Punishment

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 7+ PUNISHMENT
RETRIBUTIVE'PUNISHMENT or retaliation seems
to express the principle of justice or fairness in
exchange. The Mosaic injunction that "thou
shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for
tooth, burning for burning, \vound for wound,
stripe for stripe," occurs in the context of other
passages which declare the compensation in
goods which an injured party shall receive for
the loss of or damage to his chattel. But it is
also accompanied by ordinances \vhich impose
the death penalty for wrongs other than the
taking of a life.
CHAPTER 74: PUNISHj\;ENT 489
is one of the most controversial ques- ment should yield, the only desire it should
in the field of moral and political thought, satisfy, is that of seeing the moral la1 upheld.
psychology and theology as \vell. 'Ve should punish only because \ve have, under
major opposition in the tradition of the the lTIorallaw, a duty to do so.
books is bet\veen those who think that Kant castigates as utilitarian every theory of
,n1,,:nnlt;1.1l need only be inherently just, and punishment which directs it to the service of
vvho think it cannot be justified without anything besides strict justice-such as the ref-
to its utility or expediency. While ormation of the criminal, the deterrence of
debate goes on, for more than t\venty others, the welfare of society, or the slaking of
punishments in actual practice- the thirst for vengeance. "Juridical punish-
in accordance vvith the lavv or uncon- ment," he says, "can never be administered
bv it-tend generally to be severe and Inerely as a means for promoting another good,
or ferocious. Not until Beccaria either \vith regard to the Crilninal himself, or
e 18th, and Bentham in the 19th century, to Civil Society, but must in all cases be im-
the discussion of punishment lead to ma- posed only because the individual on whom it is
reforms in the spirit and provisions of the inflicted has a Crime. .. The Penal
al codes. But the opposite positions in the Law is a Categorical Imperative; and woe to
ate across the centuries are never without him who creeps through the serpent-\vindings
tical significance for penal institutions and of Utilitarianisill to discover some advantage
itive measures, even when theory is not that may discharge him froITI the Justice of
ediately reflected in practice. The specula- Punishn1ent, or even from the due measure of
significance of the issue is, ho\vever, ahvays it."
ediately apparent. Although justice and \Vhat shall determine the mode and measure
are lTIOre fundamental and comprehensive of punishment? Kant ans\vers: "It is just the
s. than punishment, this one problem of Principle of Equality by \vhich the pointer of
ishment-the question of its purpose- the Scale of Justice is made to incline no more to
'cally tests the meaning of anyone's theory one side than the other. It may be rendered by
wand justice. saying that the undeserved evil \vhich anyone
may be that the issue cannot be fairly commits on another, is to be regarded as perpe-
ed in terms of purpose. To use that word trated on himself.. This is the Right of Re-
beg the question, since one of the basic po- taliation (ius talionis); and properly understood
11S in the controversy appears to be that it is the only Principle which ... can definitely
'shment has no purpose in the sense of serv- assign both the quality and the quantity of a
some end beyond itself, or producing some just penalty. All other standards are \vavering
red consequence in the future. This is the and uncertain; and on account of other consid-
ry-shared by Kant and Hegel-that pun- erations involved in them, they contain no
ent should be purely retributive. principle confornlable to the sentence of pure
ccording to this vie\v the effect of the pun- and strict Justice."
ent upon the wrongdoer, or upon others
.se conduct may be affected by punishments
edoutor threatened, must not be taken into
nnt at all. Nothing should be sought except
reservation of the balance sheet of justice,
eing that every wrong is duly requited by
oportionate measure of punishlnent. Nor is
requital purely retributive if it considers
person except the wrongdoer himself. That
ishment of the transgressor may assuage the
llgs of those he has injured, or even satisfy a
revenge, should have no motivating
e.The only pleasure the spectacle ofpunish-
lem of punishment in its most
for the lllOSt part considering
questions \vithout regard to the I < _
sin, crime, and vice; or to the rllTTPj-A _
tween divine and human
t\veen punishment by the state and
ily (i.e., punishment as involved in
ment of la\v and punishment as an
of education or training). These
ized topics belong to other chapters:
ishnlent as affecting the formation
to the chapters on EDUCATION and
VICE; punishn1ent as administered
to the chapter on FAMILY; divine
punishments to the chapters on
and SIN.
The basic ideas in terms of
cussion of punishment proceeds are,
the subjects of the chapters on
LAW. One other chapter-PLEAsURE
-is of peculiar relevance to the rl ,Ol"'1-." ....
the nature of punishnlent.......... ....... '-.&..I. ...
ture of punishlnent there seems to be
difference of opinion in the tradi tion
thought. Punishment is generally
the infliction of pain, though some
tinguish between corporeal and
ishment according as the pain ............ ... '-' ''-'-'-A.
pain of sense or the pain of deprivation
Imprisonment, for always
pain of loss-the loss
also carry with it the suffering
ships or even tortures. The
damned is, according to some
corporeal and spiritual-the agony
and the anguish of the soul rI""' ....... 1... T""'ri
love and presence.
IF THERE IS LITTLE DISPUTE about
punishment, the opposite situation
concerning its purpose. \\:1'hy men
488
T
HE problem of punishment divides into a
number of questions. In what does pun-
ishment consist? What purpose should punish-
ment serve, or what should be its principle or
reason? \Vho has the authority to punish and
under \vhat conditions shall this authority be
exercised? Who shall be punished and who shall
be exempt from punishment? 'Vhat are the
forms or kinds of punishment? Are any of these
reprehensible either in principle or for their
consequences? Should there be a proportion
between the severity of punishment and the
gravity of the offense? Can a person punish
himself? Do men desire to be punished?
These questions apply, though not \vith
equal emphasis, to the three major types of
\vrongdoing in relation to \vhich men discuss
the nature and the need of punishnlent, its j us-
tice or its expediency. Punishment is tradition-
ally considered in relation to vice, to crime, and
to sin. According to the type of \vrongdoing
being considered, the punitive agent rnay be
the wrongful individual himself or his fanlily,
his state, his church or God.
The lines \vhich separate these areas of the
problem of punishment cannot be sharply
in all cases, for as certain acts simultane-
ously violate the nl0ral, the civil, and the di-
vine la,v, they may also cause a person to be
simultaneously subject to punishment from di-
verse sources. The wrong or injury which pun-
ishluent is supposed to redress Inay in son1e
cases fall under none of these headings, as, for
exanlple, acts of \var or rebellion. It is son1e-
times questioned \vhether the theory of punish-
ment remains the same when punitive steps are
taken by one state against some or all the peo--
pIe of another; or again, when a government ap-
plies penalties for a rebellion engaged in by
members of its own community.
In this chapter, \ve shall deal \vith the prob-
THE GREAT IDEA.S
CHAPTER 74: PUNISHMEl'-JT
490
"You have heard," Christ declares in the
Sermon on the Mount, "that it hath been s i ~
An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. But I
say unto you, That ye shall resist not evil; but
whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek,
turn to him the other also. And if any man will
sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let
him have thy cloak also." This passage has
sometimes been .taken to mean that all punish-
ment is simply vengeance; and that instead of
returning injury for injury, the Christian
should love his enemies and forgive them. "If
you think someone has vvronged you," Princess
Mary says to Prince Andre\v in War and Peace,
"forget it and forgive! We have no right to
punish."
But the Christian view of punishment may
not be the same when the punishment of the
evildoer is a question for the state rather than
for the individual. "Avenge not yourselves,"
St. Paul commands; "for it is written, Ven-
geance is mine, I will repay, saith the Lord/'
The individual need not avenge himself, for
God punishes the wicked; not only God, but
the ruler of the earthly state \vho, St. Paul says,
"is the minister of God to thee for good. But if
thou do that which is evil, be afraid; for he
beareth not the sword in vain; for he is the
minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath
upon him that doeth evil."
A life for a life appears to be the symbolic
statement of the lex talionis in the Greek as well
as the Hebrew tradition. "Justice claims aloud
her debt," the Chorus explains in the Choephoroe
of Aeschylus. "Who in blood hath dipped the
steel, deep in blood her meed shall feel. . . .
Whoso' er shall take the s\"ord, shall perish by
the sV\
l
ord." But as Aristotle points out-and
similarly l\quinas in his comn1ent on the lex
talionis of the Old Testan1ent-simple reciproci-
ty does not detennine the rnode of retribu-
tion. "People want even the justice of Rhada..
manthus to mean this: Should a man suffer what
he did, right justice would be done." Yet, Aris-
totle points out, "in many cases, reciprocity and
rectificatory justice are not in accord, e.g., if an
official has inflicted a wound, he should not be
wounded in return, and ifsomeone has wounded
an official, he ought not to be wounded only
but punished in addition." Retaliation consists
in reciprocity only if it is "in accordance with a
proportion, and not on the basis of a pre
equal return."
Punishment as retaliation may seem '
inseparable from re,:enge. Yet, accordi
Lucretius, the s u r r e ~ e r of primitive fre
for the restrictions of civilized life is moti
by the desire to substitute equitable re
tion for unlimited vengeance. "Mankind
out with a life of brute force, lay exn'
from its feuds; and therefore the more
it submitted of its own free will to la
stringent codes. As each man moved by
took measures to avenge himself with
severity than is no\v permitted by eq
laws, for this reason men grew sick of the
brute force."
Hegel tries to clarify \vhat he regard
popular confusion of retribution with rev
"In that condition ofsociety," he writes, "
there are neither magistrates nor laws, p
Inent alvvays takes the form of revenge; re
remains defective inasmuch as it is the ac
subjective will." It is understandable tHa
ribution should be objected to on the g
that "it looks like something immoral, i.e.
revenge, and that thus it may pass for
thing personal. Yet it is not something pe
but the concept itself which carries out re
tion. 'Vengeance is mine, saith the Lord,'
Bible says.. 0 The Eumenides sleep
crime awakens them, and hence it is tH
act of crime itself which vindicates itself.
The apparent contradiction ip the id
and difference of retribution and revenge
in Hegel's opinion, be resolved. On the
hand, it can be said that "the annulm
crime is retribution insofar as retribuf
conception is an 'injury of the injury.'"
other hand, it can be said that "the annu
crime in this sphere where right is immedi
principally revenge, which is just in its co
insofar as it is retributive." The demand
this contradiction be resolved "is the de
for justice not as revenge but as punish
Hegel's resolution seems to be in ter
distinction between the particular and t
versa!. "When the right against crime
form of revenge, it is only right implic
right in the form of right, i.e., no act ofr
is justified. Instead of the injured party, t
jured universal no,,, comes on the scene, an
its proper actuality in the court of law. It
s over the pursuit and the avenging of
c, and this pursuit consequently ceases to
he subjective and contingent retribution of
nge, and is transfonned into the genuine
nciliation of right vvith itself, i.e., into pun-
t " n.
this conception of punishment, Hegel
ant decries every utilitarian purpose for
hment. Such misconceptions of punish-
arise, he says, from the supposition that
crime and its annulment are "unqualified
'which makes it seem "quite unreason-
o will an evil n1erely because 'another evil
re already.' To give punishment this su-
ial character of an evil is, amongst the vari-
heories of punishment, the fundamental
pposition of those which regard it as a pre-
vc, a deterrent, a threat, as reformative,
and what on these theories is supposed to
from punishment is characterized equally
cially as a good. But ... the precise point
e is wrong and the righting of it. If you
tHat superficial attitude toward punish-
you brush aside the objective treatment
righting of vvrong."
SSUE WOULD SEEM to be a conflict between
e and expediency, with the utilitarians
ifying retribution '\vith revenge and de-
ing that punishment serve some good or
tesome evil. But sometimes the question
ther justice and expediency are compati-
he debate on the treatment of the My-
ns, which Thucydides reports, Clean
pon the Athenians to show no mercy. to
rebellious subjects. "Their offence," he
"was not involuntary, but of malice and
rate," and they deserve to be punished.
u follow my advice, you ,,,ill do what is
wards the Mytilenians, and at the same
xpedient.... For if they were right in .
ing, you must be wrong in ruling. How-
if, right or wrong, you determine to rule,
ust carry out your principle and punish
ytilenians as your interest requires."
dotus objects to the policy of putting the
enians to death on the ground that it is
question of justice but of expediency.
are not in a court of justice," he says, "but
491
in a political assembly; and the question is not
justice, but how to make the Mytileniansuseful
to Athens. . . . I consider it far more useful for
the preservation of our empire to put up vvith
injustice, than to put to death, however justly,
those \vhom it is our interest to keep alive. As
for Cleon's idea that in punishment the claims
of justice and expediency can both be satisfied,
facts do not confirm the possibility of such a
combination."
In the chapter on justice in Utilitarianism,
Mill seems to place justice above expediency.
but he also seems to reduce retribution to re-
venge and call it just. "The sentiment of jus-
tice,",vhich includes as "one of its elements ...
the desire to punish," Mill identifies with "the
natural feeling of retaliation or vengeance."
Retribution, or the giving of "evil for evil," he
says, "becomes closely connected with the sen-
timent of justice and is universally included in
the idea." The principle of "giving to each
what they deserve," he adds, "that is, good for
good as well as evil for evil, is not only included
within the idea of Justice as we have defined it,
but is a proper object orthat intensity of senti-
ment, which places the Just, in human estima-
tion, above the simply Expedient."
Other vvriters seem to think that the utility
of punishment is not incoInpatible \vith its re-
tributive justice. The great theologians, for ex-
ample, considering the difference between the
eternal punishment of the damned in Hell, and
the cleansing punishment of the repentant in
Purgatory, do not find it impossible for divine
justice to include both absolute retribution and
punishment which may be remedial as vvell as
retributive. Purely retributive punishment
seems justifiable to them, but they "do not
think that punisHn1.ent can ever be justified
simply by its utility-by the good it achieves-
without any reference to the retaliation of evil
for evil.
