wedge is defined as the soil
which extends beyond the failure plane of the soil type present at the wall site, and can be
calculated once the soil friction angle is known. As the setback of the wall increases, the
size of the sliding wedge is reduced. This reduction lowers the pressure on the retaining
wall.
The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining
walls is to recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to move down
slope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on
the angle of internal friction (phi-) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained material,
as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure undergoes.
Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall and - in homogenous ground
- increase proportionally to a maximum value at the lowest depth. Earth pressures will
push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also,
any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system
causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to
act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of uniform height.
Unless the wall is designed to retain water, it is important to have proper drainage
behind the wall in order to limit the pressure to the wall's design value. Drainage
materials will reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and improve the stability of the
material behind the wall. Dry stone retaining walls are normally self-draining.
Retaining walls are to be designed to ensure stability against overturning, sliding,
excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that they be designed for a minimum
safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning.
2.2 Types of retaining walls
i. Gravity Retaining Wall
ii. Semi Gravity Retaining Wall
Cantilever Type
Counterfort Type
iii. Flexible Retaining wall

Sheet Pile
a. Cantilever Sheet Pile
b. Anchored Sheet Pile
Diaphragm Wall
iv. Special Type
Gabion Type
Crib Walls
2.3 Forces acting on retaining wall
Different forces acting on retaining wall are categorised into
1. Resisting Forces include
i. Water Pressure (Pw)
ii. Earth Pressure in Passive State(Pp)
iii. Sliding Friction (F)
iv. Foundation Pressure (Pf)
2. Driving Forces include
i. Water Pressure (Pw)
ii. Earth Pressure in Active State(Pa)
iii. Weight (W)
iv. Surcharge Load (q)
Figure 2.2 Forces Acting on Retaining Structures

Earth pressure shall be considered a function of the:
type and unit weight of earth,
water content,
soil creep characteristics,
degree of compaction,
location of groundwater table,
seepage,
earth-structure interaction,
amount of surcharge, and Earth quake pressure
2.4 Lateral Earth pressure
i. At rest Pressure
ii. Active Earth Pressure
iii. Passive Earth Pressure
2.4.1 At rest Pressure

When the wall is rigid and unyielding, the soil mass is in a state of rest and
there are no deformations and displacements. The earth pressure corresponding to
this state is called at rest earth pressure.
Figure 2.3 Earth Pressure at Rest

2.4.2 Active Earth Pressure (p
a
)
The active state occurs when a soil mass is allowed to relax or move
outward to the point of reaching the limiting strength (failure) of the soil. It is the
minimum lateral soil pressure that may be exerted.
Pa= z
1-sIn q
1+sIn q

Figure 2.4 Active Pressure
2.4.3 Passive Earth Pressure (p

p
)
The passive state occurs when a soil mass is externally forced to the
limiting strength (failure) of the soil in compression. It is the maximum lateral soil
pressure that may be exerted.
Passive Earth Pressure Pp is given by Pp = z
1+sIn q
1-sIn q

Figure 2.5 Passive Pressure

2.5 Failure of Retaining walls
2.5.1 Over Turning Failure
Figure2.6 Failure due to overturning.

Factor of Safety Fs =
ZM
ZMd
2 where
Mr = Resisiting moments&
Md = Disturbing moments.
10
2.5.2 Failure due to Sliding
Figure2.7 Failure due to sliding

Factor of safety =
w
P
1.5
where
W = Available frictional resistance
= coefficient of friction
P = Horizontal Pressure
2.5.3 Base Pressures
Figure 2.8 Failure due to base pressures

Extreme resultant stresses are qmax,min =
v
b1
[1 _
6c
B

Qmax>qall(allowable bearing capacity of soil foundation)
Qmin > 0
11
2.5.4 Deep Seated Shear Failure
Figure 2.9 Deep Seated Failure

2.6 Shear Key and its importance in Retaining walls
Since the cantilevered retaining wall is by far the most common type of retaining
wall used, it is important to achieve as much efficiency in its design as possible. In
general, the width (B) of the footing should range from 0.40 to 0.60 times the height (H)
of the wall above the top of the footing. Retaining walls must provide adequate resistance
against sliding. The resisting forces against sliding are mainly due to friction of wall base
and the foundation material and partly due to the passive earth pressure of the soil which
may develop in front of the retaining wall as the wall tends to slide towards it.
If the wall is found to be unsafe against sliding, shear key below the base is
provided. Such a key develops passive pressure which resists completely the sliding
tendency of the wall. Safety factor defined as the ration of resisting forces or moments to
the forces or moments which tend to in stabilize the wall. To ensure proper functioning of
the wall during its lifetime, adequate safety factors should be adopted. The safety factor
against sliding should be at least 1.5 for cohesion less and about 2.0 for cohesive backfill.
Where sufficient sliding stability is not possibleusually for the walls with large Height-
a base key, has been used. There are different opinions on the best location for a key and
on its value. It was common practice to put the key beneath the stem. This approach was
12
convenient from the view of simply extending the stem reinforcement through the base
and into the key.
Laboratory Tests Conducted to evaluate the Properties of Back fill
Standard Compaction test to evaluate the Moisture content and Dry Density
(d) of Backfill.
Direct Shear Test to evaluate the c, values of the backfill.
Sand Replacement Test to evaluate the Bulk Density (t) of the backfill.
From these parameters evaluated from the tests conducted on the backfill Different
forces acting on retaining wall are calculated and Stability of retaining wall is analysed.
The same parameters are further used in Design of the Retaining wall.

13
CHAPTER 3
RETAINING WALLS
3.1 Retaining Walls
Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth or water or other materials such
as coal, ore, etc.; where conditions do not permit the mass to assume its natural slope.
The retaining material is usually termed as backfill. The main function of retaining walls
is to stabilize hillsides and control erosion. When roadway construction is necessary over
rugged terrain with steep slopes, retaining walls can help to reduce the grades of roads
and the land alongside the road. Some road projects lack available land beside the travel
way, requiring construction right along the toe of a slope. In these cases extensive
grading may not be possible and retaining walls become necessary to allow for safe
construction and acceptable slope conditions for adjacent land uses. Where soils are
unstable, slopes are quite steep, or heavy runoff is present, retaining walls help to stem
erosion. Excessive runoff can undermine roadways and structures, and controlling
sediment runoff is a major environmental and water quality consideration in road and
bridge projects. In these situations, building retaining walls, rather than grading
excessively, reduces vegetation removal and reduces erosion caused by runoff. In turn,
the vegetation serves to stabilize the soil and filter out sediments and pollutants before
they enter the water source, thus improving water quality.
3.2 Different Types of Retaining Walls
On the basis of attaining stability, the retaining structures are classified into
following:
3.2.1 Gravity Walls
Gravity walls are stabilized by their mass. They are constructed of dense, heavy
materials such as concrete and stone masonry and are usually reinforced. Some gravity
walls do use mortar, relying solely on their weight to stay in place, as in the case of dry
stone walls. They are economical for only small heights.
14
Figure 3.1 Gravity Wall

3.2.2 Semi Gravity Retaining Wall
These walls generally are trapezoidal in section. This type of wall is
constructed in concrete and derives its stability from its weight. A small amount of
reinforcement is provided for reducing the mass of the concrete.
Figure 3.2 Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

This can be classified into two:
Cantilever Retaining Wall
Counterfeit Retaining Wall
a. Cantilever retaining wall
This is a reinforced concrete wall which utilises cantilever action to retain
the backfill. This type is suitable for retaining backfill to moderate heights
(4m-7m). In cross section most cantilevered walls look like Ls or inverted
Ts. To ensure stability, they are built on solid foundations with the base tied
15
to the vertical portion of the wall with reinforcement rods. The base is then
backfilled to counteract forward pressure on the vertical portion of the wall.
The cantilevered base is reinforced and is designed to prevent uplifting at the
heel of the base, making the wall strong and stable.
Figure 3.3 Cantilever Wall

Local building codes, frost penetration levels and soil qualities determine
the foundation and structural requirements of taller cantilevered walls.
Reinforced concrete cantilevered walls sometimes have a batter. They can be
faced with stone, brick, or simulated veneers. Their front faces can also be
surfaced with a variety of textures. Reinforced Concrete Cantilevered Walls
are built using forms. When the use of forms is not desired, Reinforced
Concrete Block Cantilevered Walls are another option. Where foundation
soils are poor, Earth Tieback Retaining Walls are another choice. These walls
are counterbalanced not only by a large base but also by a series of horizontal
bars or strips extending out perpendicularly from the vertical surface into the
slope. The bars or strips, sometimes called dead-men are made of wood,
metal, or synthetic materials such as geotextiles. Once an earth tieback
retaining wall is backfilled, the weight and friction of the fill against the
horizontal members anchors the structure.

