1102

INTRODUCTION
Chapter IOI: WISDOM
1103
But apte the Mind or Fancie is to roave
U?checkt, and of her roaving is no end;
TIll warn'd, or by experience taught, she learn
That not to knovv at large of things remote
From use, obscure and suttle, but to know
That which before us lies in daily life,
Is the prime Wisdom; what is more, is fume,
Or emptiness, or fond impertinence,
And renders us in things that most concerne
Unpractis'd, unprepar'd, and still to seek.
Gargantua, writing a letter to his son Panta-
gruel while the latter is a student in Paris, ad-
monishes him in the words of Solomon that
"Wisdom entereth not into a malicious mind
and that knowledge without conscience is
the ruin of the soul." In War and Peace, Pierre,
after reiterating that "All we can know is that
we know nothing. And that's the height of hu-
man wisdom," learns from the Mason that
highest wisdom is not founded 'on reason alone,
nor on those worldly sciences of 'physics,
chemistry, and the like, into which intellectual
knowledge is divided." The highestwisdom,
the Mason continues, is "but onescience-tne
science of the whole-the science explaining
the whole creation and man's place in it. To re-
ceive that science it is necessary to purify and
renew one's inner self.... And to attain this
end, we have the light called conscience that
God has implanted in our souls."
Though PIato defines wisdom as the virtue of
reason-that part of the soul which is for him
the faculty of knowledge-he gives it the func-
tion of directing conduct as well as contemplat-
ingtruth. "Him we call wise," Socrates declares
in the Republic, "who has in him that little
part which rules" and which has "a knowledge
of what is for the interest of each of the three
parts and of the whole." In the state as in the
soul, "how can there be the least shadow of
wisdom," the Athenian Stranger asks ill the
Laws, "where there is no harmony?"
There is no harmony or wisdom "when fair
reasonings have their habitation in the soul,
and yet do no good, but rather the reverse of
good" because reason fails to rule or be obeyed.
"When the soul is opposed to kno\vledge, or
opinion, or reason, which are her natural lords,"
the Athenian Stranger goes on, "that I call
folly, just as it is in the state, when the multi..
tude refuses to obey their rulers or the laws."
The four virtues which Plato enumerates
CHAPTER 101: \tVISDOM
the phrase "philosophical wisdom" to distin-
ish speculative from practical or political
wisdom suggests that the philosopher may at-
tain the wisdom he pursues. like
rlato, speaks of"philosophers or lovers of wis-
Joro"; and Plato, like Aristotle, treats wisdom
one of the basic human virtues.
13 SHALL RETURN TO THE distinction which
Doth Aristotle and Aquinas make between prac-
tical and speculative wisdom; they often call
e latter simply "wisdom," in contrast to
"prudence," which is their name for practical
wisdom. Other writers, who treat. wisdom as
0ne, sometimes emphasize its speculative, and.
its practical, aspect. But for all of
tnero, this double aspect remains part of wis-
Jam's special character.
Lucretius, for example, finds nothing "more
gladdening than to dwell in the calm high
places, firmlyembattled on the heights by the
teaching of the ..wise, whence you can look
[down on others, and see them wandering hither
a.md thither, goingastray as they seek the way of
life." The way of life, free from pain, the dis-
t1iess of fear, and futile struggle, is known only
tothe wise. Calm and repose are here suggested
as attributes of the wise man. That also seems
to be the implication of Dr. Johnson's ."appro-
wation of one who had attained to the state of
1tihe philosophical wise man, thatis, to have no
want ofanything." When Boswell observes that
then "the savage is a wise man, " Johnson ire-
"Sir, I do not mean simply heingwithout
not having a want."
Hor Plotinus, wisdom... seems to be . purely
speculative, and its repose a condition of the
reasoning mind at rest. "Wisdom," he writes,
"is a condition in a being that possesses repose.
!nink what happens when one has accomplish-
eel the reasoning process; as soon as we have dis-
<2overed the right course, we cease to reason.
We rest because we have come to ,visdom."
Still wisdom has a moral or, for Plotinus, an
raesthetic aspect. "One Soul," he says, is "wise
and lovely, another foolish and ugly. Soul-
oeauty is constituted by wisdom."
The practical or moral aspect of wisdom pre-
<laminates in Milton, Rabelais, and Tolstoy.