In the context of saying that the institution
of slavery aillong men is a just punishment for
Adam's sin, and that "God knows how to award
fi t punishments for every variety of offence,"
Augustine observes that "we must not only do
harm to no man, but also restrain him from sin
or punish his sin, so that either the Inanhimself
who is punished may profit by his experience or
others be warned of his example." Here there
TIlE GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 74: PUNISH11ENT
492
seems to be no thought that retribution ex-
cludes a reformative or deterrent use of punish-
ment. Aquinas even more explicitly combines
the remedial and the deterrent utility of pun--
ishment with the function of punishment to
preserve the order of justice by meting out an
equitable retribution.
In willing justice, God wills punishment,
according to Aquinas. "The order of justice
belongs to the order of the universe; and this
requires that penalty should be dealt out to
sinners." But just retribution is not the only
reason for punishment. Sometimes it is "for the
good of those who are punished," sOmetimes
"for the amendment of others." These reasons
for punishment apply to human as \vell as to
divine law.. "\\Then a thief is hanged, this is not
for his o"rn amendment, but for the sake of
others, who at least may be deterred from crime
through fear of punishment." Punishment is a
proper effect of human law, not merely be-
cause justice requires it, but because "the law
makes use of the fear of punishment in order
to ensure obedience."
In discussing the proportion between the
severity of the penalty and the gravity of the
fault in the punishment of sin under the Mosaic
la,v, Aquinas explains that in addition to the
reason of justice (that "a greater sin, other
things being equal, deserves a greater punish-
ment"), there is the purpose of reformation
("since men are not easily cured of habitual sin
except by severe punishments") and the pur-
pose of prevention ("for men are not easily de-
terred from such sins unless they be severely
punished"). I-Iere three reasons for punish-
n1ent are stated side by side. But in the opinion
of Aquinas retribution is more than the pri-
mary it is the one indispensable reason; for
punishment cannot be justified except as doing
the ,vork of justice.
THE VIEvV OF KANT AND Hegel that retribution
or retaliation is the only basis for punishment-
not merely the primary or the indispensable
reason-n1.eets its exact opposite in what ap-
pears to be the completely utilitarian theory of
punishment to be found in the writings of
Plato, ,Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.
In the Protagoras, arguing for the proposi tion
that virtue can be taught, Protagoras insists
that "no one punishes the evil-doer
son that he has done ,vrong-only
sonable fury of a beast acts in that
he who desires to inflict rational
does not retaliate for a past
be undone. He has regard to
desirous that the man who is f'"'I.lln1Ch"",rI
who sees him punished, may
doing wrong again. He punishes for
prevention, thus clearly implying that
capable of being taught."
PIato himself seems to adopt the
Protagoras. In the Latus-wherein he
the provisions of a penal code
equalled, in the tradition of the
anIy by the proposals
man is to be punished "because he
for that which is done can never be
in order that, in the future times, he,
who see him corrected, may utterly
tice, or at any rate abate much of
doing." Yet he also goes on to say
"should aim at the right measure
ment, and in all cases at the rfAC'Af'""TArf
ment." This qualification seems, in
balanced by his relnarks on the
which he thinks should be imposed
incurable \vho cannot profit from
and whose execution "would be an
other men not to offend."
The notion of desert in Plato's
ishment appeals to justice
any separation between retribution
In the Gorgias, Socrates says that
punishment is another name for
corrected when you do wrong." i\
who escapes punishlnent suffers a
than one who is punished, for he
ished and suffers retri bution,
Thereby justice is restored to his
judge who prescribes just
the soul, as the physician
right remedies cures the body.
who, having been unjust, goes
no deliverance from injustice."
The fact that just punishments
does not seelll to be the reason
be punished. Considering the ULJ.J.Cl.J. lL,.L'-'V
by gods and men, in the next
Socrates sumnlarizes his "lrrrl1nnprlt
that "the proper office of OUJt11s11ffi
1
enr
: he \vho is rightly punished ought either to
me better and profit by it, or he ought to
ade an example to his fello\vs, that they
see \vhat he suffers, and fear and become
cr. Those who are improved when they are
ished by gods and men, are those \vhose sins
curable; and they are improved, as in this
d so also in another, by pain and suffering."
e Plato, Hobbes places the reason for pun-
ent in the future rather than in the past-
utility to procure certain effects rather
in its effecting retaliation. He states it as a
fnature that "in revenges (that is, retribu-
of evil for evil), men look not at the greatness
evil past, but the greatness ofthe good tofol-
'\JVhereby ,ve are forbidden to inflict pun-
ent with any other design than for the cor-
n of the offender, or the direction of
rs." Anything else he calls "an act of hos-
'e chief ainl of punishment, in securing the
Ination and the deterrence of criminals,
es thinks, is to maintain public peace. "A
hUlent is an evil inflicted by public au-
y" on those who have transgressed the
the end that the will of men may there-
better be disposed to obedience." A
a penalty attached, is "not a law,
words. " It fails to achieve the. end of
is the same as the end of punish-
worst offenses-those to be pre-
by the most severe penalties-are
against individuals, but those that
nlost danger to the public."
also derives from naturalla,v the right
those who transgress that law, "for
and preventing the like offence," to
adds that"each transgression rnay be
to that degree, and with so much
as to nlake it an ill bargain. to the of-
him cause to repent, and terrify
doing the like." This theory of
applies not only to man living in a
but in civil society as well.
Rousseau describes the wise states-
one \vho knows how, by punishing
prevent them, he lays greater em-
the other motive for punishment-
.. of the crin1inal. "There is not a
could not be turned to SOlne
State has no right to put to death,
493
even for the sake of making an example, anyone
whom it can leave alive \vithout dan-geL" Or,
as Fetyukovitch says in his address to the jury
in the Brothers Karamazov: "The Russian court
does not exist for punishment only, but also for
the salvation of the criminal. Let other nations
think of retribution and the letter of the law,
\ve ,vill cling to the spirit and. the meaning-
the salvation and the reformation of the lost."
THIS GREAT ISSUE CONCERNING the reason for or
purpose of punishment seems to affect most of
the other questions which men raise about the
penalties to be imposed for wrongdoing-
whether the wrong is a sin, a crime, or a vicious
act, and whether it is God or the state, nature
or the individual himself, who inflicts the pain.
The reverse also seems to be true. These other
questions raise difficulties or issues "vhich test
the conflicting theories that punishment should
be a just retaliation exclusively, or should be
justified only by its consequences, or should
sonlehow be a combination of awarding just de-
serts and securing good effects.
For example, the question of how the various
modes and measures of punishment should be
determined and assigned to diverse acts of
\vrongdoing does not seem to be answerable in
the salne way \vhen the principle is simply retri-
bution and when the purpose of punishment is
reformation and deterrence. On the principle
of retribution the gravity of the offence ap-
pears to be the only determinant of the severity
of the punishment. The punishulent should fit
the crime, not the nature of the criminal as
someone capable of being benefitted by punish-
ment.
Kant and flegel do not think that the justi-
fication of the death penalty, for exan1ple, de-
pends on the curability or incurability of the
offender. Nor do they think that the taking of
the criminal's life should be motivated, as
Aquinas and Locke seem to suggest, by the
desire. to protect society frorn his future dep-
redations. It is sufficient that he has taken a
life, or committed some equally serious injury,
\vhich ought to be repaid by a proportionate
requital.
"What is involved in the action of the crim-
inal/' I-Iegel writes, "is not only the concept of
crinle, the rational aspect in crime as such
THE GREAI' IDEAS CHAPTER 74: PUNISHMENT
whether the individual \vills it or not, the as-
pect which the state has to vindicate, but also
the abstract rationality of the individual's voli-
tion. Since that is so," Hegel argues, "punish-
ment is regarded as containing the criminal's
right and hence by being punished he is as
honored as a rational being. He does not receive
this due of honor unless the concept and meas-
ure of his punishment are derived from his own
act. Still less does he receive it if he is treated
either as a harmful animal who has to be made
harmless, or with a view to deterring or re-
forming him."
On these grounds, Hegel criticizes Beccaria's
unqualified opposition to the death penalty.
In addition, he rejects Beccaria's theory that
"it could not be presumed that the readiness of
individuals to allow themselves to be executed
was included in the social contract." Rousseau
takes the diametrically opposite view. He argues
for the death penalty on the ground that' 'we
consent to die if we ourselves turn assassins" in
order to protect ourselves from falling victims
to assassins. In making this consent a part of
the social contract, Rousseau holds that "we
think only of securing [our own lives], and it is
not to be assumed that any of the parties then
expects to get hanged."
Hegel disagrees with both Beccaria and
Rousseau. According. to him, the state is not
based upon a social contract; nor does he admit
that "its fundamental essence [involves] the
unconditional protection and guarantee of the
life and property of members of the public as
individuals. On the contrary," he holds, "it is
that higher entity"-the state-'-"which even
lays claim to this very life and property and
demands its sacrifice."
The state, therefore, according to Hegel, can-
not be denied the right of inflicting capital
punishment. Hegel admits that "Beccaria's re-
quirement that men should give their consent
to being punished is right enough," but he
adds that "the criminal gives his consent already
by his very act. The nature of the crime, no
less than the private will of the individual,
requires that the injury ini tiated by the crim-
inal should be annulled. Howeverthatmay be,"
he continues, "Beccaria's endeavor to have
capital punishment abolished has had beneficial
effects." Because of the efforts made by Joseph
II and Napoleon to abolish it,
to see," Hegel thinks, "which
the death penalty and which do
punishment has in consequence
as in fact should be case
extreme punishment."
The atti tude to\vard the
well as toward all other PU:OISJhm.ents
when the only purpose of pUJD.ISllmlent
welfare of society and the
individuals, whether they are actual
tial offenders. The modes and
ishment must then be f1PlrprlrYl1f,prI
ing their effectiveness as means to
view. Montesquieu discusses the
various systems of law entirely in
success in preventing crime.
not seem to think that punishment
the character of the individual, he
a certain proportion between the
the offense may tend to reduce the
gravity of crimes. "In Russia," he
the punishment of robbery and
same, they always murder."
In general, Montesquieu is
duly severe punishments,
cruel and unusual punishments,
the grounds of injustice as for the
liberty and public morals. Hobbes,
Rousseau similarly discuss the
ishment wi th reference to its
Montesquieu, they face the nl"hlo.......
same measure or degree
be equally effective for the ......... r',... ..... ,.,
mationand deterrence. Severe nPf''l11HJ:H'
ample, may have a greater deterrent
on potential offenders than
punishment, but they may also
criminals instead of refonning them.
The conflict of principles in the
tion of punishlnents seems to be
marked in the case of those who try
retri bution wi th utility. If, for
death penalty is the just desert
should it be applied on the
tion, even though a n"ll'"t"lrl,I" ... yy.",' ..
reformed by milder treatment? If
alties were to prove highly effective
rents, should they be applied to
which deserve less severe ... 0+-,... I ." 1- "" ...... <'
to reduce the amount of crime?
SEEMS TO BE AGREEMENT for the most
who shall have the authority to punish
shall be subject to punishment, in the
of men to one another, to the state, and
ode Punishment seems to be annexed to
as .indispensable for its enforcement,. so
whoever has the authority to set rules of
tict for another also has the authority to
se penalties for their violation. Yet the
n that punishment is a necessary sanction
aw-which is apparently shared by those
take the retributive and those who take
utilitarian view of punishment-does not
to fit both views equally well, at least not
e extent that the end of law. and its .en-
ll1ent is the common good.. or the. public
are.
ain, it seems to be generally agreed that
1responsibility on the part of offenders is
dispensable condition of just punishment
heir misdeeds. Unless the sinful or the
nal act is voluntary, unless it is intentional
t than accidental-or if negligent, capable
lng attributed to a willful error of judg-
-the act is without fault and the agent
ut guilt. But although those who make
hment retributive and those who make it
ative or deterrent seem to agree upon
sibility as prerequisite, this principle
seem to be equally consistent with
least not to the extent that
,vP1-n1'"'l,I-:l r',,{T punishment may deter others
from the responsibility of the per-
of responsibility raises other
e.g., the metaphysical issue about
identity, on which Locke takes the
unless the human individual is an
substance, he cannot deserve subse-
punlshnleIlt for his prior acts; and the
will and causality, on which Hume's
seems to be that unless human actions
to causal necessity, a man cannot be
for his acts or "become the object of
or vengeance."
there is the problem of a natural
punishment and of the penalties which
imposes for wrongdoing to fulfill
falniliar statelnent that virtue is
and vice its own punishment,
interpreted to mean that virtue
495
and vice are intrinsically good and evil, and
sometilnes to mean that through their natural
consequences they heap benefit or injury on
their possessor.
Augustine, for example, says that by the sins
which he committed God did justly punish
him, for "every disorder in .the soul is its own
punishment"; and Kantdistinguishes juridical
from natural punishment "in which Crime as
Vice punishes itself, and does not as such come
within the cognizance of the Legislator. " The
other interpretation seems to be represented by
Hobbes' theory that "intemperance is
rally punished with diseases ... injustice with
the violence of enemies ... cowardice with op-
pression." In the chain. of consequences started
by any action, he discerns the pains which are
"the natural punishments of those actions that
are the beginning of more harm than good."
But according to Freud it is the craving for
punishment rather than the punishment which
is natural, i.e., psychologically determined. In-
dividuals punish themselves or seek to be pun-
ished for what is either real or fancied guilt.
"The unconscious need for punishment plays a
part in every neurotic disease," Freud writes.