16
b. Counterfort retaining wall

When the height of the cantilever retaining wall is more than about
7m, it is economical to provide vertical bracing system known as counter
forts. In this case, both base slab and face of wall span horizontally between
the counter forts.
Figure 3.4 Counterfort Retaining Wall

3.2.3 Flexible walls: There are two classes of flexible walls.
a. Sheet pile walls
Sheet piles are generally made of steel or timber. The use of timber piles is
generally limited to temporary structures in which the depth of driving does
not exceed 3m for permanent structures and for depth of driving greater than
3m, steel piles are most suitable. Moreover, steel piles are relatively water
tight and can be extracted if required and reused. However, the cost of sheet
steel piles is generally more than that of timber piles. Reinforced cement
concrete piles are generally used when these are to be jetted into fine sand or
driven in very soft soils, such as peat. For tougher soils, the concrete piles
generally break off. Based on its structural form and loading system, sheet pile
walls can be classified into 2 types:
i. Cantilever Sheet Pile walls
ii. Anchored Sheet Pile walls
17

i. Cantilever sheet pile walls
Figure 3.5 Cantilever sheet pile wall

Cantilever Sheet piles walls are further divided into two types
Free cantilever sheet pile
It is a sheet pile subjected to a concentrated horizontal load at its top.
There is no back fill above the dredge level. The free cantilever sheet pile derives
its stability entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil below the dredge
level into which it is driven.
Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall with Backfill
A cantilever sheet pile retains backfill at a higher level on one side. The
stability is entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil into which the
sheet pile is driven, like that of a free cantilever sheet pile.
ii. Anchored sheet pile walls
Anchored sheet pile walls are held above the driven depth by anchors
provided at a suitable level. The anchors provided for the stability of the sheet
pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance of the soil into which the sheet
piles are driven.
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Figure 3.6 Anchored sheet pile wall

The anchored sheet piles are also of two types:
o Free earth support piles:
An anchored pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of
embedment is small and the pile rotates at its bottom tip. Thus there is a point
of contra-flexure in the pile.
o Fixed earth support piles:
An anchored sheet pile has fixed earth support when the depth of
embedment is large. The bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotations. There
is a change in the curvature of the pile, and hence, an inflection point occurs.
b. Diaphragm Walls
Diaphragm walls are commonly used in congested areas for retention
systems and permanent foundation walls. They can be installed in close
proximity to existing structures, with minimal loss of support to existing
foundations. In addition, construction dewatering is not required, so there is
no associated subsidence. Diaphragm walls have also been used as deep
groundwater barriers through and under dams.
19
Fig 3.7 Construction Stages of a Diaphragm Wall

3.2.4 Special type of retaining walls
3.2.4.1 Gabion walls
Gabion walls are constructed by stacking and tying wire cages filled with trap
rock or native stone on top of one another. They can have a continuous batter (gently
sloping) or be stepped back (terraced) with each successively higher course.
This is a good application where the retaining wall needs to allow high amounts
of water to pass through it, as in the case of riverbank stabilization. It is important to use
a filter fabric with the gabion to keep adjacent soil from flowing into or through the cages
along with the water. As relatively flexible structures, they are useful in situations where
movement might be anticipated. Vegetation can be re-established around the gabions and
can soften the visible edges allowing them to blend into the surrounding landscape. For
local roads, they are a preferred low-cost retaining structure.
20

Figure 3.8 Gabion Wall
3.2.4.2 Crib walls
Crib walls have been made of various materials including wood, concrete and
even plastic. The cribs are made of interlocking headers and stretchers that are stacked
like the walls of a log cabin. Crib walls are usually quite large and can be out of scale
and character with the surrounding landscape. In addition, heavy construction
equipment is required to lay the courses, possibly impacting sensitive areas. It can be
used for moderate heights of 4m to 6m.
Figure 3.9 Crib Wall
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CHAPTER-4
EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES
4.1 Earth Pressure
The pressure or force exerted by soil on any boundary is called the earth pressure.
When the earth pressure acts on the side (back or face) of a retaining wall, it is known as
the Lateral earth pressure. The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends upon the
movement of the retaining wall relative to the backfill & upon the nature of the soil.
The lateral earth pressure is usually computed using the classical theories
proposed by Coulomb (1773) & Rankine (1857). The general wedge theory proposed by
Terzaghi (1943) is more general and is an improvement over the earlier theories.
Lateral Earth Pressure is a function of
Type of amount of wall movement
Shear strength Parameter of soil
Drainage conditions of backfill
a. Cohesive Soil Poor drainage
b. Non Cohesive soil good drainage
Unit weight of soil
4.2 Three conditions of Earth Pressure
4.2.1 At Rest Earth Pressure:
When the wall is rigid and unyielding, the soil mass is in a state of rest and
there are no deformations and displacements. The earth pressure corresponding to
this state is called at rest earth pressure.

22
Figure 4.1 Earth Pressure at rest

4.2.2 Active Earth Pressure
When the wall moves away from the backfill, a portion of the backfill
located next to the retaining wall tends to break away from the rest of the soil
mass and tends to move downwards and outwards until failure occurs in the
backfill and slip surfaces will be developed. The force acting on wall at this stage
is called the active earth pressure.
Wall may tilt away from soil retained

le
wedge behind the soil will fail
Lateral earth pressure is called active
23
Figure 4.2 Active Earth Pressure

4.2.3 Passive Earth Pressure:-
If the wall is pushed towards the backfill, the soil is compressed and it
offers resistance to this movement by virtue of its shearing resistance, as a result
earth pressure gradually increases. If this force reaches a value the backfill cannot
withstand, failure again ensues and slip surface develop. The pressure at this point
is called passive earth pressure.
Figure 4.3 Passive Earth Pressure

24
4.3 Derivation of Lateral Earth Pressures

4.3.1 Lateral earth Pressure at Rest:-
Figure 4.4 At rest pressure
1
= efficient normal stress
= unit wt. of backfill
= Angle of internal friction
Figure 4.5 Force acting

Total Vertical Stress = Unit weight height
Total area = Total Force
This pressure acts at a distance H/3 from the base as in
25
Ko = Co efficient of at rest earth pressure

Ko = 1 sin [normal consolidated day]
Figure 4.6 ko Values for Different Soils

Total force, Po per unit length of wall can be obtained from the area of pressure
diagram as
Po =1/2 koh h
Po will act at distance of H/3 [as in ] from bottom
Lateral earth pressure = ko vertical stress.
In the presence of surcharge load
Figure 4.7 Surcharge forces
26
Poz =P1H1 + P2H2

Z
=
P1H1 + P2H2
Po
= |P1(E2) + P2(ES)]/Po
Po = per unit length of wall
Po = P1+P2 = koH+0.5koH
2
In the presence of Water Table
Total force per unit length of wall = Total area of pressure diagram
Po=P1+P2+P3+P4+P5
Where,
P1=koqH1
P2=0.5H1
2
ko
P3= ko(q+ H1) H2
P4= 0.5kosatH2
2
P5=0.5 H2
2

Figure 4.8 Effect of Water Table

Total pressure
Po= koqH1+ 0.5 H1
2
Ko+ ko (q+ H1) H2 + 0.5Ko satH2
2
+ 0.5 H2
2

27
4.3.2 Rankines Active Earth Pressure theory:

The lateral pressure acting against a smooth wall AB is due to mass of soil
ABC above the rupture line AC which makes an angle of 45+ /2 with the
horizontal. The lateral pressure distribution on the wall AB of height H increases
in same proportion to depth.
The pressure acts normal to the wall AB.

Figure 4.9 Rankines Active Earth Pressure

The lateral active earth pressure at A is, which acts at a
height H/3 above the base of the wall. The total pressure on AB is therefore
calculated as follows:

Where
Rankines active pressure for cohesive soils
In case of cohesion less soils, the active earth pressure at any depth is given by

In case of cohesive soils the cohesion component is included and the expression
becomes
28
When
This depth is known as the depth of tensile crack. Assuming that the
compressive force balances the tensile force (-), the total depth where tensile and
compressive force neutralizes each other is 2zo. This is the depth up to which a
soil can stand without any support and is sometimes referred as the depth of
vertical crack or critical depth
However Terzaghi from field analysis obtained that ,
where, and is not more than that. The Rankine formula for passive
pressure can only be used correctly when the embankment slope angle equals zero
or is negative.
4.3.3 Coulombs active earth pressure
Figure 4.10 Active Earth Pressure State and Soil Wedge

= angle of wall friction
= inclination of back face of wall with horizontal
= slope of backfill
Loads acting on any wedge:-
1. Weight of wedge(w)
29
2. Resultant R of normal and shear resisting shear force along the surface
R will be inclined at an angle to the surface
3. Active forces per unit length of wall Pa will be inclined at an angle to
the normal drawn to back face of wall.
Max value of active pressure of trail wedges is called coulombs
active earth pressure.
Pa = 0.5 kah
2
ka = /2 + /3 where value cannot be obtained exactly.
Figure 3.11 Active State

Active force is calculated as
Pa= 0.5eqKaH
2

Where: - eq = +
sin [
sin([+d)
x
2q
H
xcos J
Earlier weight w was only weight
All the forces remaining same, only horizontal and vertical
component of due to earthquake is added
When weight w acts vertical down, a force of kvw with in vertical
direction and khw in the horizontal direction.
30
Kh and Kv:-
Kh =
horIzontaI carthquakc acccIcratIon componcnt
acccIcrtIon duc to gravIty

Kv =
VcrtIcaI carthquakc acccIcratIon componcnt
aaccIcratIon duc to gravIty

Active force per unit Length of wall,
Pae = 0.5H
2
(1-kv)kae
Active Earth Pressure Coefficient, kae is
kae =
sIn (q+[-0
|
)
cos 0
|
sIn2([) sIn(-
|
-8)_1+_
sin(0+6) sin(-0
|
-o)
sn(-6-0
|
) sin(o+)
_

where 0 = tan
-1
j
Kh
1-K
[
For no earthquake condition, kae=kv
Active earth force if earthquake is present:-
1. Calculate Pae.
2. Calculate Pa [as Equation is present].
3. Calculate Pae=Pae-Pa.
4. Assume Pa acts at a distance of H/3 from bottom
5. Assume Pae acts at 0.6H from bottom
6. Calculate the location of resultant as
R
=
(0.6H)APuc+[
H
3
Pu
Puc