In Paradise Lost, Adam communicates his re-
flections on human .knowledge to RaphaeL
Still another distinctive mark of wisdo111 is
that it cannot be misused. We recognize that
bad men as well as good. may. possess other
kinds of kno\vledge. We have seen artistic shll
and scientific truth put to evil use. But We
do not ordinarily think a man wise
acts wisely. To act \visely is to act well, even
to have wisdom is to use it. The satirist's
praise of folly condemns a useless wisdom.ZEhe
theologian's condemnation of "worldly wisdo
dismisses it as the worst of folly-a counterfeit
of \visdom.
Other forms of learning may separate kno\\rJr
edge from action; wisdom tends to uni te themt
Other forms of inquiry may be contentwitn
knowing and understanding the facts;
suit of vvisdom aspires to a knowledge of
and evil. Plato, for example, makes the visionnf
the good the goal of a dialectic which ascends to
vvisdom, yet which does not rest there, but re-
turns enlightened to the realm of action. Tni$
conception of'iVisdom is hinted at whenever .wc
refrain from callinga man ,vise simply because lie
is learned-a scholar,. scientist, or philosopner.
Again it is Plato who respects wisdom so
highly that he will not call the philosopher wise,
but only a lover of wisdom. "No god is a phi'"
losopher or seeker after wisdom, for he is wise
already," Socrates says in the Symposium; "nor
does any man who is wise seek after wisdom.
Neither do the ignorant seek after
The lovers of wisdom are neither the wise mor
the ignorant and foolish. As Socrates points
they are "in a mean betV\Teen the wise and the
ignorant."
Aristotle would seelll to disagree, not fr<o8
a lower regard for wisdom, but because heid@n-
tifies wisdom with philosophical knowledge:,
and especially vvith that highest brancn ..
speculative science which is called "theology,'
"first philosophy," or "metaphysics." His us
T
HE special character of vlisdolll among
. the attainments of the mind shows itself
in the things which everyone \vill agree can be
said about wisdom-things which cannot be
said about art and science, or knowledge and
learning generally.We believe that, \vi th the
centuries, knowledge can be steadily increased
and learning advanced, but we do not suppose
that the same progress can be achieved in wis-
dom. The individual may The
race does not seem to.
In the tradition of the great boo1<.s, the mod-
erns usually assert their superiority over the
ancients in all the arts and sciences. They sel-
dom claim superiority in wisdom. The phrase
"modern science" needs no elucidation, but if
anyone were to. speak of modern wisdom, he
would have to explain his meaning. As "mod-
ern" seems to have an immediately acceptable
significance when it qualifies "science," so "an-
cient" seems to go with "wisdom," and to
suggest that, with the centuries, far from in-
creasing, wisdom may be lost.
Wisdom is more frequently and extensively
the subject of discussion in the ancient and
mediaeval than in the modern books. The an-
cients seem to have not only a greater yearning
for wisdom, but also a greater interest in under-
standing what wisdom is and how it can be
gained. The traditional discussion of. wisdom,
furthermore, has its foundations in the litera-
ture of the Old and the New Testament, as well
as in the books of pagan antiquity.
This is not true of other forms of knoV\Tledge.
The teachings of revealed religion open a path
to the "heart of wisdom." They do not propose
methods of scientific research. Again and again
the Scriptures proclaim that "fear of the I...ord
is the beginning of wisdom"-a wisdom vvhich
develops with piety and worship, as science de-
velops with experiment and proof.
THE GREl\T IDEf\.S
CHAPTER 101: WISDOM
1104
in both the Republic and the Laws are wisdom,
temperance, courage, justice. Justice is given a
certain preeminence in the Republic as some-
how embracing the other three, but in the
Laws, the ruling virtue is wisdom. Calling the
virtues "divine goods" to distinguish them
from such things as health, beauty,. strength,
and wealth, the Athenian Stranger makes \vis-
dam "chief and leader of the divine class of
goods.... Next," he says, "follo\"s temperance;
and from the union of these two with courage
springs justice, and fourth in the scale of virtue
is courage." As the principle of these other vir-
tues, wisdom like them engages in the life of
action. It does not move solely in the realm of
thought.
WHEN HE REFERS TO WISDOM as one of the four
virtues, Aristotle uses the word "wisdom" as if
it named a single virtue. In the passage in the
Politics in which he says that "the courage,
justice, and wisdom of a state have the same
form and nature as the qualities which give the
individual who possesses them the name of
just, wise or temperate," he does not divide
wisdom into the speculative and the practical.