"It behaves like a part of the conscience, like
the prolongation of conscience into theuncon-
scious; and it must have the same origin as con'"
science; that is to say, it will correspond to a
piece of aggressiveness which has been internal-
ized and taken over by the super-ego. If only
the words were less incongruous, we should be
justified ... in calling it 'an unconscious sense
of guil t.' "
Whatever its psychological validity, Freud's
theory does not resolve the moral issue con-
cerning the justice or utility of punishment.
Nor does it eliminate the possibility of other
motives for submitting to punishment volun-
tarily. Socrates in the Crito explains that he re-
fuses to escape from the death penalty he thinks
he does not deserve, in order to uphold the law
which is itself just even though in his own case
it has been unjustly applied by men. Thoreau
and Gandhi refuse to obey laws their con-
sciences cannot approve, but do not resist the
state's demand that they be punished for the
law's infraction. In an unjust society, going to
prison is for them the necessary fulfillment of
the revolution begun by civil disobedience.
497
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II, SECT 7-13
26c-28b esp SECT 8 26d-27a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306b-c / Intro.
Metaphysic of Morals, 393d / Science of Right,
. 446b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 99-
100 37b-38a; ADDITIONS, 56 125b-c
lb. The retributive purpose of punishment: the
lex talionis; retaliation and revenge; the
righting of a wrong
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:1S,24; 9:6; 34 /
Exodus, 21 :12-34 esp 21 :24-25 / Leviticus,
19: 18 ; 24: 16- 21 / Numbers, 3S:10-34 / Deuter-
onon1Y, 19:11--13,21; 32:3S,41-43 / Judges,
15:1-8; 16:21-30 / I Samuel, 24:12-(D) I
Kings, 24:13 / II Samuel, 13:22-29; 22:48
---CD) II Kings, 13 :22-29; 22:48 / II Kings,
9:4- IO-(D) IV Kings, 9:4-10 / Psabns, 58;
79: 10- 12 ; 94:1; 149-(D) Psalms, 57; 78:10-
12; 93:1; 149 / Proverbs, 6:34-35; 20:22;
24 :29 / Isaiah, 59 :I7-19-(D) Isaias, 59 :17"-19
/ Jeremiah, 5; 9: 1- 11 ; 46:10; 50:15,28; SI:I1
-CD) Jeremias, S; 9: 1- 11 ; 46:10; 50 :15,28;
51:11 / Ezekiel, 25 esp 25 :12-1S-(D) Eze-
chiel, 25 esp 2S :12-15 / Micah, S:IS-(D)
Aficheas, S:14 / Nahum, 1:2--3
ApOCRYPHA: Judith, 2 :1-12; 9:1-4; 16:17-(D)
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 74: PUNISHMENT
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: \Vhen the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For exan1ple, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-
hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposiuln, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164-
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, eH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265--283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45-(D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
he general theory of punishment
The nature of punishment: the pain of
sense and the pain of loss
4: HOMER: Odyssey, BK XI. [S68-600] 248d-
249a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VII, CH 13 [1153bI4-20]
405a
LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK III [978-
1023] 42d-43b
VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [594-627] 227a-b
AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XIX, CH 13 519a-
520a
9 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 48,
AA 5-6 263a-264d; Q 64, A3 337a-c; PART I-II,
Q39, A4, CONTRARY 792a-d; Q 46, A 6, REP 2
816d-817d
AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART 1--11, Q 87,
A 2, ANS 186c-187b; A 4, ANS 188b--d; A 6
189c-190c; PART n--II, Q 19, A I 46Sb-d
DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, III [1-18] 4a-b;
IV [13-4S] Sc-d; v 7a-8b esp [121-123] 8b;
PURGATORY, VII [1-36] 62c-d; XXIII [1-75]
88b-89a
HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 14Sa-147b
MONTAIGNE: Essays, 90d-91b
9 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 333b
THE GREAT IDEAS
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
496
I. The general theory of punishment
la. The nature of punishment: the pain of sense and the pain of loss
I b. The purpose of punishment: the lex talionis; retaliation and reven ..
the nghtIng of a \vrong ge,
I c. Punishment for the sake of reforming the wrongdoer
rd. The preventive use of punishment: the deterrence of wrongdoing
2. Personal as a condition of just punishment: the problem of colle .
responsIbIlIty ctlve
2a. Free will i.n relation to and punishment: voluntariness in relation
to gull t or fault; the accldental, the negligent, and the intentional
2b. Sanity, maturity, and moral competence in relation to responsibility
3 in relation to virtue and vice
3
a
. Rewards and punishments as factors in the formation of moral character
3b. Vice its own punishment
3
C
Guil t, repentance, and the moral need for punishment
4 Crime and punishment: punishment as a political instrument
4
a
. Punishment for lawbreaking asa necessary sanction of law
4
b
. The forms of punishment available to the state
(I) The death penalty: its justification
(2) Exile or ostracism: imprisonment or incarceration
(3) Enforced labor or enslavement
(4) Torture: cruel and unusual punishn1ents
4
C
The jU,stice of ,punishment: the conventionality of the deter..
mIned by pOSitIve law
4
d
. Grades of severity in punishment: making the punishment fit the crin1e
5 The punishnlent for sin
sa. The origin and fulfillment of curses
Sb. 'fhe wages of sin: the punishment of original sin
5
e
. The pain of remorse and the torment of conscience: the atonement for sin
Sd. The modes of divine punishment: here and hereafter, temporal and eternal
se. The justice of divine punishment
(I) The j ustification of eternal suffering in Hell or Hades
(2) The necessity of expiation in Purgatory
6. Pathological motivatio.ns to punishment: abnormal sense of sinor guilt;
perverse deSIres to inflIct or suffer punishment
THE GREAT IDEAS
498
(1. The general theory of punishment. lb. The
retriblJtive purpose of punishment.' the lex
talionis; retaliation and revenge; the right-
ing of a wrong.)
OT, Judith, 2:1-6; 9:1-3; 16:20-21 / Rest of
Esther, 16:18-(D) OT, Esther, 16:18/ Wisdom
of Solomon, r:8; 5:17-23; 11 :I5-20-(D) OT,
Book of Wisdom, 1:8; 5:18-24; 11:16-21 /
Ecclesiasticus, 5:1-7; 7:17; 12:6; 18:23-24;
25: 14; 27:28 ; 28:1-8; 35:18- 19; 39:28-3;
48:7-8-(D) aT, Ecclesiasticus, 5 a -9; 7:19;
12:7; 18:23-24; 25:20- 21 ; 27:31; 28:1-11;
35 :22-25; 39:33-36; 48:7-8 / r Maccabees,
2:67-68 ; 9:3.3-42; 13:1-6; 15:2-4-(D) OT, I
lvfachabees, 2:67-68 ; 9:33-42; 13:r-6; 1S:2-4
/ II Maccabees, 6:14-I5-(D) OT, II Macha-
bees, 6:14-15
NEw TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:38-48; 7:2 /
Luke, 6:27-30 ; 17:3-4; 18 :1-8 / Romans, 3 :5-
6; 12:17-21; 13:4 / II Corinthians, 10:6 / I
Thessalonians, 5:15 I II Thessalonians, 1 :7-9 /
Hebrews, 10:29-30 / I Peter, 3 :8-9 / Jude, 7 /
Revel(ltion, I8:I-19:2-(D) Apocalypse, 18:1-
19:2
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK IX [620-643] 63b-c; BK
XVIII [497-508] 135b / Odyssey, BK I [32-43]
183b-c; BK III [195-29] 195a-b; BK XXI-XXII
301a-311a,c
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [1577-1611] 68d-69a
/ Choephoroe 70a-80d esp [36-314] 73a-b,
[40-404] 74a / Eumenides 81a-9Id esp [490-
56S] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [229-233]
116b / Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [430-456]
147a / Electra 156a-169a,c esp [516-633] 160a-
161a, [I384-1SIO] 167d-169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 212a-224a,c esp [764-810]
218d-219a / Electra 327a-339a,c esp [112-
167] 328a-c, [880-1180] 335a-337d' / Hecuba
353a-364a,c esp [119-1295] 362b-364a,c /
J-Ieracles Mad [726-814] 371b-d / Orestes 394a-
410desp [478-606] 398d-400a, [198-1176]
40Sa-d
6 HERODOTUS: I-listory, BK I, 9c-l0a; 16c-17a;
29b-30d; BK II, BK III, 9la-b; 99c-
lOOa; 116b-117a; BK IV, 154a-b; BK V, 177a;
BK VI, 204d-205a; BK VII, 2I8a-b; 237d-239a;
BK VIII, 278c-279a; BK IX, 305a-c; 306c,-307a;
313a-314a
6 THUCYDIDEs: Peloponnesian IVar, BK II,
405a-b; HK III, 424d-429a; 429c-434c; BK VII,
556d-S57a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45c-d / Gorgias, 293b-
294c / Republic, BK x, 437c-438c / Laws, BK
X, 769d-770c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 5 [III3b2I-III4a
2] 359d-360a; BK V, CH 4 379b-380b esp
[II3
2a
7-19] 379c-d; CH 5 [II32b21-II33a3]
380h-c; eH II [II38a7-IO] 386b; [II38a20-
23] 386c / Rhetoric, BK I, eH 10 [I369bI2-I4]
612d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of 11zings, BK III
1023] 42d-43b
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 4a-b / Solon, 70d /
798d
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 267d
18 AUGUSTINE: BK III, par 16 17
C-ity ofGod, BK XU/CH 3, 344b; BK XIV, c
388d-390a; BK XIX, CH 13 519a-520a; 13K
CH 11-12 S70b-57Ic
19 AQUINAS: Sumn1-a Theologica, PART I, Q I
9, ANS 116d-117d; Q 49, A 2, ANS 266
PART I-II, Q 46, A 78l8a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q
185c-192d; Q 108, A 3, REP 2334a-336b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [100-1
10c-d; XX [1-39] 28b-d; XXVIII 41b-43a
[13-142] 42d-43a; PURGATORY, X [73
68a-b; XIX [70-145] 82b-83a; XXIII [1
88b-89a
22 CHAUCER: Reeve's Tale esp [4
4322] 231b-232a / Tale of1Vfeltbeus, par 3
413b-422b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 94a;
147b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 334d-335a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT I, SC
[27-180] 74d-76b; ACT II, SC II [I-55] 780-
/ Richard Ill, ACT I, SC II [49-109] 108a-
Titus Andronicus 170a-198d / Richard II
I, sc II 322d-323c / Merchant of Venice:
III, sc I [46-76] 419a-b; ACT IV, SC 1 [1-
425c-429d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT 1, SC V [74
37d; ACT III, SC III [73--98] 54a-b; ACT IV
V [115-220] 60d-62a / Othello, ACTI, S
65] 205a-206a; ACT II, SC 1 [300-311]
ACT III, SC III [442-479] 226d-227b;
sc II 238d-243a,c / Timon of Athens,
sc IV 419d-420d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 68b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 51,S
439d; PROP 63, SCHOL 444a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II, SECT
26c-28b passim
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, lObI1a; 28a-b
37 FIELDING: T01n fones, 20b-21a
38 Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 43
DK XII, 86c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 351b-d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 617b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91a-93a;
225a; 404a
42 KANT: Science of Right, 446a-449c esp
447c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 467d-468c; 4690
472c-d; 474b-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I,
36a-b; par 99-100 37b-38a; par 10
PART III, par 220 73a-b; par 319, 106
TI0NS, 63-65 126a-c;74 I27d-128a/
ophy of History, PART I, 2I4d-2l(5a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick esp 118a-122h
TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK II,95c; BK'IX,
357d-358b; BK XI,
DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK XII,
398c-399c
JAMES: Psychology, 225a
FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 247d-248a
unishment for the sake of reforming the
wrongdoer
D TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 26:14-46-(D)
Leviticus, 26:14-45 / II Samuel, 7:14-1S-(D)
II Kings, 7:14-15 / Job, 5 :17-18 / Psalms,
39: 10- 11 ; 141:5-(D) Psalms, 38:11-12; 140:5
7 Proverbs, 3:11- 12; 13:24; 15:10; 17:10;
19:18,25; 20:30; 22:15; 23:13-14; 29:15,17/
Isaiah, 4:4; 27:7-9-(D) Isaias, 4:4; 27:7-9 /
Jeremiah, 2:30; 5:3-(D) Jeremias, 2:30; S:3
7 Ezekiel, 14:9-11 -(D) Ezechiel, 14:9-11 /
Zephaniah, 3:I-I3-(D) Sophonias, .3 :1-13 /
Malachi, 3-(D) Malachias, 3
OCRYPHA: Judith, 8:2S-27-(D)OT, Judith,
8:21-27/ Wisdom ofSolomon, 3:1-6;11:5-16;
12 esp 12:25-26; 16:2-12,24-28-(D)OT,
Book of Wisdom, 3:1- 6; 11:5-17; 12 esp
,2:25-26; 16:2.c...I2,24-28 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:23;
:6; 30 :1-2,12-13- (D). OT, Ecclesiasticus,
7:25; 22:6; .3:1-2,12-13 / Baruch, 2:21-33;
3:7;4 esp 4:29-(D) aT, Baruch, 2:21-33;
3:7; 4 esp 4:2 9 / II Maccabees, 6:12-17;7:33;
:4-(D) aT, II Machabees, 6:12-17; 7:33;
0:4
'fl TESTAMENT: ICornthians, 11':32/ Hebrews,
2:5-11 / Revelation, 3:19-(D) Apocalypse,
:19
OPHOCLES: Antigone [1348-1353] 14,2d
URIPIDES: Orestes [491-525] 399a-b
RISTOPHANES: Clouds [133-1464] S04b-
6c
ATO: Protagoras, 45b-d / Gorgias, 267c-
Oc; 293b-294c /Republic, BK II,
IX, 426d-427a / Critias, 485b-d / Laws,BK
688d-689a; 690d-691b; BK IX, 743c-744a;
7'd; BK X, 769d... 770c; BK XI, h; BK
I, 785c-786a
ISTOTLE: Ethics, BK II, CH 3 [II04hI4-18]
Oa; BK x, CH 9 [II80
a
S-I3] 434d
IPPOCRATES: The Law, par 1 144a-b
GUSTINE: Confessions, BK I, par 14-16
; par 19-23 5d-7a/ City of God, BK XIX,
16 52Id-522a; BK XXI, CH 13 /
istian Doctrine, BK I, CHI6 628c-d
UlNAS: Summa Theologca, PART I, Q 21,
,REP 3 126c-127c
INAS: Summa Theologica, PART1-II,Q 79,
158d-159c; Q 87, A 2, REP 1 186c... 187b;
6-8 189c-192d; Q l0S, A2, REP 9309d-
; PART II-II, Q 33 550a-558d; PART III
PL, Q 99, A I, REP 3 1078c-1081a
BES: Leviathan, PART I, 94a; PAR.T II,
; 147a-b; 157d-158a
eKE: Toleration, lc-2c passim
LDING: Tom fones, 267b-268b; 380e-381a
499
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 39d-
40b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306b-c / Science of
Right, 446b-447c
43 MILL: Liberty, 2'71c-272d; passim
/ Utilitarianism, 471d-472d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 7d-8a; 199c-200d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART 1, par 99
37b-d / Philosophy of History, PART I, 214d-
216a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 30b-
32a; BK XII, 395a-401d
Id. The preventive use of punishment: the de-
terrence of wrongdoing
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 13:10-11; 19:19-
20/ Proverbs, 19:25; 21:11
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 23 :22-27-(D) aT,
Ecclesiasticus, 23:32-37
NEW TESTAMENT: I Corinthians,ro:5-I1 / II
Peter, 2:6 / Jude, 7
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [739-,842] /
Agamemnon [681-781] 5gb-6Gb / Eumenides
8la-gld esp [49-565] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [882-895] 107b
/ Ajax [118-133] 144c / Electra [121__25] 157b-
ISBa; [I501-I5Io]169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [271-356] 214b-215b /
Orestes [478-606] 398d-400a; [917-'-945] 403b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 87a-b; BK V, 164c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian BK II, 400d-
401a; BK III, 426b-d; 427d-428a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d / .Gorgias, 293b-
294c / Laws, DK v, 690d-691b; BK IX, 743c-
744a; 747d; 757a; BK X, 769d-770c; BK XI,
782a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 5 [III3b2I-
lI14a2] 359d-360a; BK X, CH9 [II79a33-II80a
32 ]434a-435a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 14 [I375aI-
20] 619b-c
10 HIPPOCRATES: The Law, par 1 144a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 49d:..50a; 57a;
BK XIV, 151d-152b / Histories, BK I, 200d
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XIX, CH 16 521d-
522a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II,Q 87,
A 2, REP 1 186c-187b; A 3, REP 2187b-188b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 140a; 141b;
143b-d; 145c-d; 157d-158a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 446a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT I,
SC III 177b-d; ACT II, SC 178d-184a; ACT
V, SC I [.318-324] 202b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 63, SCHOL
444a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a / Civil Government, CH
II, SECT 7-13 26c-28b passim;CH XIV, SECT
15962b-c; CH XV, SECT 171 65a-:b / Human
Understanding, BK I, CH II,SECT 13 107d-108c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV
76, 485a
37 FIELDING: Tom fones, 150b
THE GREAT IDEAS CHAPTER 74: 500
(1. The general theory of punish1nent. Id. The
preventive use ofpunishment: the deterrence
of wrongdoing.)