Coulombs can take
Soil Weight
Surcharge
31
Earthquake Forces
Angle of internal friction
4.3.4 Rankines Passive Earth Pressure:-
p = p tan
2
(45+
q
2
) = vkp+2ckp
where, kp= tan
2
(45+
q
2
) Rankines passive Earth pressure co-efficient
Figure 4.12 Passive State

In words:-
At z=0; v =0 &p=2ckp
1/2

At z=H; v = H&
p=Hkp+2ckp
1/2

Passive force per unit length of wall is equilateral area of pressure diagram.
Pp=
1
2
kpH
2
+2cHkp

32
To achieve passive condition there should be sufficient wall movement.

Approximate wall movements for failure under passive conditions.
Table 4.1 Wall movement for passive condition
Soil type Wall movement for
passive condition
Dense sand
Lose Sand
Stiff clay
Soft clay
0.005 H
0.01H
0.01H
0.05H
Rankine Passive earth pressure for inclined backfill:-
It is calculated as
For frictionless backfill soil (c=0,)
For inclination of backfill rising at an angle.
Passive earth pressure Co-efficient is
kp = cos o _
cos+cos
2
-cos
2
cos-cos
2
-cos
2
_
At any depth, the Rankine Passive Pressure is
p
= zk
p

Total force per unit length of wall is Pp =0.5H
2
kp
Direction of resultant force, Pp is inclined at an angle d with horizontal.
It intersects the wall at distance of h/3 from base of wall.
4.3.5 COULOMBS PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE:-
ASSUMPTIONS
The analysis procedure of how can estimate passive earth pressure and
how it is superior or inferior to Rankines passive earth pressure theory aspects
Rankine assumed wall to be frictionless
Coulombs theory takes into account wall friction
This makes coulombs theory more advantages over Rankines theory
33
Figure 4.13 coulomb's passive pressure and pressure wedge

= inclination of back face with horizontal
= inclination of aback fill with horizontal
= angle of wall friction
Assume a failure wedge, one has to obtain
Weight of wedge, W
Resultant. R, of normal and shear forces along the surface. R will be
inclined at an angle to the normal drawn to surface
Passive force per unit length of wall, ppwill be inclined at an angle to the
normal draw to back face of wall
From force diagram, pp can be obtained for a particular trail failure wedge.
Process is repeated for various trail wedges and minimum value is
coulombs passive force.
It is expressed aspp =0.5 kpH
2

Coulombs Passive earth pressure Co efficient
kp =
sn
2
([-)
sn
2
[sIn ([+6)_1-_
sin(+6)sin (+d)
sin(+6)sin (+d)
_
2

In actual design of retaining walls, angle wall friction, is assumed to be between
/2 and 2/3
34
CHAPTER-5
LABORATORY TESTS CONDUCTED ON BACK FILL
5.1 STANDARD COMPATION TEST
SCOPE
Determination of the relationship between moisture content and density of soils
compacted in a mould of a given size.
APPARATUS
1. Procter mould having a capacity of 944cc with an internal diameter of 100mm
and effective height of 127.3mm.The mould shall a have a detachable collar
assembly and a detachable base plate.
2. Rammer: A mechanical operated metal rammer of weight of 2.6kg, drop of
310mm for standard test. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable
arrangement to control the height of drop to a free fall.
3. Sample extruder.
4. A balance of 15kg capacity.
5. Sensitive balance
6. Straight edge.
7. Graduated cylinder.
8. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, towel, spatula etc.
Figure5.1 Standard Compaction Test Apparatus
35
Procedure
1. Take a representative oven-dried sample, approximately 3kg in a given pan.
Thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately
four to six percentage points below optimum moisture content.
2. Weigh the proctor mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base
plate. Place the soil in the proctor mould and compact it in 3 layers giving 25
blows per layer with the 2.6kg rammer falling through for standard compaction.

Figure 5.2 Base Plate and Rammer

3. Remove the collar, Trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mould by
means of straight edge and weigh.

36
Figure 5.3 Trimming extra soil

4. Divide the weight of the compacted specimen and record the result as the
weight
wet
in grams per cubic centimeter of the compacted soil.
Figure 5.4 Weigh of Compacted mould

5. Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a
sample for moisture determination.
37
6. Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material and add water in sufficient
amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil sample by one or two
percentage points and repeat the above procedure for each increment of water
added.
7. Continue this series of determination until there is either a decrease or no
change in the wet unit weight of the compacted soil.
Calculation
Wet density gm/cc =weight of compacted soil/944
Dry density=wet density/ (1+w)
Where w is the moisture content
Observations
Cylinder diameter 102 cm Height 117 cm
Volume 956040.0516 cc
Weight of empty cylinder 2243gm
Result
Optimum moisture content obtained is 14.28 %

38
5.2 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Objective
Determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear apparatus.
Need and scope
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab
bridges, pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the
soil involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these
parameters quickly. The laboratory procedures for determining these values for cohesion
less soils.
Apparatus
1. Direct shear box apparatus
2. Loading frame
3. Dial gauge
4. Proving ring
5. Tamper
6. Straight edge
7. Balance to weight up to 200mg
8. Aluminum container spatula
Knowledge of equipment
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container,
loading unit, proving ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes.
A two piece square shear box is one type of soil container used.
A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by the soil initiated in the
shearing plane.

39

Procedure
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2. Put the parts of the soil container together.
3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weight the container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers. If the dense sample is desired tamp the soil.
5. Weight the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil.
Calculate the density of the soil.
6. Make the surface of the soil plane.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of the soil.
8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
9. Apply the desired normal load.
10. Remove the shear pin.

Figure 5.5 Direct shear test apparatus

11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
40
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
13. Before proceeding to the test, check all adjustments to see that there is no
connection between two parts except sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
15. Take volume change readings till failure.
16. Add 5kg normal stress 0.5kg/cm
2
and continue the experiment till failure.
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the
experiment.
Figure 5.6 Failure of soil Sample

Observations
Dimensions of shear box 60*60 mm
2

Observation sheet for shear stress
41
Table 5.1 Shear Stress Values

S.NO Normal load(kg) Normal
stress(kg/cm
2
)
Shear stress
1 0.5 60 0.6453
2 1.0 92.5 0.929
3 1.5 116 1.213

Graph

Result:
Cohesion C = 0.3616
Friction angle = 29.57
42
5.3 SAND REPLADEMENT METHOD (FIELD DENSITY)

Objective
Determine the in situ density of natural or compacted soils using sand pouring
cylinders.
Need and scope
The in situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of the bearing
capacity of soils, for the purpose of the stability analysis of slopes, for the determination
of pressures on underlying strata for the calculation of settlement and the design of
underground structures.
Apparatus required
1. Sand pouring cylinder of 3 litre/16.5 litre capacity mounted above a pouring cone
and separated by a shutter cover plate.

Figure 5.7 Sand Pouring Cylinder
2. Tools for excavating holes, suitable tools such as scraper tool to make a level
surface.
43
3. Cylindrical calibrating container with an internal diameter of 100mm/200mm and

an internal depth of 150mm/250mm fitted with a flange 50mm/75mm wide and
about 5mm surrounding the open end.
Figure 5.8 Calibrating container

4. Balance to weigh up to an accuracy of 1g.
5. Metal containers to collect excavated soil.
6. Metal tray with 300mm/450mm square and 40mm/50mm deep with a
100mm/200mm diameter hole in the center.
7. Glass plate of 450mm/600mm square and 10mm thick.
8. Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing through 1.00mm I.S sieve and
retained on the 600 micron I.S. sieve.
9. Suitable non corrodible airtight containers.
10. Thermostatically controlled oven with interior or non-corroding material to
maintain the temperature 105 to 110
0

11. A desiccator with any desiccating agent other than sulphuric acid.
Procedure
Calibration of cylinder
1. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with clean sand so that the level of the sand in the
cylinder is within about 10mm from the top. Find out the initial weight of the
cylinder plus sand and this weight should be maintained constant throughout the
test for which the calibration is used.
44
2. Allow the sand of volume equal to that of the calibrating container to run out of
the cylinder by opening the shutter, close the shutter and place the cylinder on the
glass plate and open the shutter to allow the sand to run out and close the cylinder
shutter when there is no movement of sand and remove the cylinder carefully.
Weight the sand collected on the glass plate. Its weight gives the weight of the
sand filling the cone portion of sand pouring cylinder.
3. Repeat this step at least three times and take the mean weight. Put the sand back
into the sand pouring cylinder to have the same initial constant weight.
Determination of bulk of the bulk density of the soil
4. Determine the volume of the container be filling it with water to the brim. Check
this volume by calculating from the measured internal dimensions of the
container.
5. Place the sand pouring cylinder centrally on the calibrating container making sure
that constant weight is maintained. Open the shutter and permit the sand to run
into the container. When no further movement of sand is seen close the shutter,
remove the pouring cylinder and find its weight.
Determination of dry density of soil in place
6. Approximately 60 sq. cm of area of soil to be tested should be trimmed down to a
level surface, approximately of the size of the container. Keep the metal tray on
the level surface and excavate a circular hole of volume equal to that of the
calibrating container. Collect all the excavated soil in the tray and find out the
weight of the excavated soil. Remove the tray, and place the sand pouring
cylinder filled to constant weight so that the base of cylinder covers the hole
concentrically. Close the shutter when no further movement of sand is seen.
Remove the cylinder and determine its weight.
7. Keep a representative sample of the excavated sample of the soil for water content
determination.