But he seldom overlooks that separation. The
passage just ci ted, for instance, begins with the
statement that "each one has just so much hap-
piness as he has of virtue and wisdom, and of
virtuous and wise action."
Here the reference to virtue and wisdom
places wisdom outside the virtues, when the
latter are conceived exclusively as moral vir...
tues. Wisdom for Aristotle is a virtue only in
the order of intellectual excellence, not of moral
excellence or character. As an intellectual vir...
wisdom is not even involved in the growth
or exercise of the moral virtues. It is as possihIe,
Aquinas says, following Aristotle, to have the
cardinal moral virtues wi thout wisdom, as it is
to have them \vithout art or science. But for
both Aquinas and Aristotle this is neither true
nor intelligible unless we bear in mind the dis-
tinction between philosophical and practical
wisdom, or between wisdom and prudence.
Though prudence is, no less than wisdom, an
intellectual virtue-a quality of mind rather
than of character-it belongs \vith the moral
virtues. As the chapter on VIRTUE indicates,
the cardinal virtues according to Aquinas in:
elude prudence, not wisdom. Similarly, as
be seen in the chapter on PRUDENCE,
theory holds it impossible to be good "without
practical vvisdom,"just it is impossible to be
"practically \vise without moral virtue."
Practical wisdom, Aristotle writes, "is Con-
cerned \vith things human and things about
which it is possible to deliberate." Philosophic
,,,isdom, on the other hand, "will contemplate
none of the things that make a man happy." To
explain the difference, Aristotle uses the ex-
ample of the early Greek sages. "'Ve say Anax-
agoras, Thales, and men like them have phil-
osophic but not practical wisdom, when we see
them ignorant of what is to their own advan-
tage.... They kno,,, things that are remark-
able, admirable, difficult, and divine, but use-
less; viz., because it is not human goods the}'"
seek."
If "wisdom" connotes the highest form or
knowledge, then the name, according to Aris-
totle, is more properly applied to speculative
than to practical wisdom. The highest form of
kno\vledge, in his view, is concerned \vith tne
highest objects. Hence, he says, "it would be
strange to think that ... practical ,,,isdom is the
best knowledge, since man is not the best thing
in the world.... But if the argument be that
man is the best of the animals, this makes no
difference; for there are other things much
more divine in their nature than man," and
wisdom is knowledge "of the things thatare
highest by nature."
When Hobbes distinguishes between pru'"
dence and sapience, he does not assign a special
object to wisdom. "As much experience is Rru-
dence," he writes, "so is much science, Sapi-
ence." It is the alnount of science a man posses-
ses, not his possession of a particular kind or
knowledge, which Inakes him wise. Descartes
seems to take a similar view when he says that
"the sciences taken all together are identical
\vith hUluan wisdoln." But for Aristotle and
Aquinas, philosophical wisdom can be differen-
tiated from the other speculative virtues, such
as the understanding of first principles or the
scientific knowledge of the conclusions whicn
can be demonstrated from them. It involves
them, but it is distinct from them insofar as it
uses principles to demonstrate conclusions c011t'
cerning the highest causes. Wisdom can
called a science if it is understood that by reason
oEits object it stands at the apex of the sciences,
crowning and perfecting them.
In the opening pages of his Metaphysics,
Aristotle identifies wisdom with the supreme
l-?hilosophical science-the science which inves-
tigates first principles and causes. He calls it a
"divine science" or "theology," for, as he says,
"God is thought to be among the causes of all
tnings and to be a first principle." It is not the
most useful science, but the most "desirable on
its own account and for the sake of knowing.
... It alone exists for its own sake.... All the
sciences, indeed, are more necessary than this,
But none is better."
While adopting Aristotle's conception of wis-
dom, Aquinas finds it most eminently repre-
$cnted among the sciences, not by metaphysics
or the theology of the philosophers, but by
sacred doctrine or the theology based on reve-
lation. "Since it is the part of a wise man to
order and to judge," he writes, "and since lesser
matters can be judged in the light of SOlne
nigher cause . .. therefore, he who considers
aBsolutely the highest cause of the whole uni-
verse, namely God, is most of all called wise.