38 Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 37d-
38a; 38d-40a; BK XIX, 139c
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 371a-c; 372c
/ Social Contract, BK II, 399a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 309a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175c-d; 199b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83b-c; 92b-c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 446b; 448a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 271c-272d; 313a-316b / Repre-
sentative Government, 334d-335a / Utilitarian-
iSln, 471d-472d
44 BOSWELL: johnson, 204b; 301c-d; 335c;
344a-b; 363a-b; 482a-d
46 I-IEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 99-
100 37b-38a; PART III, par 232 75c-d; par 319,
106a; ADDITIONS, 138 139a-b / Philosophy of
History, PART I, 214d-216a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 314b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK XII,
398d-401d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787c
2. Personal responsibility as a condition of just
punishment: the problem of collective
responsibility
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:16-19 I Exodus,
20:5-6; 34:7/ Numbers, 14:18 / Deuteronomy,
5 :9-10; 24:16 / II Samuel, 21 :I-9-(D)
II Kings, 21 :1-9 / II Kings, 14 :5-6-(D) IV
Kings, 14:5-6 / II Chronicles, 25 :3-4-(D)
II Paralipomenon, 25 :3-4 / jeremiah, 31:29-30
-(D) jeremias, 31 :29-30 / Ezekiel, 18-(D)
Ezechiel, 18
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:II-I3-"-(D)
aT, Book of Wisdon1, 3 :11-13 / Ecclesiasticus,
41 :5-(D) aT, Ecclesiasticus, 41:8 / Baruch,
3:7-8-(D) OT, Baruch, 3:7-8
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:12-19 / I Corin-
thians) 15:21-22
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c
esp [597-614] 33c-d, [653-956] 34b-37d /
Agamemnon 52a-69d / Choephoroe 70a-80d /
Eumenides 81a-91d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c /
Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c I Antigone
131a-142d esp [582-626] 136b-c I Electra
156a-169a,c
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [214-228] 260b I
Phoenician Maidens 378a-393d I Orestes
394a-410d
6 I-IERoDOTUS: History, BK VII, 223c-d; 238d-
239a; BK IX, 306c-307a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d I Laws, BK IX,
746a-751d esp 746a-748c; BK XII, 785c-786a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 5359c-361a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 18 124a..
125a
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, I [501-502] 51a
14 Camillus, 107b-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XIV, 152b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God,BK XIII,
366a-c; BK XIV, CH I 376b,d-377a;
392b; BK XXI, CH I2!f"571a-c
20 j\.QUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART
162d-167d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy,
[52- 84] 77b-d; XVIII [19-75] 80a-c
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 18 JVlJD-:"'IIFl' ....
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 118a-b;
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT
[32-5] 79a-b I Henry V, ACT IV, sc
202] 553a-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK III
138a; [167-216] 139a-140a;
143a; BK X [615-640]
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 434, 249b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding,
XXVII, SECT 18-22 225b-226b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT
76485a-c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 451b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 95d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 169c-170a
physic ofMorals, 391d-392a I
447b-c
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.:
SECT 3 [57-511] 16a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 140c-d;
202c-203a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 471b-472a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART II,
118 42b-43b; par 132 46b-47a;
74 127d-128a I Philosophy of History,
215b-216a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK
XIV, 606b-607a; EPILOGUE II, Oi\i\a-I:ly,+n
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov,
83c-84a; BK VI, 168c-169c
53 JAMES: Psychology, 225a
2a. Free will in relation to
punishment: voluntariness in
guilt or fault; the accidental,
gent, and the intentional
NEW TESTAMENT: I Timothy, 1:12-13
5 AESCHYLUS:
69a /
1064] 80a-c /
[574-777] 87b-89a
5 SOPHOCLES:
111b-112b I
123a-c / Trachiniae
5 EURIPIDES: Heracles
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I,
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian
426b-d; 430c; 432b-c
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d /
Timaeus, 474b-d / Sophist,
BK v, 688d-689a; BK IX,
756a
..... V.L'V'.L''''.u. Ethics, BK III, CH 1355b,d357b;
359c-361a esp [III3b2I-1I14&2] 359d-
BK V, CH 5 [II32b2I-3I] 380b-c; CH 8
[II35
aI
5]-CH 9 [I136bI41 383a-384d; CH II
386b-387a,c; BK VII, cH6 399d-400c; CH 8
401c-402a passim
,PIlCTlETlJS: DIscourses, BK I, CH 18124a-125a
TT"r""'T TrTe'. Meditations, BK II, SECT 10 257d-
258a; BK IV, SECT 3, 263b; BK XII, SECT 12
308b-c
City of God, BK XII, CH 3, 344b;
BK XIV, CH II-IS 385d-390a passim
AQUINAS: Sum111a Theologica, PART I, Q 64,
2 335d-336d; PART I-II, Q 21, A 2 718a-d
AQUINAS: Sumrna Theologica, PART I-II, Q73,
A 5 123a-d; Q 74, AA 1-2 129a-130a; Q 75
137c-140d; Q 76, AA 3-4 142d-144d; Q 78
152b-156a; QQ 159d-167d; Q 83, A 3
173a-c; Q 105, A 2, REP 9309d-316a
DANTE: Divine Comedy,. HELL, XI 15a-16b;
[55-136] 40a-41b; PURGATORY, XVI
77b-d; XVIII [19-75] 80a-c; XXI [34-
PARADISE, IV [64-114] I11b-d
Leviathan, PART II, 139d-140a; 143b;
Tom fones, 399c-d
Pure Reason, 169b [fn I]; 169c-170a /
Metaphysic of Morals, 391c-392a; 393d
Utilitarianism, 474d
Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 96
par 100 37d-38a; PART II, par 115-
42b-43b; par 132 46b-47a; ADDITIONS, 56
62 126a; 74-75 127d-128a / Philosophy
History, INTRO, 165c-166a; 168d; PART I,
215b-216a
War and Peace, BK VII, 275a; BK
357d-358b; BK XII, 548d-549d; EPILOGUE
686c-687a; 688a-694d
maturity, and moral competence in
to responsibility
Protagoras, 45b-d
City ofGod, BK XXI, CH 16 573b-
Divine Comedy, HELL, XXXIII [I-90]
Leviathan, PART II, 132b-c; 142a-b
........ .L.,"-.L..... ..'.- ..... r .. "'.'.. Hantlet, ACT V, sc II [236-263]
501
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART II, par 132
46b-47a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 690c-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karalnazov, BK XII
348b,d-401d passim, esp 395a-398d
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 241b-c
3. Punishment in relation to virtue and vice
3a. Rewards and punishments as factors in the
formation of moral character
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 4:1-4; 13:24; 22:15;
2 3:13-14; 2 9: 15
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 30:I-13-(D) aT,
NEvV TESTAMENT: Hebrews, 12:5-11
5 AESCHYLUS: EU1nenides [681-710] 88b-c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1348-1353] 142d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [133--1464] 504b-
506c
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 45b-d; 46b / Gorgias,
283b285a I Republic, BK II, 313b-d; BK IX,
426d-427a / Sophist, 556d-557a / Latl.Js, BK I,
643d; BK II, 653a-b; BK X, 760c-761a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK II, CH 3 [II04bI4-18]
350a; BK III, CH 5 [III3b2I-1114a2] 359d-360a;
BK x, CH I [II72aI8-23] 426a; CH 9 [II79
a
33-
I I80a32] 434a-435a
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 41a-42b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK I, par 14-16
4c-5b; par 19-23 5d-7a / City ofGod, BK XIX,
CH 15-16 521a-522a
19 i\QUINAS: Sumlna Theologica, PART I, Q 48,
A 6, CONTRARY and REP I 264a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 87,
A 2, REP I 186c-187b; Q 95, A I, ANS 226c-
227c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 141a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 16c-d; 66c; 73c-74a;
185c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, DEF 27, EXPL419a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK I, CH II,
SECT 5-6 105a-c passim; SECT 12-13 107b-108c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV
76, 485a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 28a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 41a-c; 380c-381a
38b; 39d-40d passim; BK XII,. 86b; BK XIX,
139c
42 KANT: Fund. Prine Metaphysic of Morals,
270d-271a I Practical Reason, 306b-c IIntro.