45
Calculation for density of soil

Table 5.2 Calculation table for density of Soil
S.No Measurement of density
1 Weight of wet soil Wwgm 1562
2 Weight of sand + cylinder before pouring into the hole
&cone, W1gm
7092
3 Weight of sand + cylinder after pouring into the hole &
cone,W4gm
5524
4 Weight of sand in hole Wh=(W1-W2-W4)gm 1236
5 Volume of hole in cc=Vh=Wh/Ys 858.3
6 Bulk density= Ww/Vh 1.81
7 Dry density 1.5805

Result
The dry density of the given soil sample is 1.5805gm/cc

46
CHAPTER-6
EARTH PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
6.1 Active earth pressures:-
Active earth pressure, p
a
= ko y E 2C*ka
= (0.339*29.57*6) (2*0.3616*. SS9)
= 31.08
Total active force Pa =
ka yHH
2
- 2C*ka*H
=
u.SS91S.48966
2
(2*0.3616*. SS9 *6)
= 92.0.18KN/m
2
6.2 Passive Earth Pressure:-
Passive Earth pressures, pp = kp y E + 2C*kp
= (2.948*15.489*6) + (2*0.3616*2.948)
= 275.211
Total passive force, Pp =
kp yHH
2
+ 2C*ka*H
=
2.9481S.48966
2
+ (2*0.3616*2.948*6)
= 829.49 KN/m
2

47
CHAPTER-7
STABILITY AND DESIGN OF A RETAINING WALL
7.1 STABILITY OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
Figure 7.1 Cantilever retaining wall subjected to forces

Above figure shows a cantilever retaining wall subjected to the following forces:
Weight w
1
of the stem AB
Weight w
2
of the base slab DC
Weight w
3
of the column of the soil supported on heel slab BC
Horizontal forceP
u
, equal to active earth pressure acting at
H
3
above the base.
The following are the modes of failure of are retaining wall:
Overturning about the toe
48
Sliding
Failure of soil due to excessive pressure at toe or tension at the heel
Bending failure of stem or base of slab or heel slab
7.1.1 OVERTURNING
The most hazardous mode of failure of retaining walls is due to overturning
because of unbalanced moments. Thus, in figure the overturning moment, due to active
earth pressure, at toe is
H
= P
u
H
3
= K
u
yH
2
2
.
H
3
= K
u
.
yH
3
6
Eq 1
The resisting moment is due to the weightsw
1
,w
2
, w
3
, neglecting the passive earth
pressure and weight of the soil above toe slab.
Hence H
R
= w
1
x
1
+w
2
x
2
+w
3
x
3
Eq 1a
Hence factor of safety due to overturning (F
1
) is given by F
1
=
M
R
M
Eq 2
A minimum factor of safety 2 should be used.
7.1.2 SLIDING
The horizontal force P
u
tends to slide the wall away from fill. The tendency to
resist this is achieved by the friction at the base.
The force of resistance, F is given by
F = XW Eq 3
Where is the coefficient of friction between soil and concrete, and XW is the
sum of vertical forces. The factor of safety F
2
due to sliding is given by
F
2
=
lw
H
Eq 4
49
Figure7.2 Sliding of Retaining Wall

If the wall is found to be unsafe against sliding, shear key below the base should
be provided. Such a key develops passive pressure which resists completely the sliding
tendency of the wall. A factor of safety of 1.5 must be used against sliding. In the absence
of elaborate tests, the following values of may be adopted.

Table 7.1 Values of

S.no Type of Backfill
1 Coarse grained soil without silt 0.55
2 Coarse grained with silt 0.45
3 Silt 0.35

7.1.3 SOIL PRESSURE DISTRUBUTION
Figure 1 shows various forces acting on the wall. If W is the sum of all vertical
forces, and P
u
is the horizontal active earth pressure, the resultant R will strike the base
slab at a distance e from the middle point of the base.
Let M = w
1
x
1
+w
2
x
2
+w
3
-P
u
.
H
3
= net moment at the toe.
Then x = distance of point of application of resultant =
lM
lw
Eq 5
Hence eccentricity, e =
b
2
- x Eq 6
50
The pressure distribution below the base is shown in figure. The intensity of soil
pressure at the toe and heel is given by:
P
1
=
l
W
b
j1 +
6c
b
[ at toe
P
1
=
l
W
b
j1 -
6c
b
[ at heel
And P
1
at toe should not exceed the safe bearing capacity of soil otherwise soil
will fail. Similarly, P
2
at heel should be compressive. If P
2
comes to be tensile, the heel
will be lifted above the soil, which is not permissible. In an extreme case,P
2
may be zero,
where e =
b
6
. Hence in order that tension is not developed, the resultant should strike the
base within the middle third.
7.1.4 BENDING FAILURE

Figure 7.3 Bending Failure

There are three distinct parts of T-shaped cantilever retaining wall: the stem AB,
the heel slab BC and toe slab DE. The stem AB will bend as cantilever, so that tensile
face will be towards the backfill. The critical section will be at B, where cracks may
occur at the inner face if it is not properly reinforced. The heel slab will have net pressure
51
acting downwards, and will bend as a cantilever, having tensile upwards. the critical
section will be at B, where cracks may occur if it is not reinforced properly at the upper
face as shown in figure. The net pressure on toe slab will act upwards, and hence it must
reinforced at the bottom face. The thickness of the stem, heel slab and toe slab must be
sufficient to withstand compressive stress due to bending.
7.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
The various dimensions of the cantilever retaining wall should be so proportioned that the
various failure criteria discussed above are taken care of. The design of a cantilever
retaining wall consists of the following:
Fixation of the base width b
Design of stem
Design of heel slab
Design of toe slab
7.2.1 FIXATION OF BASE WIDTH (b)
The base width b of the retaining wall should be so chosen that the ratio of length
of the toe slab to the base width should be such that the stress p
1
at the toe does not
exceed the safe bearing capacity of soil. The method below gives an approximate method
of finding the base width b and width of toe slab DE = ob.
Let us assume that the average unit weight of concrete and soil is equal to 1.1
where is the unit weight of soil. Neglecting the weight of the toe slab DE, the total
weight W of retaining wall plus the weight of the soil in column AFCB will be:
W = (1-o)b*H(1.1bH(1- o)
This acts at a distance of
1
2
(1- o)b from E or C.
The horizontal earth pressure P = K
u
yH
2
2

52
Figure 7.4 Pressures acting on retaining wall

Let X
1
and X
2
be the outer and inner third points respectively. In order that no
tension is developed at heel, the resultant should pass through the outer third pointX
1
. In
that case, moment of resultant R will be zero or the algebraic sum of moments of W and
P about X
1
is zero. Hence, we have
Wj
2b
3
-
1
2
(1 -o)b[-P*
H
3
= 0 (or)
1.1b
2
H (1- o)]
2b
3
-
b
2
+
bu
2
- K
u
yH
3
6
= 0
1.1b
2
H (1-o)(1+3o) = K
u
E
3
, which gives
b = 0.95H_
K
c
(1-u)(1+3u)
Eq 1
Thus b can be determined, if o, i.e the ratio of heel slab DE to total base width is
known. The ratio o can be fixed on the basis of maximum pressure under the toe. When
the resultant R passes through the outer third pointX
1
, eccentricity
e =
b
2
-
b
3
=
b
6

53

Hence the maximum pressure P
1
under the toe is
P
1
=
w
b
j1 +
6c
b
[ =
w
b
(1+) =
2w
b
=
2
b
[1.1bH(1-o)]
The value of P
1
should not exceed the safe bending capacity q
of the soil.
Hence,
q
= P
1
= 2.2H(1-o)
(1-o) =
q
2.2yH
(or) 1-
q
2.2yH
Eq 2
This value of o can be substituted in Eq 1 to get value of b. Eq 1 and 2 are valid,
though as a rough guide, only when there is no surcharge. For the case of sloping backfill
with surcharge angle [, the following approximate expression may be used:
o = 1-
q
2.7yH
Eq 2a

Figure 7.5 Common Values of b for various conditions

Determination of base width from the considerations of sliding
54
Eq 1 gives the base width from the stress considerations. Let us find the base
width from sliding consideration also. The factor of safety against sliding should at least
be equal to 1.5. thus, F.S =
w
P
= 1.5
Substituting values of W = 1.1bH(1-o) and P = K
u
yH
2
2
,
We get [1.1bH(1-o)] = 1.5K
u
yH
2
2

b ~
0.7H
1-u
.
K
c
Eq 3
Thus, knowing o from Eq 2, b can be determined from Eq 3
7.2.2 DESIGN OF STEM
Figure 7.6 Design of Stem