... But sacred doctrine essentially treats of
(,jod viewed as the highest cause, for it treats of
FIim not only so far as He can be known through
creatures just as the philosophers know Him
. . . but also so far as He is known to Himself
alone and revealed to others. Hence," Aquinas
concludes, "sacred doctrine is especially called
wisdom."
rHE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE wisdom of the
pnilosopher and the wisdom of the theologian
is more fully discussed in the chapters on META-
PHYSICS and THEOLOGY. But we are concerned
nere wi th the further implications of the differ-
ence bet\v(:en natural and supernatural wisdom,
or the wisdom of man and of God.
The Greeks insistently raise the question
whether man can have wisdom. In the Apology,
Sacrates tells his accusers that his"cross-exami-
nation of the pretenders to wisdom" was a duty
imposed upon him by the oracle \vhich declared
tnat there was no man wiser than himself. To
understand the oracle's meaning, he tried to
seek out wisdom in other men but, he says at
his trial, "1 found that the men most in repute
1105
were all but the most foolish." This gave him
an insight into the kind. of wisdom which he
himself possessed.
"My hearers always imagine," Socrates de'"
clares, "that I myself possess the wisdom which
I find \vanting in others; but the truth is,O
men ofAthens, that God only is wise ; and by his
answer he intends to show that the wisdom of
men is worth little or nothing; he is not speak-
ing of Socrates, he is only using my name by
way of illustration, as if he said, He, 0 men, is
the wisest, who, like Socrates, knows that his
wisdom is in truth worth nothing." Again in
the Phaedrus, Socrates refuses to call any man
wise, "for that is a great name which belongs to
God alone." For men, "lovers of wisdom or
philosophers is the modest and befitting title."
Aristotle also says of the science which most
deserves the name of wisdom, because it is a
science of divine things, that "such a science
either God alone can have, or God above all
others." He does not think that the divine
power can be jealous, but if there were any
truth in what the poets say about the jealousy
of the gods, "it would probably occur in this
case above all, and all who excelled in this
knowledge would be unfortunate." To what-
ever extent the possession of wisdom "might be
justly regarded as beyond human power," it
would be unfitting, in Aristotle's opinion, "for
man not to be content to seek the knowledge
that is suited to him."
This is even more typically a Christian than
a pagan sentiment. "Christians have a special
knowledge," writes Montaigne, "how natural
and original an evil curiosi ty is in man: the
thirst of knowledge, and the desire to become
more wise, was the first ruin ofhuman kind, and
the way by which it precipitated itself in eternal
damnation." In Paradise Lost, as he is about to
leave the Garden of Eden, Adam says to the
angel Michael:
Greatly instructed I shall hence depart.
Greatly in peace of thought, and have my fill
Of knowledge, what this vessel can containe;
Beyond which \vas my folly to aspire.
To which the angel replies:
This having learnt, thou hast attained the summe
Of wisdom ...
But Sacred Scripture does more than enjoin
man to humble himself before the chasm be"
THEGREAT IDEAS CHAP17ER.101: WISDOM 1101
trate .the divine mysteries, or to guide-;man to
his salvation. Aiugustinefinds,in Rlato's:teach...
ing .a marvellous . of Christian
wisdom.. "It is evidentthat none come nearer to
us than the Platonists, ".he says, when he attrib,..
utes to Plato the conception of "the wise man
as one who imitates, knows, 10vesthisGod,'and
who is rendered blessed through fellowship with
Him in His own blessedness." Though Aquinas
holds that "wisdom. asa gift is more excellent
than wisdom as an intellectual virtue, since it
attains to God more intimately by a kind of
union of the soul with Him, " he certainly re-
gards Aristotle as the epitome of natural wis'"
dom ,vhen he refers to himas "the philosopher. "
The admonition of St. Paul,. "to beware lest
any man spoil you through philosophy and vain
deceit, after the traditionofmen, after theru--
diments of the world," does not seem to be in...
terpreted by Augustine and Aquinas to>mean,
as Montaigne later suggests, that "the plague
of man is the opinion. of wisdom; and for this
reason iLis that ignorance is so recommended to
us by our religion." But the theologians do con
demn the counterfeits of wisdom to which men
are susceptible. These are .. false wisdoms;the
wisdom of the philosophers is not false, but

We find three types of false worldly wisdom
listed by Aquinas. If a man "fixes his end in ex'"
te.rnal earthly things," he writes, "his wisdom
is called earthly; if in the goods of the body, it is
called sensual wisdom; if in some excellence, it
is called devilish wisdom, because it imitates the
devil's pride." These worldly,wisdolns consti...
tute for hilE the sin of folly. "It wisdom
of the world," Aquinas says, "which deceives
and makes us foolish in God's sight..... Though
no man wishes to be a fool," he adds, "yet he
wishes those things of which folly is a conse-
quence, viz. to w-ithdraw his sense from spiritual
things and to plunge it. into earthly things."