Aletaphysic of Morals, 383a-b
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-312a passim, esp306c-
307a / Utilitarianism, 458a-b; 464b-c
44 BOS\VELL:johnson, 191b-c; 199c-200d; 363a-b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II,
30b-32a
54 FREUD: War and Death, 758c-759b / Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 792b-795b / New
Introductory Lectures, 876c-d
THE GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 74: PUNISHMENT 503
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 617b-d
42 KANT: Practz'cal Reason, 306b-c / Science of
Right, 446a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER IS, 6sa-b; NUMBER 21,
78b-d
43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative
Governnlent, 329d-330a I Utilitarz'anism, 467d-
468e; 471d-472d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 220
73a-b; par 233 7sd; ADDITIONS, 60 125d; 138
139a-b; 173 146d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK XII
348b,d-401d passim, esp 395a-401d
4h. The forms of punishment available to the
state
5 EURIPIDES: Orestes [491-601] 399a-400a
7 PLATO: Apology, 209d-210a / Gorgias, 264b
I Laws, BK v, 690d-691b; BK IX 743a-757d
passim; BK XI 771b-784b passin1; BK XII,
784d-786b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 5 1II32b21-1133a
4] 380b-e; CH II [II38a4-I3l386b-e; BK X, CH
9 [I I 80
a
s-13] 434d I Athenian Constz'tution,
CH 52-53 576b-S77b passim; CH 56-60; 578c-
580d passim; CH 67, par 5 583b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XIV, ls2d-ls3a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XXI, CH II,
570c-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q
105, A 2, REP 9-12 309d-316a; PART III SUPPL,
Q 99, A I, ANS 1078c-1081a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 146b-147b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 23b-24a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT IV,
SC I [346-40] 429a-d
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a I Civil Government, CH I,
SECT 3 2sd I Human Understanding, BK II,
CH XXVIII, SECT 9 230b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 28a-29b; 35a-37b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI,
38b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 217e; 4s0b-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 8Se; 91a-92c; 93a-
94c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 446a-44ge
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER IS, 65a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART I, 214d
216a; PART IV, 320b-e
50 11ARX: Capital, 364a-367a passinl
4b(1) The death penalty: its justification
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 9:6 / Exodus, 21 :12-
29; 22:18-20; 35:2 I Leviticus, 20:9-18,27;
24 :16-21 / Numbers, 35 :16-31 I Deuteronomy,
13:1-'-10; 17:2-7; 18:20; 19:11-13; 21:18-23;
24:7 / Joshua, 7:IO- 26-(D)
Josue, 7:10-26 I I Kings, 21 :IO-I3-(D) III
Kings, 21 :10-13 / Esther, 4: 11-5:2 ; 7:7-10
ApOCRYPHA: II Maccabees, 4:38; I3:5-8-(D)
OT, II Machabees, 4:38; 13:5-8
5 EURlPIDES: Orestes [491-601] 399a-400a
nishment for lawbreaking as a necessary
sanction of law
ESCHYLUS: Eumenides [490-562] 86b-87a;
681-710] 88b-c
OPHOCLES: Antigone [640-680] 136d-137a
URIPIDES: Orestes [478-606] 398d-400a
ERODOTUS: Hstory, BK v, 164c
HUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK III,
27d-428a
LATO: Statesman, 601e-602d I Laws, BK IX,
47d; 757a; BK x, 769d-770e; BK XII, 792e-
93a
ARISTOTLE: Ethcs, BK v, CH 4 379b-380b;
OH II [II3
8a
4-I 3] 386b-e; BK x, CH 9 [II79
a
33-1180a32] 434a-43sa I Politics, BK VI, CH 8
32Ib40-I322a28] 525d-526a; BK VII, CH 13
332aIO-I6] s36d
UGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 6 514b-
15a; BK XXI, CH II, 570e-d
QUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 92,
2, ANS and REP 3-4 214d-215a,e; Q 96, A 5
33d-234d; Q 105, A 2, ANS 309d-316a
HAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, par 40 418b-
19a
OBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 131a-b; 145a-
8b; 157d-158a
AKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT II, SC III
--IS] 44e-d I R01neo and Juliet, ACT I, SC 1
1-110] 286b-d / Henry V, ACT II, SC II 539a-
41a
HAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT v,
C I [318-324] 202b
ERVANTES: Don Quxote, PART I, 68b... 73a
INOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2,
6a; PROP 51, SCHOL 439d; PROP 63, SCHOL
4a
ASCAL: Provincial Letters, 108b-lOga
OCKE: Toleration, 3a I Cz'vil Government, CH
SECT 3 2sd; CH II, SECT 7-13 26c-28b pas-
m; CH VII, SECT 87-88 44a-c; ClI IX S3e-54d
assim / Human Understanding, BK I, CH II,
ECT 12-13 l07b-108e; BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT
-12 22ge-231e passim, esp SECT 6 229d
UME: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV
6,485a
OUSSEAU: Socz'al Contract, BK II, 398b-399a;
406e
4b(1)
IBBON: Decline and Fall, 91a-94e; 187b
KANT: Science of Right, 446a-448b
CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT
8 [210-212] [220-225] 13b; ARTICLE III, SECT
.3 [57-5
11
] 16a
EDERALIST: NUMBER IS, 6sa-b
lILL: Liberty, 304d-30sb; 313a-b
EGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 90-
03 35d-39b esp par 96-100 36c-38a; PART III,
ar218 72c-d; ADDITIONS, 138 139a-b
OLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 223a-232a
assim; BK XI, SOsa-511b; BK XII, 547a-5S1c
OSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II,
Ob-32a
32 MILTON: Sarllson Agonistes 339a":3
[1-46] 339b-340b, [356-380] 347b-34
709] 3s4a-3ssa, [1156- 1177] 364b-36Sa
38 ROUSSEAU Economy, 372c
40 GIBBON: Decline<and Fall, s4e-ssa
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458b-4s9b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I,
37d-38a; PART III, par 220 73a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 221d'
373b-374d '
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK
32a; BK III, SOe-s4b; BK XII, 369a-373c
386a; EPILOGUE, 404e-408a passim
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents
793d esp 792d-793a, 793d; 79sd-796a'.
798e I New Introductory Lectures, 831b'
4. Crime and punishment: punishment
political instrument
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VI, 191a-b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War,
424d-428d
7 PLATO: Laws, BK IX 743a-757d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 4 [II3Ib25]
[II33
a
.3] 379b-380e; CH II [II38a4-I3]
/ Politics, BK IV, CH 16 [I3oobI9-38]
BK VI, CH 8 [I32Ib40'-I322a28] s2sd-s2
VII, CH 13 [I332aI2-I6] s36d / Athenian
stitution, CH 52-5.3 s76b-s77b; CH 56,
CH 59, par 7 s79a-580e / Rhetoric, BKI,
61se-617c; CH 14 619a-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things,
1160] 76a-b
14 PLUTARCH: Cicero, 710e-712d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XIV, ls1d-1s2b
tories, BK I, 200e-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH
s15a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I...,.II
A I, ANS PART Q 3.3,A
and REP I ssOb-551a; A 3, ANS ss2d-S
4, ANS s53b-Ss4b; A 6, ANS and REP I
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH VII, 11b-e; c
14a-e
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 138d... 148
CLUSION, 281a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACTIU,
[223-281] 4ge-SOa
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART 1,6
177a-b
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3e-4a; Sb-6a; 14
Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 87-S
CH XV, SECT 171 6Sa-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 28a-b; 2gb
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK
43d; BK XII, 8sa-92b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, I
Economy, 371a-e I Social Contract,'
398b-399a
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 309
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 197b; 19
21sb-216a; 225d-229b; 387d-388d; 4
502
(3. Punishment in relation to virtue and vice.)
3b. Vice its own punishment
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, I4:5-10-(D) OT,
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 262a-267e I Republic, BK IX,
417b-418d; BK X, 436e-441a,e I Theaetetus,
530d I Laws, BK II, 6s6d-6s8b; BK v, 689d-
690e
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK III [1014-
1023] 43a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 28, 134b-e;
BK II, CH 10, 14ge-d; BK III, CH 24, 206b-208a;
BK IV, CH 5 228a-230b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT I62s9a;
BK VIII, SECT 55 290b; BK IX, SECT 4 292a;
SECT 42 295e-296a,e
18 AUGUSTINE: Conftssions, BK I, par 19 Sd; BK
III, par 16 17e-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ
85-86 178b-18se; Q 87, A I, ANS and REP 3
18sd-186c; Q 89, A I 199a-e
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 163d-164a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 174d-176e; 38ge-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT I, SC IV [1-75]
114d-11sb
35 LOCKE: .Human Understanding, BK I, CH II,
SECT 5-6 10sa-e passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 39b
42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
374a-e
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK XII,
381e-d; 398a-b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 83a-b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 793a-
794a
3c. Guilt, repentance, and the moral need for
punishment
OLD T'ESTAMENT: Leviticus, 26:40-43 I I Kings,
8:46-5I-(D) III Kings, 8:46-51 I Psalms, 6;
32 ; 38; 51; 102; 130; I43-(D) Psahns, 6; 31;
37; 50; 101; 129; 142
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, I2:IO-(D)
OT, Book of Wisdom, 12 :10 / Ecclesiasticus,
20:3; 21 :6-(D) O'f, Ecclesiasticus, 20:4;
21:7
NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 16:27-31 I Revelation,
Apocalypse, 2:5,16-22
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, ge-10a
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 267e-270e; 293d-294e
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 14d I Histories, BK III,
2Ssb-e
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XII, CH 3 343d-
344b; BK XIX, CH 13519a-S20a
A I, ANS and REP 3 18sd-186e; PART II-II, Q33
ssOa-ss8d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 388c-39sb passim
27 SHAKESPEARE: Measure for Measure, ACT II,
SC III [19-42] I Cymbeline, ACT V"SC IV
[1-29] 481a-b
THE IDEAs
CHAPTER 74: PUNISHl\1ENT
504
(4b. The jorlns of pltnishmetlt available to the
state. 4b( 1) The deat,1; penalty: its justi-
fication.)
6 HERODOTUS: History} BK IV, 131b-c; 135c-
136a; 137a-138c; 149c; BK VIII, 275e-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian vVar, BK III,
424d-429a esp 427d-428a
7 PLATO: Apology, 209d-210a / Statesman,
607b-c / LauJs, BK V, 690d-691b; BK IX,
743b-744a; 747d; BK XII, 784e-d; 791e-d;
792e-793a
9 ARISTOTLE: Athenian Constitution, CH 52, par
I 576b-c; CH 60, par 2 S80e; CH 67, par 5
S83b
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 54e-5Sa /
Solon, 70d / Cicero, 710c-712d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 49d-SOa / Histories,
RK I, 200d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CII 21 142d-
143a; BK XIX, CH 6 S14b-S1Sa; BK XXI,CH II,
570c-d
20 AQUINAS: SZi1nma Ineologica, PART I-II, Q 87,
A 3, -REP 1-2 187b-188b; Q 100, A 8, REP 3
259d-26Ia; Q lOS, A2, REP 9-10,12 309d-316a;
PART II--II, Q 2S, A 6, REP 2 S04d-50Sd; PART
III SUPPL, Q 86, A 2, REP 3 993e-994d; Q 99,
A I, ANS 1078c-1081a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 146b-c
25 l\fONTAIGNE: Essays, 23b-24a; 20Sb-206c;
338b-339a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT II, SC III
[1-16] 44c-d / Romeo and Juliet, ACT I, sc I
[71- 110] 286b-d / Richard II, ACT III, SC I
[I-30] 334d-335b / 1st Henry IV, ACT V, SC v
[I-IS] 466a--c / l1enry V, ACT II, SC II [I4S-18I]
S40c-S41a
SC II [34-141] 182b-183c / Coriolanus, ACT III,
SC I [174-336] 371b-373b / Timon of Athens,
ACT III, sc v 406d-408a / Henry VIII, ACT II,
sc I [SI-I36] SS8e-SS9c
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 108b-109b
35 LOCKE: Civil Governnlent, CH I, SECT .3 2Sd;
CH II, SECT 11-12 27b-28a; CH IV, SECT 22
30a; CH VII, SECT 87 44a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 28a; PART II, 78b;
PART III, 119b; 122a-123a
37 FIELDING: 10m Jones, 150b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 38a;
39a; 39d-40a; BK XII, 86c-d; 87e-91c passim;
BK XV, 109d; BK XXIX, 264c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK II, 398b-399a;
BK IV, 439a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 17Sd-176a; 21Sd-
216a; 216d-217d passim; 218d-219a; 617b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91c-92a; 9Se-96a
passim; 187b
42 KANT: Science ofRight, 446b-44ge esp 446b-c,
448b-d
46 I-IEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 100
37d-38a
51 'fOLSTOY: War and Peace,
BK XII, 547a-551c
4h(2) Exile or .ostracism: imprisonment 0
carceratlon
5 SOPHOCLES: [766-780] 137d-13
5 EURIPIDES: Medea [271-3S6] 214b-21
Heracles Mad [I-2S] 365a-b / Orestes
601] 399a-400a
7 PLATO: Apology, 209d-210a / States
607b-e / Laws, BK V, 690d-691b; :n
743b-744a; BK X, 769d-770c
9 ARIST?!LE: Ethics, BK x, CH 9 [II80a5-9]
/ Pollttcs, BK III, CH 13 [I 284a3-b34]
483a; BK v, CH 3 [I302bIS--2I] 504a'
[I.308bI7-20] S10d / Athenian Constitluio
22 S62d-563c
14 Themistocles, 97b-I01d f
bzades, 160a-b; 162d-171c / Coriolanus
184c / Aristides, 263b; 265d-266b / 1M
428c-429b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XIV, lS2d-lS3a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XXI, c
S70e-d
20 AQUINAS: Sum1na Theologica, PART I-II
A3, REP I 187b-188b; Q lOS, A2, REP 10
316a; PART III SUPPL, Q 99, A I, ANS and
1078c-1081a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XVII
99] 132h-133a
22 CHAUCER: Knight'S Tale [II53-13S4] 1
182a
23 I-IOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 146d-147b
25 .rv10NTAIGNE: Essays, 91a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT' II, S
[1-16] 44e-d / Two Gentle1nen of Verona
III, sc I [157-187] 242a-b; ACT IV, SC I
246b / Romeo and Juliet, ACT III, SC I
202] 302e--303a / Richard II, ACT I,
[118--155] 324d-32Sb / As You Like It,
sc I [100-118] S98b-e '
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT III, S
37Sb-377a / J'imon of Athens, ACT III,
[96- 117] 407d-408a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 119b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XII,
BK XXVI, 222d-223a; BK XXIX, 263e
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 439a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 93a-d pa
166c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 448b; 450a
51 'fOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VIII, 338e-Cl
XIV, 606a-607a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, EPILO
402a-e
4b(3) Enforced labor or enslavement
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 43:18; 44: 1- 17
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 78b
7 PLATO: Statesman, 607e
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 49d-SOa;uK.