The vertical stem AB is designed as cantilever, for triangular loading. At any
section h below the top point A, the force is equal to K
u
yH
2
2
and its bending moment
about the section is K
u
yH
3
6
. The thickness at B is maximum. The minimum thickness at A
should vary from 20 30 cm depending upon the height of the wall. Reinforcement is
provided towards the inner face of stem, i.e. towards side of fill. The reinforcement
55
towards the top of stem can be curtailed, since B.M. varies asb
3
. Distribution
reinforcement (HYSD bars) is provided @ 0.12 % of the area of cross-section along the
length of retaining wall at inner face. Similarly, at the outer face of the stem, temperature
reinforcement (HYSD bars) is provided both in horizontal as well as in vertical direction,
at the rate of 0.12% of the area of cross-section.
7.2.3 DESIGN OF HEEL SLAB
The heel is also to be designed as a cantilever. It has both downward pressure as
well as upward pressure due to soil reaction. However, the net pressure is found to act
downward and hence reinforcement is provided at the upper face BC.
7.2.4 DESIGN OF TOE SLAB
Neglecting the weight of the soil above it, the toe slab will bend upwards as a
cantilever due to9 upward soil reaction. Hence reinforcement is placed at the bottom face.
Normally, the thickness of both toe slab and heel slab is kept the same, determined on the
basis of greater of the cantilever bending moments.
Figure 7.7 Design considerations of Toe and Heel Slab
56
7.3 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

The height E
2
of the retaining wall, above ground level is fixed on the basis of
height of the backfill to be retained. The depth of foundation y should be such that good
quality of soil to bear the induced pressures is available. However, a minimum depth of
foundation given below by Rankines formula should be provided:
y
mn
=
q
y
j
1-snq
1+snq
[
2
=
q
y
Ko
2
Eq 4
Where q
is the safe bearing capacity of soil, or equal to the maximum pressure

likely to occur on soil.
Figure 7.8 Determination of Depth of Foundation

57
8 DESIGNING OF A RETAINING WALL

8.1 DESIGN-1
Figure 8.1 Retaining wall

Assuming M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel
STEP 1: DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
y
mn
=
q
c
j
1-sn0
1-sn0
[
2

58
q
o
= Safe bearing capacity
y
mn
=
245
15.489
j
1-sIn (29.57)
1+sIn (29.57)
[
2

y
mn
=1.81 m
To accommodate thickness of the base, keep the depth as 2.5 m below the ground
STEP-2: DIMENSIONS OF THE BASE
The ratio of length of toe slab (DE) to the base width b is
L
b
= = 1-
q
2.2H

= 1-
245
2.215.4898.5

= 0.154
Now, the width of the base, b = 0.95H_
ku
(1-u)(1+3u)

Ka =
1-sn0
1+sn0
=
1-sIn (29.5)
1+sIn (29.57)
= 0.3391
b = 0.95*8.5_
0.3391
(1-0.154)(1+30.154)

b = 4.22 m
Now, the base width with respect to sliding
b =
0.7Hku
(1-u)
=
0.78.50.3391
(1-0.154)0.5
= 4.76 m
b should be between 0.4 to 0.6H
Take maximum 0.6H = 0.6*8.5 = 5.1 m
So, 4.76 < 5.1 m
Hence, provide 4.8 m
Width of toe slab (DE) = *b
59
*b = 0.154*4.8
= 0.7392 0.74 m
Provide, toe slab = 0.7 m long
Let thickness of slab be
1
12
H =
1
12
*8.5 = 0.6 m
STEP -3: THICKNESS OF STEM
HEIGHT AB = 8.5-0.6 = 7.9 M
Consider 1 m retaining wall
Maximum bending moment at B = ka
H1
6
3

B = 0.3391*15.489*
7.9
3
6
= 431.599 KN-m = 431.599*1u
6
N-mm
Mu = 1.5*431.599*1u
6

Mu = 647.39*1u
6
N-mm
Effective depth, d =
Mu
Ru

Mu = 647.39*1u
6
N-mm
Ru = 0.138fck
= 0.138*20
= 2.76
d = _
647.3910
6
2.7601000
= 484.3 mm = 0.48 m
take cover as 60 mm
At bottom = 540 + 60 = 600 mm
At top = 440+60 = 500 mm
60
STEP-4: STABILITY OF WALL

Let w
1
= weight of rectangular portion of the stem
w
2
= weight of triangular portion of stem
w
3
= weight of base slab
w
4
= weight of soil on heel slab
Table 8.1 Distribution of forces
S.NO DESIGNATION FORCE (KN) LEVER
ARM
MOMENT
ABOUT TOE
(KN-m)
1 w
1
0.5*7.8*25 =
97.5
1.09 106.27
2 w
2

1
2
*0.1*7.8*25 =
9.75
0.8067 7.865
3 w
3
1*4.8*0.7*25 =
84
2.40 201.6
4 w
4
1*3.46*7.8*15.48
= 347.8
3.07 1283.32
W = 610.06 MR = 1599.11

Total resisting moment MR = 1599.11
Earth pressure P = ka
H
2
2
= 0.3391*15.489*
8.5
2
2
= 189.74 KN

61
OVERTURNING
Overturning moment H
0
= 189.74*
H
3
= 189.74*
8.5
3
= 537.59 KN-m
Factor of safety against turning
1599
537
= 2.9772 > 2
Hence safe
SLIDING
Factor of safety against sliding =
lw
P
=
0.5610.06
189.74
= 1.60 > 1.5
Hence safe
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Net moment M = 1599.11 537.6
M = 1061.51
Distance x of application of resultant from toe is =
lM
lw
=
1061
610.06
= 1.740 m
ECCENTRYCITY
e =
b
2
-x = 2.4-1.74 = 0.66 <
b
6
=> j
b
6
[ =
4.8
6
=0.8
Pressure "P
1
" at toe =
lw
b
j1 +
6c
b
[ =
610.06
4.8
j1 +
60.6599
4.8
[ = 231.94 < 245
KN/m
2
(S.B.C)
Hence safe
Pressure"P
2
at heel =
lw
b
j1 -
6c
b
[ =
610.06
4.8
j1 -
60.6599
4.8
[ = 22.2417 KN m
2

Pressure p at junction of stem with toe slab is
P = 231.94-
231.94-22.2417
4.8
u.74
P = 199.611 KN/m
2

62
Pressure at junction of stem with heel base

P
i
= 231.94-
231.94-22.24
4.8
1.S4
P
i
= 173.399 KN/m
2

STEP-5: DESIGN OF TOE SLAB

0.74 m 0.6 m 3.46m

D E B C 0.7 m

4.8 m

Figure 8.2 Forces acting on slab
The upward distribution on the toe slab is shown in the figure. The weight of the soil
above the toe slab is neglected. Thus two forces are acting on it
Upward soil pressure
Downward weight of the slab
Downward weight of slab per unit area = 0.7*1*1*25 = 17.5 KN/m
2

Hence net pressure intensities will be = 240.644-17.5 = 214.44 KN/m
2
under D
63
And 222.121-17.5 = 182.11 KN/m

2
under E
Total force = shear force at E =
1
2
|214.44 +182.11] =146.723 KN
x From E = j
182.11+2214.44
182.11+214.44
[
0.74
3
= 0.38 m
Bending moment at E = 146.723*0.38 = 55.76 KN-m
= 55.76*1u
6
N-mm
H
u
At E = 1.5*bending moment at E
= 83.64 KN-mm
d = _
M
u
R
u
R
u=
0.138fck
d = _
83.64410
6
10002.761

d = 174.05 mm
Let us keep total depth of 500 mm and effective depth of 440 mm, so that 60 mm cover
can be provided. Thickness can be reduced to 400 mm at edge.
Since actual d is provided more, we have under reinforced section, for which we have
under reinforced section
As
t
=
0.5 ]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6M
u
]ckbd
2
_*bd
As
t
=
0.520
415
_1 -_1 -
4.683.64410
6
201000400
2
_*1000*440
As
t
= 540.56 mm
2

This reinforcement has to be provided at bottom face.
Take 12 mm bors 2uu mm c/c
64
Development length I
d
= 47 = 47*12 = 564 mm
Providing 50 mm clear side cover,
Actual length available = 0.74-0.05(740-50) = 630 mm<I
d

Hence safe
Distribution reinforcement:
0.121000
100

0.121000
100
j
500+400
2
[ = 540 mm
2

By using 8 mm bars, A
q
=
n
4
*8
2
= 50.265 mm
2

Provide these @ 90 mm c/c
STEP 6: DESIGNING OF HEEL SLAB
Three forces act on it:
Downward weight of soil 7.8 m high
Downward weight of heel slab
Total weight of soil = 3.46*7.8*15.489 = 418.017 KN
Total weight of heel slab = 3.46*0.5*25 = 43.25 KN
Both are acting at 1.73 m from B
Total upward soil reaction =
1
2
j
173.399+222.2417
173.399+22.2417
[ S.46 = 1.28 m from B
Total shear force at B = 418.017+43.25-338.458 = 122.808 KN
Bending moment at B = [418.017+43.25]*1.73-338.45*1.28 = 364.776 KN-m
H
u
= 1.5*364.776 = 547.16*1u
6
N-mm
65
d = _
547.1610
6
10002.761
= 445 mm
Keep same total depth of 500 mm as that of toe slab and thickness is reduced to 400
mm at edge section
For an under reinforced section, we have
A
st
=
0.5]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6M
u
]ckbd
2
_*bd
A
st
=
0.520
415
_1 -_1 -
4.6547.1610
6
201000440
2
_*1000*440 = 4330.25 mm
2

