Physiological changes (Marin et al. 1992; Wells and Gilmor 1997; Smith et al.

2010) Interfere with metabolic processes, inhibits plant growth, and ultimately reduction of crop productivity (Miteva 2002; Stoeva et al. 2004) Toxicity result from the binding of metals to sulfhydryl (-SH) groups in proteins, leading to inhibition of activity or disruption of structure, or from the displacing of an essential element resulting in deficiency effects (Van Assche and Clijsters 1990; Delnomdedieu et al. 1994) Exess As stimulate the formation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species, perhaps resulting in oxidative stress (Dietz et al. 1999) As competes with phosphate in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and replaces it to form unstable adenosine disphosphate-As(V) -> leads to the disruption of energy flows in cells (Hartley-Whitaker et al. 2001b; Meharg and Hartley-Whitaker 2002; Cozzolino et al. 2010) (Observed in plant: yeast (Rothstein and Donovan, 1963; phytoplankton (Planas and Healey 1978; Blum 1996); A. thaliana (Clark et al. 2003) Impact of arsenic toxicity on growth and productivity Loss of fresh and dry biomass of roots as well as shoots, loss of yield and fruit production, morphological changes (Carbonell-Barrachina et al. 1998; Shaibur et al. 2008; Mokgalaka-Matlala et al. 2008; Srivastava et al. 2009) Carbonell-Barrachina et al. (1998) reported that in bean plants foliar mass (leaf dry weight) had an average reduction of 50% and fruit production or yieldl (fruit dry weight) showed even a higher reduction of 84% compared with controls when As was present in the growing solutions. Miteva(2002) reported decrease in growth of both the vegetative and root system, of tomato plants at higher As concentrations Alteration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), chlorophylls and photosynthesis system by As As damages the chloroplast membrane and disorganizes the functions of integral photosynthetic process (Stoeva and Bineva, 2003). Significant decrease in pigment synthesis due to the lack of adaptive adjustments of pigment synthesis to high As levels. Rate of CO2 fixation and functional activity of PSII were reduced in plants (young maize plants; Stoeva and Bineva, 2003) Impact of As on membrane veracity, nutrient acquisition and water relation As may interfere with plant metabolism, impair nutrient uptake, and/or may simply compete with essential plant nutrients (Meharg and Macnair 1990) As is known to compete with plant P uptake (Mokgalaka-Matlala et al. 2008) (high As(III) dose damaged cell metabolism leading to inhibition of P uptake) Membrane damage leads to unbalanced nutrient uptake and water content in plant cells, and the stomatal conductance is diminished. Negative effects of As on transpiration process are due to the disturbed uptake and transport of water (Stoeva and Bineva 2003) Generation of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation

In plants, reactive oxygen species are continuously produced as unwanted products of various metabolic pathways that are localized in mitochondria, chloroplasts (Navrot et al. 2007) As may create conditions in the thylakoids where the energy level exceeds the amounts that can be dissipated by the metabolic pathways of the chloroplast. As a consequence, the electron transport processes in thylakoid membranes are impeded and toxic symptoms develop (maize: Stoeva et al. 2004)

At the level of carbon input into metabolism, AsV, AsIII are all able to inhibit net photosynthesis (Stoeva and Bineva 2003) The light harvesting apparatus can be affected, with decrease seen in chlorophyll content and photosystem II activity. As may reduce photosynthetic electron flow through the thylakoid membranes, decreasing the potential to produce ATP and NADPH, both of which are needed to fuel the carbon fixation reactions.