132a-c
AUGUSTINE: Cty of God, BK XXI, CH I I,
570c-d
oAQUINAS: Sumn1a Theologica, PART I-II, Q
105, A 2, REP 10 309d-316a
3 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 147a
2 MILTON: Samson Agonistes 339a-378a esp [1-
46] [.356-380] 347b-348a, [IIS6-
1177] 364b-365a, [1391- 149] 370a
5LOCKE: Civil Government, CH IV, SECT 22
30a
8 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit ofLaws, BK XV, 109b-c;
110a-b
oGIBBON: Decline and Fall, 217c
2 KANT: Science of Right, 445c-446a
3 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
XIII 18c
4 BOS\VELL: Johnson, 38Sa-b
oMARX: Capital, 364a-366a
1 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIV, 606a-607a
4) Torture: cruel and unusual punishlnents
LD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 24:14/ Deuteronomy,
25 :1-3,5-12
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK XXII [170-199] 307d-308a;
[43.3-477] 310b-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [I 487e
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 28a-c; BK III,
93a; BK IV, lS9b-d; BK VIII, 281c
ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 12 [I274bIS-I7]
471c
4 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 185b-186a / Sulfa,
384a-38Sb / Crassus, 442d-443a / Artaxerxes,
851a-8S2d
AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 6
5l5a
HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 90b; PART II, 146b
MONTAIGNE: Essays, 4c-Sa; 9Sa-c; 176a-c;
205b-206e; 331a-332a; 338b-339a; 349a-c
6 SHAKESPEARE: King John, ACT IV, SC I
394b
7: SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT III, SC VII
267d-269b
6 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 3Sa-37b
STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 265a-266a
8 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit oj Laws, BK VI,
39a; 42e-d; BK XII, 86a; 90c-d; BK XXV,
213d; BK XXVIII, 239a-b; 240a-b; BK XXIX,
262a-b; 264e-d
ROUSSEAU: Political Econo111Y, 371a-b
GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175d-176a;212e-d;
216d-217b; 232b-c; 251b-d; 389b-e; 604b;
65lb-e; 76Sd [n 119]
GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91e-92c; 93b;
e; 167a-c; 193c; SOle-S03a
2 KANT: Science of Right, 447b
CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS,
VIII17d
6 HEGEL: Philosophy of}listory, PART IV, 3SSa-b
1 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK II, 95e; BK X;
429b-d; BK XI, SOSa-Sl1b
2 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V,
122d-12Sc
505
4c. The justice of legal punishment: the con..
ventionality of the punishtnents deter-
mined by positive law
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084]
38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [1625-1766]
392b-393d
7 PLATO: Crito 213a-219a,c esp 216d-219a,e /
Gorgias, 267c-270e / Laws, BK IX 743a-757d
esp 743a-744a, 746a-748d; BK X, 769d-770c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 4 [II3Ib2S]-CH S
[II3.3
a
3] 379b-380e; CH 7 [II34b20-2S] 382c;
CH II [II38a4--I3] 386b-c
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 16 lS0c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 21
143a
20 AQUINAS: SUn1ma Theologica, PART I-II, Q 95,
A 2, ANS 227e-228e; Q lOS, A 2, ANS and REP
9-12 309d-316a; Q 108, A 3, REP 2 334a-336b;
PART III SUPPL, Q 89, A 6, REP I 1009d-1010e
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 101c; 140e-141b;
145a-d; 146d-147c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, S19a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT V, SC II
[7.3-117] 498d-499a
SC I [1-32] 178d-179b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 68b-73a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16d / Civil Government,
CH II, SECT 7-r3 26c-28b passim; CH XV,
SECT 171 65a-b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 49a-
SOa; BK XV, l09d; BK XIX, 138c; BK XXIX,
267d-268c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK II,
399a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 617c-d
42 K.. ANT: Practical Reason, 306b-c / Science of
Right, 433e-434d; 446a-c; 448b-d; 44ge
43 MILL: Liberty, 271e-272d; 302d-312a passim
/ Utilitarianism, 467d-468e; 46ge-470e; 471b-
472d; 474b; 474d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 93
36a-b; par 96 36c-37a; par 99-100 37b-38a;
PART II, par 132 46b-47a; PART III, par 319,
l06a; ADDITIONS, 134 138b-c; 138 139a-b /
Philosophy of History, PART IV, 320b-e
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karan1azov, BK XII
348b,d-401d passim, esp 39Sa-401d
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Drea1ns, 328a-b
4d. Grades of severity in punishment: making
the punishment fit the crime
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteron0111Y, 2S :1-3
NEW TESTAMENT: II Corinthians, II :24
7 PLATO: Apology, 209b-210b / LatVS, BK IX,
7S4b-7S6a; BK X, 769d-771b; BK XI, 782a-b;
BK XII, 784c-d
THE GREAT IDEAS
e pain of remorse and the torment of
onscience: the atonement for sin
TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 16:29-34 esp 16:29,
0:31 I II Samuel, 12:9-23-(D) II Kz:ngs,
2:9-2 3 / I Kings, 8 :31-5o-(D) III Kzngs,
:31-5 I II Chronicles,. 6:24-42 ; 7: 12- 14;
3:12- 19--(D) II Paralzpomenon, 6:24-42;
:12-14; .... 33:12-19 110b, 42:5-6 1 Psabns, 32;
4:18; 35:13-15; 38:18; 51; 69:7-12 ; 102:1-
:i.-(D) Psaln1S, 31; 33:19; 34:13-15; 37:19;
0; 08:8-13; 101:1-13 1 Proverbs, 5; 28:1 1
remiah, 2:I9-(D) Jeremias, 2:191 Daniel,
:3-20/ Joel, I :1-2:171 Jonah, 3-(D)Jonas,.3
CRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 5:1-13; 11:16;
:19,23; 17-(D) OT, Book of 5: 1-
4; II:17; 12:19,23; 14: 1- 2;
7:24-26; 18:2I-(D) OT, Eccleszastzcus, 14:1-
; 17:20-24; 18:21 I I Maccabees,6:1-15 esp
:12-13-(D) OT, I Alachabees, 6:1-15 esp
:12-13
'TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:1-12; 4:18; II :20-
I; 27:3-5 1 Mark, 1:14-15 1 Luke, 3:7-14;
:32; 7:36-5; 10:13; 13:1-5; 15:11- 21 ; 16:27-
I / John, 8:1-11 1 Acts, 3:19; 17:30; 26:20 1
Corinthians, 7:8-12 1 II Timothy, 2:25-26
Hebrews, 12:16-17 1 James, 4:8-101 II Peter,
:9
ESCHYLUS: Choephoroe [1010-176] 80a-d
PHOCLES: Antigone [1257:-'1353] 14ld-142d
Ajax [646-683] 148e-149a
URIPIDES: Andromache [802-879] 322a-e /
eetra [1177-1232] 337d-338a 1 Heracles Mad
29-1428] 375c-377d 1 Orestes [1-423] 394a..
b / Iphigenia An10ng the Tauri [924-986]
a-d
ISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IX, CH 4 [II66
b
IP-24]
9d-420a
CHAPTER 74: 507
AQUINAS: Sun1ma Theologica, PART I-II, Q 72, 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of BK III [978-
A 5 lI5a-116b; QQ 81-83 162d-174b; QQ 85-89 1023] 42d-43b; BK v [IISr:":lIbO] 7t??--b .
178b-204a,e; Q 91, A 6 2l2c-213e; Q 94, A 6 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 87b-c / Hzstorzes, BK
225d-226b; PART II-II, Q 24, A 12 49ge-500d; III, 255b-e
Q 25, A 7 18 Confessions, BK II, par I 9a; par 9,
DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, III [r6- 10d; par 17 12d-13a; BK III, par S 14b; BK IV,
45J 56a-b; XXVIII [91-96] 97a; XXIX [22-30] par 14 22d-23a; BK v, par 2 27b-c; BK X,
97d-98a; PARADISE, VII [19-120] l15b-116b par 65-66, 88a-b 1 City of God, BK XIV, CH 8
CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 18, 507b 381e-383a
HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 112a-b; PART III, 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 35,
191b-c A 5, REP I 775d-777a; Q 37, A 2, REP I 784e-
BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APR 52, 785b
195d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 87,
Paradise Lost, BK III [167-216] 139a- A 6 l8ge-190e; A 7, ANS and REP 3 190e-191d;
140a; [274-343] 141b-143a; BK IX [780-1189] A 8, ANS 191d-192d; PART III SUPPL, Q 97, A 2
264b-273a; BK X 274a-298b esp [13-123] 1066d-1067b; Q 98, A 2 1073b-1074a; A 7
76b-277a, 279b-283a, [585-64] 1076d-l077b
87a-288b; BK XI [84-98] 301a; BK XI [423]- 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XXX [91- 148]
BK XII [371] 308b-327a PURGATORY, II [I06]-III [IS] 55c-56a;
PASCAL: Pensees, 430 245a-247b; 434-435 IV [97-135] 58c-d; IX-XXVII 65d-96a esp X-XII
248a-2S1a; 446-45 252a-253a 67b-71d, XVIII [76- 145] BOd-81b, XIX [70-145]
BOSWELL: Johnson, 482a 82b-83a, XXI [34-75] 85h-d, XXI11 [1-75] 88b-
HEGEL: Philosophy ofHistory, PART III, 304d- 89a; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b
OSb 22 CHAUCER: Physician's Tale [12,211-220] 370b-
371a 1 Parson's Tale, par I-IS 495a-506b;
par 91-13 547a-550a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 14b; 174d-176e
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT I, SC IV 114d-
117e; ACT V, SC III [178-206] 145c-d 1 Richard
II, ACT V, SC VI 351e-d 1 King John,
ACT IV, SC II [215-248] 396d-397a 1 Merchant
of Venice, ACT II, SC II [1-33] 412a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: [-lamlet, ACT II, sc n [616-633]
46e-d; ACT III, SC III [36-72] 53d-54a; sc IV
54b-56d; ACT IV, SC V [16-20] 59d 1 Othello,
ACT V, sc n238d-243a,e 1 King Lear, ACT III,
SC IV [23-36] 264e 1 Macbeth, ACT II, SC II
291a-292a; ACT III, SC II 296b-297a; sc IV
297c-299b; ACT V,SC I 306b-307a 1 Cymbeline,
ACT v, SC I [I]-SC II [10] 479a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 123a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, PROP 51, SCHOL
411d-412a; PART IV, PROP 54 440b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK IV [32-14] I53a-
154b; BK IX [142-1189] 270a-273a / Samson
Agonistes [52-520] 350b-351a; [606-632]
352b-353b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH IX 53e-54d
paSSIm
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 2S7a-266b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 267b-e; 398d-399a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 54e-55a; 191b-e;
199a-e; 452b-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 306d-307d; 333a-e 1
Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 379b-d
1 Judgement, 593a-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 458b-459b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III,
304c-d; PART IV, 354a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [3776-3834] 92a-93b;
PART I I [II ,384-510] 277a-280a
48 MELVILLE: Aloby Dick, 34b-36b
9: IOd o-37 1 II Chronicles, 21 :12'-20;
36:2I -(D) II Paralipomenon, 21:12
esp 36:21 / Zechariah, 5:I-4--(D) Zae
5:1-4 / Malachi, 2-(D) Malachias, 2
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 21 :27; 41 :8-10
OT, :30 ; 41:11-13 /13
I :20-2:7-(D) OT, Baruch, 1:20-2:7
NEvV TESTAMENT: Matthew, 25:41 1 I
thians, 16:22 1 Galatians, 3: I 0-14
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [524""5
8d / Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,e es
956] 34b-37d 1 Agamemnon 52a-6
[1372-1616] 66d-69a / Choephoroe 76
esp [1067-1076] BOd I Eutnenides 81a-9I
[94-178] 82a-83a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King 99a-113
Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,e esp [7
8
3
121b-c, [1348-1446] 126c-127b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 106b-e
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 3
14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 107b-d I Alei
165a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 40d-41a
20 A.QUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II
25, A 6, REP 3 S04d-50Sd
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT I, SC
80] l07e-108b; ACT III, SC III l26c-127
IV, SC IV [1-195] 136a-138b 1 Richard
III, sc II [129-134] 336d; ACT IV, SC I
149] 342e-343a 1 Julius Caesar, ACT IH,
[253-275] 583b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 97c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK x [10
297a-298b; BK XI [84-98] 301a; [10
302b-303a; [251- 262] 304b-305a; [47
309b-:-310b; BK XII [101-120] 321b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 281b-289b
467b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 150a; 423c;
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VII, 275
Sh. The wages of sin: the punishment of
nal sin
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:9:-24; 6:5;
Ecclesiastes, 9:3
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdoln of Solomon, 2 :23-2
OT, Book of Wisdom, 2:23-25
NEvV TESTAMENT: Rornans, 5 :12-'21;
8 :20-21 1 I Corinthians, IS :21-22 1 E
2:1-5
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XII, CHI.2
BK XIII, CH I-IS 360a-366d; CH 23-2
376a,e; BK XIV, CH 1-5 376b,d-380b;
13 387a-388c; CH 15-27 388d-397a;BK
22 416a-e; BK XVI, CH 4 425b-426a; BK
IS 521a-e; CH 28 529d-530a,e; BKXXI
571a-c; CH IS 572e-573b; BK XXII,
617e-6I8a 1 Christian Doctrine, BK II
648a-c
19 AQUINAS: Sumn1a Theologica, PART
A6, ANS 113e-114d; PART I-II, Q 17, A
692d-693d; Q 42, A 3, REP I 802d-80
506
Sa. The origin and fulfillment of curses
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 4:8-16; 9:21-27; 12:1-
4 / Numbers, 22-24 1 Deuteronomy, I 1:26-
30; 27: 15-26; 28:15-68 ; 29:18- 29 1 I Samuel,
14:24-25-(D) I Kings, 14:24-25 I II Samuel,
16:5-13-(D) II Kings, 16:5-131 I Kings,21:17-
24-(D) III Kings, 21:17-241/1 Kings, 2:23-
24; 9: IOd o-37--(D) IV Kings, 2:23-2 4;
(4. Crime andptlnishment: punish1Jzent as a polit-
ical instrument. 4d. Grades of severity in
punishment: making the punishment fit the
crime.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 5 [III3b2I-
III4
a2
] 359d-360a; BK v, CH 4 [II3Ib25]-CH 5
[II.33
a
3] 379b-38De 1 Politics,BK II, CH 12
[1274bI5-17] 471e / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 14
619a-d
14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 4a-b / Solon, 70d /
Artaxerxes, 851a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 57a; BK XIV, 152d-
153b
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XXI, ClI II 570b-
571a
A 3, REP I 187b-188b; Q 105, A2, ANS and REP
9-12 309d-316a; PART III SUPPL, Q 99, A 1,
ANS and REP 1-2,6 1078e-1081a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, v 7a-d;
VII [100-130] lOe-d; XII 16b-17d; XIV [43-72]
20a-b; xx [1-39] 28b-d; XXVIII 41b-43a esp
[130-142] 42d-43a; PURGATORY, X [97]-XI [90]
68b-69c; XIII 71d-73c; XIX [70-145] 82b-83a;
XXIII [1-75] 88b-89a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 13ge-140a; 145d;
157d-158a
25 l\10NTAIGNE: Essays, 23b-24a
sc II [126-141] 183b-e 1 Coriolanus,AcT III, Sc
I [263-336] 372e-373b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II, SECT 11-13
27b-28b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 28a-b
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 39ge-d
43d; BK XII, 85e-91e; BK XXIX, 264d-266b
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 371a-b / Social
Contract, BK IV, 439a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 127d-128a; 175d-
176a; 199b-e
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83b-e; 91e-94b
passim
42 KANT: Science of Right, 446a-448b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 74, 221d-222d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 472e-d; 474d
46 I-IEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 96
36c-37a; PART III, par 218 72e-d; par 319,
106a; ADDITIONS, 60 125d; 138 I39a-b 1
Philosophy ofHist01Y, PART IV, 320b-c; 355a-b
5. The punishment for sin
THE GREAT IDEr\S
CHAPTER 74: PUNISH11ENT
508
(5. The for sin. Se. The pain ofre.
morse and the torment of e011seienee: the
atonement for sin.)