Using 20 mm bars of 14 nos =
1000
n
4
20
2
4330.25
= 72.54 = 70 mm c/c
However, provide these bars @ 70 mm c/c at the top of the heel slab.
Take the reinforcement into the toe slab for a distance of 47 = 47*20 = 940 mm to the
left of B
Distribution steel =
0.12
100
1uuu j
400+500
2
[ = S4u mm
2

Provide 12 mm bars @ 200 mm c/c
Shear stress
0
=
1.5122.81000
1000400
= 0.4605 N/mm
2

From IS: 456 table -19
100
A
st
bd
= 100*
4330.25
1000400
= 1.08 N/mm
2

The obtained value 1.08 lies between 1.00 and 1.25 by interpolation method we obtain
the value 0.628
So, 0.46 < 0.62
This is much less than the permissible shear stress even at the minimum percentage of
steel.
66
STEP 7: REINFORCEMENT IN STEM

We had earlier assumed the thickness of heel slab as 0.6 m, while now it has fixed to 0.5
m only.
Hence revised E
1
= 8.5-0.5 = 8 m
Moment M = k
u
H
1
3
6
= 0.3391*
15.4898
3
6
= 448.197 Kn-m = 448.197*1u
6
N-mm
H
u
= 1.5*448.197*1u
6
= 672.296*1u
6
N-mm
d = _
672.29610
6
10002.761
= 493.45 mm
However keep d = 540 mm, so that D = 600 mm.
Reduce the total thickness to 440 mm at the top.
For an under reinforced section we have
A
st
=
0.5]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6448.19710
6
201000540
2
_*1000*540 = 2459.812 mm
2

Provide 20 mm bars =
1000
n
4
20
2
2459.124
=127.7 mm
Provide 20 mm bars at spacing of 100 mm c/c
Actual A
st
provided =
1000
n
4
20
2
100
= 3141.592 mm
2

Continue actual bars in the toe to serve as tensile reinforcement there. Discontinue the
remaining half bars after a distance of 47 = 47*20 = 940 mm, beyond B, in the toe slab.
Between A and B, some of the bars can be curtailed. Consider a section at depth h below
the top of the stem. The effective depth d at that section is:
J
i
= 440+
540-440
8
b = 440+1`2.5*h (in meters)
67
NowA
st

H
3
d
, (or) H = (A
st
J)
1
3

Hence
h
H
1
= j
A
st
|
d
|
A
st
d
[
Where;
A
st
i
= reinforcement at depth h
A
st
= reinforcement at depth
J
i
= effective depth at depth h
d = effective depth at depth E
1

If A
st
i
=
1
2
A
st
,
A
st
|
A
st
=
1
2

h
H
1
= j
1
2
d
|
d
[
1
3

Substituting d = 540 mm;
h = E
1
*j
440+12.5h
2540
[
1
3
= 8j
440+12.5h
2540
[
1
3
= 0.7797(44u +12.S b)
1
3

b
3
= 0.4740(440+12.5h)
b
3
- 5.9259h-208.59 = 0
H = 6.26 m half the bars can be curtailed of 12 = 240 mm or d = 540 mm whichever is
more, beyond the point.
h = 6.26 0.54 = 5.72 m.
Hence curtail half the bars at a height 5.72 m below the top. If we wish to curtail half of
the remaining reinforcement is one-fourth of that is provided at B, we have
A
st
|
A
st
=
1
4
.
68
Hence
h
H
1
= j
1
4
d
|
d
[
1
3

h = 8j
440+12.5h
4540
[
1
3

b
3
= 0.2370(440+12.5*h)
b
3
- 2.962h-104.296 = 0
h = 4.9168 m
Bars extended by 250 mm beyond this. Thus h = 4.9168-0.3 4.668 m
Check for shear:
P = Ka
H
2
2
= 0.339*15.489*
8
2
2
= 168.07 KN
F
u
= 1.5*168.07 = 252.113 KN
0
=
252.1113
1000540
1uuu = 0.4668 N/mm
2

100
A
st
bd
=
1003141.5926
1000540
= 0.58
0.4668 < 0.5 (
0
<
c
)
Hence safe
Distribution and temperature reinforcement:
Average thickness of stem =
1
12
|6uu +Suu] = 550 mm
Distribution reinforcement =
0.12
100
1uuu SSu mm = 660 mm
2

Using 12 mm bars, A
q
= 113.097mm
2

Spacing = 171.35 mm
Hence provide 12 mm bars @ 300 mm c/c on both ways.
69
STRUCTURAL DETAILING:
Figure 8.3 Structural Detailing of Retaining Wall
70
DESIGNING OF A RETAINING WALL -2

Assuming M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel
STEP -1: DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
Figure 8.4 Retaining Wall

71
= 15,489 KN/m
3

q
0
= 245 KN/m
2

= 29.S7

= 0.5
y
mn
=
q
c
j
1-sn0
1-sn0
[
2

q
o
y
mn
=
245
15.489
j
1-sIn (29.57)
1+sIn (29.57)
[
2

y
mn
=1.81 m ~2 m
To accommodate thickness of the base, keep the depth as 2 m below the ground
L
b
= = 1-
q
2.2H

= 1-
245
2.215.4898

= 0.101
ku
(1-u)(1+3u)

Ka =
1-sn0
1+sn0
=
1-sIn (29.5)
1+sIn (29.57)
= 0.3391
b = 0.95*8_
0.3391
(1-0.154)(1+30.154)

b = 4.089 m
72
b =
0.7Hku
(1-u)
=
0.780.3391
(1-0.101)0.5
= 4.22 m
Take maximum 0.6H = 0.6*8 = 4.8 m
So, 4.22 < 4.8 m
*b = 0.101*4.3 = 0.4343 0.45 m
1
12
H =
1
12
*8 = 0.6 m
HEIGHT AB = 8-0.6 = 7.4 m
H1
6
3

B = 0.3391*15.489*
7.4
3
6
= 354.72 KN-m = 354.72*1u
6
N-mm
Mu = 1.5*354.72*1u
6

Mu = 532.08*1u
6
N-mm
Mu
Ru

Mu = 532.08*1u
6
N-mm
Ru = 0.138fck
= 0.138*20 = 2.760
73
d = _
532.0810
6
2.7601000
= 439.07 mm = 0.45 m
take cover as 60 mm
At bottom = 510 + 60 = 600 mm
At top = 410+60 = 500 mm
Let w
1
w
2
w
3
w
4
S.NO DESIGNATION FORCE (KN) LEVER ARM MOMENT
ABOUT TOE
(KN-m)
1 w
1
1*7.4*0.47*25
= 86.95
0.735 63.90
2 w
2

1
2
*0.1*7.4*25 =
9.25
0.47 4.34
3 w
3
1*4.3*0.6*25 =
64.5
2.13 138.67
4 w
4
1*3.3*7.4*15.48
= 387.25
2.635 996.66
W = 538.94 MR = 1203.57
74
Total resisting moment MR = 1203.57 KN

H
2
2
= 0.3391*15.489*
8
2
2
= 168.07 KN
OVERTURNING
0
= 168.07*
H
3
= 168.07*
8
3
= 448.19 KN-m
1203.57
448.19
= 2.68 > 2
Hence safe
SLIDING
lw
P
=
0.5538.94
168.07
= 1.60 > 1.5
Hence safe
Net moment M = 1203.57 448.19
M = 755.38 KN-m
Distance of application of resultant from toe is =
lM
lw
=
755.38
538.94
= 1.40 m
ECCENTRYCITY
e =
b
2
- = 2.15-1.40 = 0.66 <
b
6
=> j
b
6
[ =
4.3
6
= 0.7 m
Pressure"P
1
" at toe =
lw
b
j1 +
6c
b
[ =
538.94
4.3
j1 +
60.66
4.3
[ = 240.759 < 245 KN/m
2
(S.B.C)
Hence safe
Pressure"P
2
at heel =
lw
b
j1 -
6c
b
[ =
538.94
4.3
j1 -
60.7
4.3
[ = 9.910 KN m
2

Pressure p at junction of stem with toe slab is P = 233.92
233.92-7.829
4.3
u.4u
75
P = 2192.8 KN/m
2

Pressure at junction of stem with heel base P
i
= 233.92-
233.92-7.829
4.3
S.SS
P
i
= 61.98 KN/m
2


0.6 m
4.3 m

above the toe slab is neglected. Thus two forces are acting on it:
Downward weight of slab per unit area = 0.6*1*1*25 = 15 KN/m
2

Hence net pressure intensities will be = 240.759-15= 225.28 KN/m
2
under D

0.4 m

0.57 m
A

3.33 m

D E B

C
76
And 219.28-15 = 204.28 KN/m

2
under E
1
2
|22S.7S +2u4.28] = 215 KN
from E = j
204.28+2225.759
204.28+225.759
[
0.74
3
= 0.38 m
bending moment at E = 215*0.38 = 81.72 KN-m
= 81.72*1u
6
N-mm
H
u
at E = 1.5*bending moment at E
= 122.58*1u
6
KN-mm
d = _
M
u
R
u
R
u=
0.138fck
d = _
122.5810
6
10002.761

d = 210.70 mm
under reinforced section
As
t
=
0.5 ]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6M
u
]ckbd
2
_*bd
As
t
=
0.520
415
_1 -_1 -
4.6122.5810
6
201000410
2
_*1000*440
As
t
= 866.48 mm
2