49 DARWIN: Descent of Alan, 312d-314c
51 TOLSTOY: lVar and Peace, BK v, 216a-d; BK
VIII, 321b-d; BK XIV, 606a-607a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II,
24a-c; 30b-32a; BK III, 46c-47b; BK VI, 159c-
163d; BK VII, 184b-188a; BK VIII, 217c-218c;
BK XII, 381c-d; 395a-398d; EPILOGUE, 404c-
408a passim
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Drearns, 246c; 247c-
248b passim / General Introduction, 581d /
Civilization and Its Discontents, 793b-c; 797c-
798a / New Introductory Lectures, 831b
Sd. The modes of divine punishment: here and
hereafter7 temporal and eternal
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:9-19 esp 3:14-19;
4:8-15; 6-8 esp 6:5-7; 18:20-19:29 / Exodus,
7-12; 22:22-24; 32 / Leviticus, 10:1-3; 18:24-
30; 26 jNumbers, 12-14; 15:30-31; 16; 21:5-9;
25 / Deuteronomy, 27-30 passim; 32 / joshua,
5:6; 7-CD) josue, 5:6; 7 / judges, 9 esp 9:2 3-
24, 9:57 / I Samuel, 15-(D) 1 Kings, 15 /
II Salnuel, 6:6-8; 21:1; 24-(D) II Kings,
6:6-8; 21:1; 24/ I Kings, 9:6-9; 11:9-13,29-39;
13; 14:7-17; 16:1-7,18-19; 21:19-2 9-(D)
III Kings, 9:6-9; 11:9-13,29-39; 13; 14:7-17;
16 :1--7,18-I9; 21 :19-29 / II Kings, 5 :20-27;
9:1-10:11; 17:6-I8:12-(D) IVKings, 5:20-27;
9:1-10:11; 17:6-18:12/ I Chronicles, 10:13-14;
13:9---11; 21-(D) I Paralipomenon, 10:13-14;
13:9-11; 21/ II Chronicles, 6:24-42; 12; 21 :12-
20; 26:16-21; 36--(D) II Paralipomenon, 6:24-
42; 12; 21:12-20; 26:16-21; 36/ Ezra, 9-(D)
1 Esdras, 9 / job / Psalms, 9:16-17; II; 18;
21:8-12; 34; 37; 78-79 passim; 89:28-33; 94;
112; II6:3-(D) Psalnzs, 9:17-18; 10; 17; 20:9-
13; 33; 36; 77--78 passim; 88:29-34; 93; III;
114:3/ Isaiah, I; 2:5-3:26; 5; 9:13-10:27; 13-
24; 28-32 ; 33:7-14; 34; 42 :13-25; 47; 63:1- 6;
65-66---:-(D) Isaias, I; 2:5-3:26; 5; 9: 13-10:27;
13-24; 28-32 ; 33:7-14; 34; 42 : 13-25; 47;
63:1- 6; 65-66 / Jeremiah, I; 4-9; II; 13:9-
14:12 ; 15:1-9; 16; 17:2 7-19:13; 21---2 9; 34; 44;
46-52-(D) Jeremias, I; 4-9; II; 13:9-14:12;
15:1-9; 16; 17:2 7-19: 13; 21-29; 34; 44; 46-52
/ Lamentations / Ezekiel, 5-7 esp 5:1- 6:7; 9;
II; 13---18; 20-39 esp 28 :1-19, 31 :10-18-(D)
Ezechiel, 5-7 esp 5:1- 6:7; 9; II; 13-18 ; 20-39
esp 28:1-19, 31:10-18 / Daniel, 4; 5:17-30;
I2:2 / Hosea, 4-13-(D) Osee, 4:1-14:1 /
Joel passim / Amos / Obadiah-CD) Abdias
/ Alicah passim-CD) Micheas passim / lVahum
/ f-Iabakkuk-(D) Habacuc / Zephaniah-CD)
Sophonias I Zechariah, 7:8-14; II :1-9,17; 12-
14-(.D) Zacharias, 7:8-14; II :1-9,17; 12-14
/ lvfalachi, 2-(D) Malachias, 2
ApOCRYPHA: Judith, 5:17-18; 16:17-(D) OT,
Judith, 5:17-18; 16:20--21 / Wisdom of Solo..
mon, 3-5; 4:16-5:14; 11:.5-16;
(D) aT, Book of Wisdo1?l ,
II :5-17; 12:1-8; 16-19 / nc(,;tes'zas,ttCllt
17; 18:22,24; 21 :9-10;
Ecclesiasticus, 7:18-1"9;
39 :32'-36 / I ]yfaccabees,
I Afachabees, 6:1-16 / II1vlaccabees
9; 12:40 -42-(D) aT, II '
9; 12:4-42
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew,
8:12; 10:14-15,28; II
18:9; 23:33; 25:41-46 /
/ Luke, 16:19--26; 18 :28-30/
12:20-23; 13:4-12 / R01nans,
II Thessalonians, 1 :7-9 / flebrews,
II Peter, 2/ jude, 5-16/ Kev'elatz.on.
19:17-21 ; 20 :9-10,12-15; 21
lypse, 9; 14 :9-1I; 19:17--21 ;
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK I [1-317]
[600-619] 177d / Odyssey, BK
244a-b; [568.-600] 248d-249a; BK
251b-c; [260-419] 252d-254c
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens
8d / Persians 15a-26d
/ Pr01netheus Bound
[320-42] S5e-56b; [681-781]
Choephoroe [585-651] 75d-76b
8la-9Id esp [490-562] 86b-87a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the
/ Antigone [2'78-296] 133c;
/ Ajax 143a-155a,c
783] 149c-d / Electra
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes
1392] 350b-352a,e
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [137-159J
6 HERODOTUS: }listory, BK I, 4d;
103b--d; BK IV, 159d; BK V,
199c-d; 203a-b; BK
219c-220a; 237d-239a; 246b-c;
BK IX, 308a-c
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian
380a-d; BK VII, 560a-b
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 125b-126a /
247b / Gorgias, 292b-293d / .L'-CJ/f,4,VH-(.,,,
313b-314d; BK X, 436c-441a,c
530d / Laws, BK IX, 757a; BK
/ Seventh Letter, 80fia
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things,
1023] 42d-43b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [264-594]
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead,
150c-d; CH 24 154b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK
70c-71b / City of God, BK XI,
335c; BK XIII 360a-376a,c esp
366d, CH 23-24 372a-376a,c;
376b,d-380b; CH 15 388d-390a;
15 521a-c; BIZ XX-XXII
Doctrine, BK I, CH 15 628b-c; CH
BK II, CH 23 648a-c
19 AQUINAS: SUmlJ1a
REP 2 15c-16a; Q 64
347b-348d; Q 114, A I, REP I 581d-582c;
PART I-II, Q 17, A 9, REP 3 692d-693d
AQUINAS: Sumnza Theologica, PART I-II, Q79,
AA 3-4 158a-159c; QQ 85.-87 178b-192d; Q 91,
A 6 212c-213c; Q 105, A 2, ANS and REP 9-12
309d-316a; PART II-II, Q 33, A 7, REP 1-2
556a-557d; PART III SUPPL, Q 69 885a-893c;
Q 70, A 3 897d-900d; Q 74, AA 7'-9 932b-
935a,c; Q 86 992b-996a,c; QQ 91-99 10l6a-
1085a,c
DANTE: Divine C0111edy
CHAUCER: Friar's Tale [7227-7246] 284a /
Physician's Tale [12,211-220] 370b-371a I
Pardoner's Tale 374a-382b / .Monk's Tale
434a-448b / Parson's Tale, par IO, 499b-502a
HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 163d-164a; PART
IiI, 177d; 191b-198a; 244b-c; PART IV, 253b-
258b
RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II,
119b-122a
BACON: New Atlantis, 204d-205d
DESCARTES: Meditations, 69b /Objections and
i?-eplies, 226d-227a
MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK I [356-363] lOla;
BK II [477-485] 121h; BK III [167-216] 139a-
140a; BK XI [470-523] 309b-310b / Sa11'lSOn
.1gonistes 339a-378a esp [1'-46] 339b-340b,
[667-709] 354a-35Sa, [1156-'1177] 364b-365a,
[1669-177] 376a-b
J?ASCAL: Pe11sees, 194 205b-209b / Geometrical
e1110nstration, 440a.-b
OCKE: HU1nan Understanding, BK I, CH II,
ECT 13 107d-l08c; CH III, SECT 5 113c; BK II,
H XXI, SECT 62 194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c;
II XXVIII, SECT 8 230a
UME: Human Understanding, SECT XI, DIV
08 SOOb-d; DIV 114, S03a
IELDING: Tonz jones, 20b-21a; 75c-d
ONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XII, 85d-
6a
IBBON: Decline and Fall, 180h; 187b-189b;
8d-199a; 40gb; 438a-c
IBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234d
oswELL:]ohnson, 363a-b; 482a-c; 514d-515a
ELVILLE: Moby Dick, 30a--36b
War and Peace, BK XIV, 606a-607a
Brothers Karanzazov, BK I, lOc-
BK VI, 169c-170b; BK VII, 185a-c
of divine punishment
II Chronicles, 6:23do--(D)
6:23,3 / Ezra, 9:10-15-
9:10-1.5 / job esp 34: 11- 12 I
7:8-17; 28:3'-4; 62:12-(D) Psaln1s,
27:.3-4; 61:13 / Proverbs, 11:31; 24: 12
t!-Cc'teSt,astt's. 9:1'--3 / Isaiah, 59:16-19; 65:6-7
Isaias, 59:r6-19; 65 :6-7 / jeremiah,
25 :14; 50:29; 51 :56-(D) Jerelnias,
25 :14; 50 :29; 51 :56 / Lamentations,
/ Ezekiel, 9:10; 16:43; 23:49-(D) Eze-
9:10; 16:43; 23:49 / Hosea, 12:2-(D)
12:2
509
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdoln o..fSololnon, 12esp 12:15,
12:18; 14:27-31 ; 15:18-16:1; 19:4,I3-(D)
aT, Book of Wisdonl, 12 esp 12:15, 12:18;
14:27-.31; 15:18-16:1; 19:4,12 / Ecclesiasticus,
11:26; 35 :I8-19-(D) aT, Ecclesiasticus,
11:28; 35:22-25 / II Alaccabees, 4:38; 7:.36-
38; 9 esp 9:6, 9:18-(D) aT, II !vlachabees,
4:38; 7:.36-38;9 esp 9:6, 9: I 8
!'TE\V TESTAMENT: Matthew, 16:27 / Romans,
2:5-11 ; 3:5-6 III Corinthians, 5:10; 11:15 /
If Thessalonians, 1:6 / II Tinzothy, 4:14 /
I-Iebretvs, 2:1-4 / Revelation, 2:23; 20:12-13
-(D) .Apocalypse, 2:23; 20:12-13
5 AESCHYLUS: Agan1emnon [1560-1565] 68c /
Choephoroe [585-651] 75d-76b
5 SOPHOCLES: Electra [173-183] 157c / Philocte-
tes 182a-19Sa,c esp [433-452] 186a, [1316-
1347] 193d-194a, [148-1444] 194d-19Sa,c
5 EURIPIDES: Heracles A1ad 365a-377d esp
[726-873] 371b-372c
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VII, 237d-239a
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 125b-126a / Gorgias, 292b-
293d / Republic, BK II, 321d-322d; BK X,
436c-441a,c / Laws, BK X, 767c-768c
12 LUCRETIUS: lVature of Things, BK VI [379-395J
85b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VII [286-.322] 243b-245a
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 16
l50c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XIII, CH 1360a-b;
CH 3 361a-c; CH 14-15 366b-d; BK XIV, CH 15
388d-390a; BK xv, CH 21, 415d-416a; CH 25
419a-b; BK XIX, CH 13 519a-520a; BK xx, CH
27 556b; BK XXI, CH 13 571c-572a / Christian
Doctrine, BK I, CH 32 633c-d; BK II, CH 23
648a-c
19 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 19,
A 9, ANS 116d-117d; Q 21, A 4 126c-127c;
Q23, A3 134b-135a; Q 49, A2, ANS and REP I
266a-c; Q 64, A4 337d-338d; PART I-II, Q 39,
A 2, REP 3 790d-791b; Q 47, A I, REP I 819c-
820b
20 AQUINAS: Sunl1na Theologica, PART I-II, Q87,
185c-192d; Q 105, A 2, ANS and REP 9-12
309d-316a; PART II-II, Q 19 465a-474d; Q 25,
A 6, REP 2-.3 504d-S05d; PART III SUPPL, QQ
87-90 997a-1016a
21 DANTE: Divine COIned)', HELL, III [ 1-18] 4a-b;
[100-136] Sa-b; XI 15a-16b; XIII [91-108] 18d-
19a; XIX [I'-30] 26d-27a; xx [1-39] 28b-d;
XXIV [79-120] 3Sb-d; XXIX [52--57] 43c;
PURGATORY, XVI [52.-84] 77b-d; XIX ]70--145]
82b-83a; xx [85-96] 84a; PARADISE, VI [82-92]
114c; VII [16-841 I1Sb-116a; xv [1--12] 128b-c;
XVIII [I 15-136] 134d-135a
22 CHAUCER: Tale of Alelibeus, par 40-43 4l8b-
41gb
23 HOBBES: Let/iathan, PART II, 160c-161a;
PART IV, 254a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT I, sc II [1-43]
322d-323a / Hetl1)! V, ACT IV, SC I [140-186]
553a-c
THE. GREAT IDEAS
ADDITIONAL READINGS
511
54 FREUD: Interpretation of Dreams, 204b-c;
328a-b / GeneralIntroduction, 535c-d / Ego
and Id, 712b-715b / Inhibitions, Symptoms,
and Anxiety,. 730b-731b; 735c-d; 743b-744a
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 797a-799a
passim / New Introductory Lectures, 831c-832a;
851d-852d
BONAVENTURA. Breviloquium, PART VII
T. MORE. Utopia, BK I
DEFOE. Moll Flanders
J, BUTLER. The Analogy ofReligion, PART I, CH 2-5
BECCARIA. Crin1es and Punishments
VOLTAIRE. "Crimes or Offences," "Criminal," in
A Philosophical Dictionary
HOWARD. The State ofthe Prisons
GODWIN, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice,
BK VII, CH I
COLERIDGE, The Rime ofthe Ancient Mariner
BENTHAM, An Introduct;'on to the Principles ofMoraIs
and Legislation, CH 12-17
--, The Theory of Legislation
--. The Rationale of Punishment
--, The Rationale of Reward
DICKENS, Oliver Twist
--, Nicholas Nick1eby
HAWTHORNE, The Scarlet Letter
II.