77
Development lengthI
d
= 47 = 47*12 = 564 mm
Providing 50 mm clear side cover, actual length available = 0.40-0.05(400-50) = 630
mm
122.5 mm<I
d

Hence safe
0.121000
100

0.121000
100
j
570+470
2
[ = 624 mm
2

q
=
n
4
*8
2
= 50.265 mm
2

Spacing =
100050.265
624
= 80.55 mm
Down ward weight of soil 7.4 m high
1
2
|61.98 +9.91u]*3.33 = 119.68 KN
Acting at j
61.98+29.910
61.98+9.910
[
3.33
3
= 1.26 m from B
78
Total shear force at B = 381.679+49.95-35.94 = 395.689 KN

Bending moment at B = [381.679+49.95]*1.665-119.68*1.26 = 567.50 KN-m
H
u
= 1.5*598.98 = 851.2*1u
6
N-mm
d = _
898.4710
6
10002.761
= 505.89 mm
Keep same total depth of 570 mm as that of toe slab and thickness is reduced to 470 mm
at edge section
A
st
=
0.5]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6M
u
]ckbd
2
_*bd
A
st
=
0.520
415
_1 - _1 -
4.6851.210
6
201000470
2
_*1000*470 = 7505.89mm
2

1000
n
4
20
2
7505.89
= 45 = 40 mm c/c
left of B
0.12
100
1uuu j
470+570
2
[ = 624 mm
2

Shear stress
0
=
1.5395.6891000
1000470
= 1.44 N/mm
2

From IS: 456: 2000 table -19
100
A
st
bd
= 100*
4330.25
1000400
= 1.08 N/mm
2

The obtained value 1.08 lies between 1.00 and 1.25.
79
By interpolation method we obtain the value 0.628

So, 0.46<0.62
steel.
m only.
Hence revised E
1
= 8-0.5 = 7.5 m
Moment M = k
u
H
1
3
6
= 0.3391*
15.4897.5
3
6
= 369.30 Kn-m = 369.30*1u
6
N-mm
H
u
= 1.5*369.30*1u
6
= 553.95*1u
6
N-mm
d = _
535.9510
6
10002.761
= 447.92 mm
A
st
=
0.5]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6553.19510
6
201000510
2
_*1000*570 = 3511.60 mm
2

1000
n
4
20
2
3511.66
=89.41 mm
Actual A
st
provided =
1000
n
4
20
2
100
= 3140.592 mm
2

80
J
i
= 440+
510-410
87.5
b = 440+13.33*h (in meters)
Now, A
st

H
3
d
, (or) H = (A
st
J)
1
3

Hence
h
H
1
= j
A
st
|
d
|
A
st
d
[
Where;
A
st
i
A
st
J
i
1

If A
st
i
=
1
2
A
st
,
A
st
|
A
st
=
1
2

h
H
1
= j
1
2
d
|
d
[
1
3

h = E
1
*j
440+12.5h
2540
[
1
3
= 8j
440+12.5h
2540
[
1
3
= 0.7797(44u +12.S b)
1
3

b
3
= 0.405(410+13.33h)
b
3
- 5.39h-166.05 = 0
h = 5.85 m half the bars can be curtailed of 12 = 240 mm or d = 540 mm whichever is
h = 5.85 0.510 = 5.34 m.
81
A
st
|
A
st
=
1
4
.
Hence
h
H
1
= j
1
4
d
|
d
[
1
3

h = 7.5j
4113.33h
4510
[
1
3

b
3
= 0.20(410+13.33*h)
b
3
- 2.66h-84.78 = 0
h = 4.59 m
Bars extended by 250 mm beyond this. Thus h = 4.59-0.25 = 4.34 m
Check for shear:
P = Ka
H
2
2
= 0.339*15.489*
7.5
2
2
= 147.72 KN
F
u
= 1.5*147.72 = 221.58 KN
0
=
221.58
1000510
1uuu = 0.43 N/mm
2

100
A
st
bd
=
1003141.5926
1000540
= 0.58
0.4668 < 0.5 (
0
<
c
)
Hence safe
1
12
|6uu +Suu] = 550 mm
0.12
100
2

82
Using 12 mm bars, A
q
= 113.097mm
2

Spacing = 171.35 mm
STRUCTURAL DETAILING:
Figure 8.6 Structural Detailing of retaining wall
83
DESIGN-3 Providing Shear Key

Assume M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel
Figure 8.7 Retaining Wall with dimensions
STEP -1: DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
y
mn
=
q
c
j
1-sn0
1-sn0
[
2

8.1
q
o
y
mn
=
245
15.489
j
1-sIn (29.57)
1+sIn (29.57)
[
2

y
mn
=1.81 m
To accommodate thickness of the base, keep the depth as 2.8 m below the ground
L
b
= = 1-
q
2.2H

= 1-
245
2.215.4898.8

= 0.183
ku
(1-u)(1+3u)

Ka =
1-sn0
1+sn0
=
1-sIn (29.5)
1+sIn (29.57)
= 0.3391
b = 0.95*8.5_
0.3391
(1-0.183)(1+30.183)

b = 4.17 m
84
b =
0.7Hku
(1-u)
=
0.78.80.3391
(1-0.183)0.5
= 5.11 m
Take maximum 0.6H = 0.6*8.8 = 5.28 m
So, 5.11<5.28
*b = 0.183*5.11=0.935 m
~.94
1
12
H =
1
12
*8.8 = 0.73 m
HEIGHT AB = 8.8-0.73 = 8.1 m
H1
6
3

B = 0.3391*15.489*
8.1
3
6
= 465.216KN-m = 465.216*1u
6
N-mm
Mu = 1.5*465.216*1u
6

Mu = 697.82*1u
6
N-mm
Mu
Ru

Mu = 697.82*1u
6
N-mm
Ru = 0.138fck = 0.138*20 = 2.76
85
d = _
697.8210
6
2.7601000
= 502.82 mm = 0.50 m
Take cover as 60 mm
At bottom = 540 + 60 = 600 mm
At top = 440+60 = 500 mm
Let w
1
w
2
w
3
w
4
S.NO DESIGNATION FORCE (KN) LEVER
ARM
MOMENT
ABOUT TOE
(KN-m)
1 w
1
0.5*8.1*25 =
101.25
1.14 115.425
2 w
2

1
2
*0.1*8.1*25 =
10.125
1.006 10.185
3 w
3
1*5.11*0.3*25 =
93.25
2.555 238.253
4 w
4
1*3.57*8.1*15.489
= 447.89
3.325 1489.234
W = 652.515 MR = 1853.09

Total resisting moment MR = 1853.09
86
H
2
2
= 0.3391*15.489*
8.8
2
2
= 203.36 KN
OVERTURNING
0
= 203.36*
H
3
= 203.36*
8.8
3
= 596.52 KN-m
1853.09
596.52
= 3.1065 > 2
Hence safe.

SLIDING
lw
P
=
0.45652.515
203.36
= 1.44 <1.5
Hence UNSAFE
To make it safe against sliding, we have to provide a shear key.

Net moment M = 1853.09 - 596.52
M = 1256.57
Distance x of application of resultant from toe is =
lM
lw
=
1256.57
652.515
= 1.926 m
ECCENTRICITY
e =
b
2
- = 2.555- 1.926 = 0.629 <
b
6
=> j
b
6
[ =
5.11
6
=0.857
Pressure"P
1
" at toe =
lw
b
j1 +
6c
b
[ =
625.515
5.11
j1 +
60.629
5.11
[ = 212.816 < 245 KN/m
2
(S.B.C)
Hence safe
Pressure"P
2
at heel =
lw
b
j1 -
6c
b
[ =
625.515
5.11
j1 -
60.629
5.11
[ = 32.0038 KN m
2

Pressure p at junction of stem with toe slab is P = 212.816
212.816-32.0038
5.11
u.94
P = 179.55 KN/m
2

87
Pressure at junction of stem with heel base P

i
= 212.816 -
212.816-32.0038
5.11
S.S7
P
i
= 86.49 KN/m
2

A

0.94 0.6 3.57
D E B C

5.1 m

above the toe slab is neglected. Thus two forces are acting on it:
Downward weight of slab per unit area = 0.73*1*1*25 = 18.25 KN/m
2

Hence net pressure intensities will be = 212.816-18.25
= 194.566 KN/m
2
under D
88
And 179.55-18.25=161.305 KN/m

2
under E
1
2
|194.S66 -161.SuS] .94 =15.63 KN
From E = j
86.49+(2179.555)
86.49+179.555
[
0.94
3
= 0.524 m
Bending moment at E = 86.49*.524 = 45.320 KN-m
= 45.320*1u
6
N-mm
H
u
at E = 4.17*bending moment at E
= 180.22 KN-mm
d = _
M
u
R
u
R
u=
0.138fck
d = _
180.2210
6
10002.761

d = 255.486 mm
As
t
=
0.5 ]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6M
u
]ckbd
2
_*bd
As
t
=
0.520
415
_1 -_1 -
4.6180.2210
6
201000400
2
_*1000*440
As
t
= 1475.94 mm
2

Development lengthI
d
= 47 = 47*12 = 564 mm
Providing 50 mm clear side cover, actual length available = 0.74-0.05(740-50) = 630
mm
89
630 mm<I
d

Hence safe
0.121000
100

0.121000
100
j
500+400
2
[ = 540 mm
2

q
=
n
4
*8
2
= 50.265 mm
2

Down ward weight of soil 8.07 m high
1
2
j
86.49+32.003
1
[ S.S7 = 211.51 at 0.755 m from B
Total shear force at B = 211.51+446.236+65.15 = 722.896 KN
Bending moment at B = [446.236*1.785]+[65.15*1.785]-[211.51*.755]= 753.13 KN-m
H
u
= 1.5*753.13 = 1129*1u
6
N-mm
d = _
112910
6
10002.761
= 415 mm.
90
Keep same total depth of 500 mm as that of toe slab and thickness is reduced to 440 mm
at edge section
A
st
=
0.5]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6M
u
]ckbd
2
_*bd
A
st
=
0.520
415
_1 -_1 -
4.6547.1610
6
201000440
2
_*1000*440 = 4330.25 mm
2

1000
n
4
20
2
4330.25
= 72.54 = 70 mm c/c
left of B
0.12
100
1uuu j
400+500
2
[ = S4u mm
2

Shear stress
0
=
1.5122.81000
1000400
= 0.4605 N/mm
2

From IS: 456 table -19
100
A
st
bd
= 100*
4330.25
1000400
= 1.08 N/mm
2

The obtained value 1.o8 lies between 1.00 and 1.25.
By interpolation method we obtain the value 0.628
So, 0.46<0.62
steel.
91
m only.
Hence revised E
1
= 8.5-0.5 = 8 m
Moment M = k
u
H
1
3
6
= 0.3391*
15.4898
3
6
= 448.197 Kn-m = 448.197*1u
6
N-mm
H
u
= 1.5*448.197*1u
6
= 672.296*1u
6
N-mm
d = _
672.29610
6
10002.761
= 493.45 mm
A
st
=
0.5]ck
]
_1 -_1 -
4.6448.19710
6
201000540
2
_*1000*540 = 2459.812 mm
2

1000
n
4
20
2
2459.124
=127.7 mm
Actual A
st
provided =
1000
n
4
20
2
100
= 3141.592 mm
2

J
i
= 440+
540-440
8
b = 440+1`2.5*h (in meters)
Now, A
st

H
3
d
, (or) H = (A
st
J)
1
3

92
Hence
h
H
1
= j
A
st
|
d
|
A
st
d
[
Where;
A
st
i
A
st
J
i
1

If A
st
i
=
1
2
A
st
,
A
st
|
A
st
=
1
2

h
H
1
= j
1
2
d
|
d
[
1
3

h = E
1
*j
440+12.5h
2540
[
1
3
= 8j
440+12.5h
2540
[
1
3
= 0.7797(44u +12.S b)
1
3

b
3
= 0.4740(440+12.5h)
b
3
- 5.9259h-208.59 = 0
H = 6.26 m half the bars can be curtailed of 12 = 240 mm or d = 540 mm whichever is
h = 6.26 0.54 = 5.72 m.
A
st
|
A
st
=
1
4
.
Hence
h
H
1
= j
1
4
d
|
d
[
1
3

93
h = 8j
440+12.5h
4540
[
1
3

b
3
= 0.2370(440+12.5*h)
b
3
- 2.962h-104.296 = 0
h = 4.9168 m
Bars extended by 250 mm beyond this. Thus h = 4.9168-0.3 4.668 m
Check for shear:
P = ka
H
2
2
= 0.339*15.489*
8
2
2
= 168.07 KN
F
u
= 1.5*168.07 = 252.113 KN
0
=
252.1113
1000540
1uuu = 0.4668 N/mm
2

100
A
st
bd
=
1003141.5926
1000540
= 0.58
0.4668 < 0.5 (
0
<
c
)
Hence safe
1
12
|6uu +Suu] = 550 mm
0.12
100
2

Using 12 mm bars, A
q
= 113.097mm
2
s
Spacing = 171.35 mm
However provide 12 mm bars @ 150 mm c/c at the inner face of the wall, along its
length
94
Design of shear key:-

The wall is unsafe in sliding, and hence shear key will have to be provided below the
stem.
Let the depth of shear key = a. Intensity of passive earth pressure Pp developed in front of
the key depends upon the soil pressure p in front of the key.
Pp = Kp*p= 2.948*179.555 = 529.50 KN/m
2
Total passive pressure Pp = pp*a = 529.50a
Sliding force at shear key level PH = 3(4+a)
2
Weight of soil between bottom of base and shear key level = 5.11a * 15.489 = 79.14a
. w= 652.515 + 79.14a
Hence for equilibrium of wall, permitting F.S = 1.5 against sliding we have,
1.S =
.w+Pp
PH
=
.5(652.515+79.14u)+529.50u
3(4+u)^2

Solving the above equation we get a = 118.93 ~119 mm
However, provide a minimum value of a = 300 mm. Keep width of key as 300mm.

95
STRUCTURAL DETAILING

Figure 8.9 Structural Detailing of Retaining Wall
96
CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSIONS
Hence by taking different considerations into view design procedure is adopted
and in this we adopt the one which is more economic in cost and also which ensure more
stability and more service life. The shear key which is provided in Design 3 greatly
increase the frictional force of the retaining wall by passive earth pressure which increase
the stability of retaining wall.
All drawings were performed in AUTOCAD STRUCTURAL DETAILING
2013 along with reinforcement details of retaining wall. By designing the retaining wall
manually and incorporating software for design the project is good example of combined
manual and technological Success.

97
CHAPTER-13
REFERENCES
1. Dr. B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain and Arun Kumar Jain (2007.)Limit State
design Of Reinforced Concrete, Laxmi Publications (P) LTD, New Delhi.
2. Gopal Ranjan, and Rao, A.S.R. (2000). Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics , 2nd
Edition, New Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers, New Delhi
3. IS 456:2000 COP Plain And Reinforced Concrete
4. Arora., K.R. (2003). Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 6th Edition,
Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi.
5. Basudhar, P.K., and Madhav, M.R. (1980), Simplified Passive Earth Pressure
Analysis, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, April, GT4,
470-474.
6. Choudhury, D. and Singh, S. (2006); "New approach for estimation of static and
seismic active earth pressure", Geotechnical and Geological Engineering,
Springer, Netherlands, 24(1), 117-127.
7. Das, B.M. (2002). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th Edition, Thomson
Brooks/Cole.
8. Murthy, V.N.S. (2002). Principles of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, 5th Edition, UBS Publishers Distributors Ltd., New Delhi.
9. http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/Foundation_Engineering/
TOC-M2.html
10. http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/video.php?subjectId=105107120
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retaining_wall
12. AutoCAD Structural Detailing reinforcement manual English 2011
13. Structural Design & Drawing Vol II - By Dr. D Krishnamurthy

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Project Report

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

5.3 Field Density Test by Sand Replacement method 42

Fig 2.9 Deep seated Failure 11

Fig 5.5 Direct Shear Test Apparatus 39

= characteristic strength of steel

= coefficient of earth pressure at rest

= safe bearing capacity

Figure 1.1 Back fill and Retaining wall at the site

iii. Flexible Retaining wall

Figure 2.2 Forces Acting on Retaining Structures

2.4.1 At rest Pressure

Figure 2.3 Earth Pressure at Rest

Figure 2.4 Active Pressure

2.4.3 Passive Earth Pressure (p

Figure 2.5 Passive Pressure

Figure2.6 Failure due to overturning.

2.5.2 Failure due to Sliding

Figure2.7 Failure due to sliding

Figure 2.8 Failure due to base pressures

2.5.4 Deep Seated Shear Failure

Figure 2.9 Deep Seated Failure

Figure 3.1 Gravity Wall

Figure 3.2 Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

Figure 3.3 Cantilever Wall

b. Counterfort retaining wall

Figure 3.4 Counterfort Retaining Wall

Figure 3.5 Cantilever sheet pile wall

Figure 3.6 Anchored sheet pile wall

Fig 3.7 Construction Stages of a Diaphragm Wall

Figure 3.9 Crib Wall

Figure 4.1 Earth Pressure at rest

Figure 4.2 Active Earth Pressure

Figure 4.3 Passive Earth Pressure

4.3 Derivation of Lateral Earth Pressures

Figure 4.4 At rest pressure

Figure 4.5 Force acting

Ko = Co efficient of at rest earth pressure

Figure 4.6 ko Values for Different Soils

Figure 4.7 Surcharge forces

Poz =P1H1 + P2H2

Figure 4.8 Effect of Water Table

4.3.2 Rankines Active Earth Pressure theory:

Figure 4.9 Rankines Active Earth Pressure

Figure 4.10 Active Earth Pressure State and Soil Wedge

Figure 3.11 Active State

Figure 4.12 Passive State

To achieve passive condition there should be sufficient wall movement.

Figure 4.13 coulomb's passive pressure and pressure wedge

Figure5.1 Standard Compaction Test Apparatus

Figure 5.2 Base Plate and Rammer

Figure 5.3 Trimming extra soil

Figure 5.4 Weigh of Compacted mould

5.2 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Figure 5.5 Direct shear test apparatus

Figure 5.6 Failure of soil Sample

Table 5.1 Shear Stress Values

5.3 SAND REPLADEMENT METHOD (FIELD DENSITY)

3. Cylindrical calibrating container with an internal diameter of 100mm/200mm and

Figure 5.8 Calibrating container

Calculation for density of soil

Figure 7.1 Cantilever retaining wall subjected to forces

Figure7.2 Sliding of Retaining Wall