The Book of Beliefs and Opinions,
on Ethics, pp 47-70
Jne House ofthe Dead
and Punishment
Anna Karenina
Listed below are works not included in Great Books ofthe Western World, but relevant to the
and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
1. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
Bibliography of Additional Readings ,vhich follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
1.
AS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK III, CH 139-
Quaestiones Disputatae, De.Malo, Q 5
lNG, Jonathan Wild
ITH. The Theory of Moral Sentin1ents, PART
ECT I
VI, 238a-c; 271c-274a,c; BK VIII, 30Sb-
322c; BK IX, 349d-350d; 357a-358b;
BK XI, 505a-511b; 514c; BK XIII, 573d; BK
Xlv,610c
DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V,
BK XI, 317b-320a; 324d-329b
discussion of the distinction between the pain of sense and the pain of loss, see
PLEASURE AND PAIN 4e.
general problem of the justice or utility of punishment, see JUSTICE laC; LAW 6e(z).
as a condition of just punishment, see LIBERTY 3c; SIN 6a-6b; VIRTUE AND
WILL Sb(4).
and punishments as factors in moral training, see EDUCATION 4; FAMILY 6d;
PLEASURE AND PAIN 8a, loa; VIRTUE AND VICE 4d(z).
discussion of punishment as a sanction of lavv, see LAW 6a; and for the general theory of
crime and its punishment, see JUSTICE lac; LAW 6e-6e(3).
consideration of the penal use of labor, see LABOR IC; SLAVERY 3a.
sacramental aspect of the punishment of sin, see SIN 4e; and for the nature and justice of
divine punishment, see GOD Si; HAPPINESS 7c(3); IMMORTALITY sd-se; JUSTICE IIa; SIN
6c-6e.
discussions of the sense of sin and of repentance, and of the desire or need for punish-
ment, see PLEASURE AND PAIN 8c; SIN S.
PART III SUPPL, Q 94 i I Ia.'}f' ,
1066a-1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Con'ledy, HELL
4a-Sb, v [I-51] 7a-c, VI [94-115]
16b, XIV [16-72] 19c;Ob, XXVII
41h, XXVIII [112-142] 42c-43a,
50c-51a; PARADISE, XV [ro-I2] 128c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART IV,
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT I)
63] 115a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK
SECT 62 194c-d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson,
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers
169c-170b; BK XI, 337a-346a
5e(2) The necessity of expiation in
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 4:4-(D)
ApOCRYPHA: II Maccabees
J
lL;,L!--<.--/il;;;----"/1
II Machabees, 12:43-46
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 12:32
thians, 3:1 I-IS
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK xx,
555a; BK XXI, CH 13 571c-572a;
574a; CH 24 577b-579d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica,
Q 69, A 2, ANS and REP 2
891d-893c; Q 97, A I, REP 2
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy,
l05d esp I-II 53a-55d, III
IX 65d-67b, X [97]-XI [90 ]
73c, XVII [76-139] 79b-d, XVIII
81b, XIX [97-126] 82c-d, XXI
XXV [I09]-xXVI [90]
99b-102b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART IV,
258b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, sc
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 173d
6. Pathological motivations with I
punishment: abnormal
guilt; perverse desires to
punishment
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III,
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IV, CH 5
373a-c; BK IX, CH 4 [II66bI2-24]
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK
1023] 43a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 13c-d;
XV, 168a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Titus Andronicus
esp ACT I, SC I [90-141]
III [89-191] 178d-179d, SC IV
27 SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth, ACT v,
307a; sc III [37-46] 308a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 55a-d;
216a-c; 389b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofHistory,
228b; PART IV, 354a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I,
IV, 174b; 183d-186c; 188a-190c; BK
510
(5. The punish1nent for sin. 5e. The justice of
divine punishnzent.)
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT III, SC II [42 -
59] 263b-c; ACT IV, SC II [37-80] 270d-271b;
ACT v, SC III [170-174] 281a / Cymbeline, ACT
V, sc IV [11-2 9] 481b /Winter's Tale, ACT III,
SC II [12S-I55] S02c-S03a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 413d
32 Paradise Lost, BK III [80-166] 137a-
139a esp [131- 134] 138a; [372-415] 143h-144b;
BK IV [1-113] 152b-155a; BK x [I4S-208] 277b-
279a / Sa1nson Agonistes [293-299] 346a;
[356-380] 347b-348a; [667-709] 354a-35Sa;
[1156-1177] 364b-365a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CHXXI,
SECT 62 194c-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 282a-287b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 482a-d; 539d-540a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 380b-381a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, .. BK XI,
337a-346a
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 87Sa-b
5e(l) The justification of eternal suffering in
Hell or Hades
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 26:6 / Psalms, 9: 16- 17;
21 :8-12; II6:3-(D) Psalms, 9:17-18; 20:9-13;
114:3/ Proverbs, 15:11,24; 27:20 / Isaiah, 5: 14-
IS; 14:4-2 3; 33:10- 14; 66:24-(D) Isaias,
5:
1
4-
1
5; 14:4-2 3; 33:10- 14; 66:24 / Ezekiel,
31 :IO-18-(D) Ezechiel, 31 :10-18/ Daniel,
12:2
ApOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:17-(D) aT, Judith,
16:20-21 / Wisdom of Solomon, 4:16-5: 14-
(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 4:16-S:15 / Ec-
clesiasiicus, 7:16-17; 18:22,24; 21 :9-lo-(D)
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:18-19; 18:22,24; 21 :10-11
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:7-12; 5:22,29;
8:12; 10:14-:-15,28; 11:20-24; 13:41-42,49-50 ;
18:9; 23:33; 25:41-46 / Mark, 9:42-48; 16:16
/ Luke, 12:5; 16:19-26 / John, 15:6 / Ro-
mans, 2:S-9; 13:2 / II Thessalonians, 1:7-9
/ Hebrews, 10:26-31/ James, S:I-6 / Jude, 6-13
/ Revelation, 9; 14 :9--11 ; 19:17-21; 20 :9-10,12-
IS; 2I:8-(D) Apocalypse, 9; 14:9-11 ; 19:17-
21; 20:9-10,12-15; 21:8
4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK XI [568-600] 248d-249a
5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [137-159] 565d-566a
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 249c-250a / Republic, BK x,
437c--438c / Laws, BK IX, 757a; BK X, 767c-
768c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIII, CH 2 360b-
361a; CH 12 365d-366a; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-
377a; BK XIX, CH 13 519a-520a; CH 28 529d-
530a,c; BK XXI, CH 11-12 570b-571c; CH 16-18
573b-575b; CH 23-24 576c-579d
19 AQUINAS: Sunzma Theologica, PART I, Q 21,
A 4, REP I 126c-127c; Q 63, A 8, ANS 332c-
333b
20 AQUINAS: SU1n1na Theologica, PART I-II, Q 79,
A 4, REP 2 158d-159c; Q 87, AA 3-S 187b-189c;
THE GREAT IDEAS
513
INTRODUCTION
not verbal-distinctions. Their agreement on
this point seems to be shared even by those,
like Hume, who question our ability to know
whether substances exist; or those, like Berke'"
ley, who question the validity of the distinction
between quality and quantity.
In one sense, no one questions the existence
of qualities, as they do the existence of
stances-the enduring things, material or other...
wise, in which qualities are supposed to inhere.
Everyone somehow acknowledges the hot and
the cold, the light and the dark, the moist and
the dry, the hard and the soft. But such
acknowledgement does not preclude a number
of basic questions about quality on which much
disagreement exists.
Are qualities attributes? Do they exist, that
is, only as qualifiers, only as belonging to some'"
thing else? Or do they exist independently, in
and of themselves? If qualities are attributes,
do they belong to things quite apart from our
experience of them, or do they belong to things
only as experienced and have no separate reai-..
ity? Do things have in reality certain attributes
that cause in us the experience of other traits
which we then attribute to the things them..
selves?
Are all the attributes of things, whether in or
apart from experience, to be conceived as qual-
i ties, and if so, are there different kinds of qual..
ities? Or is quality only one kind of attribute,
and if so, hoyv is quality related to other kinds
of attributes? Is quality, for example, distinct
from quantity, dependent on quantity, reduc"
ible to quantity, affected by quantity?
These questions appear to be related in ways
which rnake the issues they raise dependent on
one another. If, in addition, their presupposi-
tions and implications are observed, it will be
seen that they cannot be fully discussed without
entering into matters considered in other chap'"
Chapter 75: QUALITY
is sometin1es supposed that the fundamen'"
at' categories in terms of which men think
are describing reality or their experience
ly reflect the conventions of their language.
tance and attribute-and among attri...
5, quality and quantity-happen to be fun"
ental categories in western thought, it is
,only because the group of languages which
\Vestern cultures use all have a grammatical
cture that involves a distinction between
nand adjective and between different kinds
cljectives. It is said, for example, that Aris'"
's enumeration of the categories is merely
bal classification based on Greek grammar.
n he says that the basic terms of discourse
sent substances, qualities, quantities, re"
ns, and so forth, he is recognizing the gram...
ical difference between such words as "man"
"white," or between "white" and "six feet
"and "double." The lineaments of reality,
'Varieties of being, or the modes of experi"
are not, it is held, thereby finally described.
the tradition of the great books, another
rpretation generally prevails. Even those
disagree in one way or another about the
categories do not regard them as conven"
a.l or of linguistic origin. Kant, for example,
grees with Aristotle's listing of the cate'"
es. I-Ie makes substance a mode of relation
er than coordinate with quality, quantity,
relation. He calls his categories "transcen...
al" to indicate that they are not drawn
PV1'"\pt"1pr,\rp and that, as a priori forms of
they determine the structure of all
experience. Aristotle, on the other
draw's his categories from experience. He
that they represent fundamental modes
and that they are, therefore, the basic
in terms of which thought apprehends
Despite all these differences, Kant and
agree that the categories signify real---
SALEILLES. l'he lndividualisation
BRADLEY. Collected Essays, VOL I
PIRANDELLO. The Outcast
WHARTON. Ethan Frome
FAUCONNET. La responsabilite
MALINOWSKI. Crime in
EWING. The Morality of Punishment
R?ss. The Right and the Good, II (I)
o NEILL. Emperor Jones
--. Mourning Becomes Electra
8HAw. Crude Criminology
512
HUGo. Les Mise,-ables
R. BROWNING. The Ring and the Book
S . BUTLER. Erewhon
MAUDSLEY. Responsibility in Mental Disease
T. HARDY. The Return ofthe Native
T..H. GREEN. The Principles of Political
tzon, (K)
S. M. GREEN. Crime: Its Nature, Causes, Treatment
and PreventIon
IBSEN. Ghosts
--. Hedda Gabler

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INTRODUCTION

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