The essence of such folly, according to. the
Psalmist, lies in denial: "The fool hathsaid in
his heart, There is no God."
But there is another meaning of folly, in
which it is neither a sin nor the opposite of wis-
dom. "If any man among you seem to be wise
in this world," St. Paul declares, "let him be-
come a fool, that he rnay he wise." Commenting
on this text, Aquinas explains that "just as there
CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIANS LIKE Augustine and
Aquinas do not hold the wisdom of the phi-
losophers in contempt because they fail to pene'"
and in this sense faith is said to be the beginning
ofwisdom. But as regards the effect, the
ningof \visdom is the point where wisdoffi,be-
gins to work, and in this way fear is the begin...
ningof wisdom, yet servile fear in one way and
tjlial fear inanother.
. "For servile fear," Aquinas explains, "islike
a. principle disposing.a man to wisdom from
\vithout, in so far as he refrains from sin through
fear ofpunishment, arid is thus fashioned for the
of wisdom...... On the other hand, chaste
or filialfear is the beginning of wisdom,as be-
ing the first effect of \visdom. For since the reg-
ulation of human conduct by. the divine law
belongs to \visdom, in order .to make a begin...
ning, man must. first of all fear God and submit
himself to Him."
The special character of wisdom which we
noted earlier-that it is at once speculative and
practical knowledge,. that it is concerned both
,vith the ultimate nature of things and the ul ti-
mate good for man-seems to be strikingly ex-
etnplified in what the theologian calls "the gift
of \visdom. " Wisdom as Piato conceives it may
have this double character, but for Aristotle, as
we have seen, wisdom, as opposed to prudence,
is purely speculative. It remains speculative
even vJ"hen it deals with the end; which is. the
good of each thing "and in generalwith.the su
preine good in the \vhole of nature." It con"':
siders the end or the good, as Aristotle indi-
cates, only under the aspect of investigating
"the first principles and. causes; for the good,
i.e., the end, is one of the causes." It does not
thereby direct man to his own end, or lay down
the rules ofa good life.
The supernatural gift of wisdom, Aquinas
tells us, "is not merely speculative butalso prac-
tical. .. . It belongs to wisdom as a gift, not
only to contemplate divine things, but also to
regulate human acts." Such infused wisdom not
only extends "to the hidden mysteries of divine
things," which are beyond the greatest wisdom
man can acquire by his natural efforts, t this
wisdom also directs Inan'sactions to "the sov-
ereign good which is the last end, by knowing
which man is said to be truly wise."
ing t, to Pascal, "the proper
for prIde If In Wisdom, for it cannot be grante(f
to a man that he has made himself wise..... o<l
alone gives \visdom"and.. tpat is "vhy Qui gloria-
tur, in Domino .glorietur."
The theologians dwell at length on the
of the Psalmist that "the fear of the,Lordistile
beginning of wisdom." Enumerating seven
steps to wisdom, Augustine wri tes: "First afaIl
it is necessary that we should be led by thejea;
ofGod to seek the knowledge of His \vill, "vaat
He commands us to desire and \vhat to avoid.
Now this fear will of necessi ty excite in us the
thought of our mortality and of the death that
is before us, and crucify all the motions ofpricle
as if our flesh were nailed to the tree." Then in
come the steps of piety, knowledge,
resolutIon, counsel, purification of heart; and,
finally, the "holy man will be so single and so
pure in heart that he will not step aside from
the. truth, either for the sake of pleasing men or
with a view to avoid any of the annoyances
which beset this life. Such a man ascends to' wis...
dom, which is the seventh and the last step, ancl
which he enjoys;in peace and tranquility."
Only the wisdom which begins with faith,
according to Aquinas, also begins with fear.
"A thing may be called the beginning of wis,;
dom in two ways," he explains; "in one way,
because it is the beginning of wisdom itself astQ
its essence; in another way, as toits effect-Thus
the beginning ofan art as toits essence consists
in the principles from which that art, proceeds,
while the beginning of an art as to its effect is
that wherefrom it begins to operate." Aquinas
then points out that wisdom is considered by
theologians "in one way, and in another way
by philosophers." As the wisdom of the philos":
ophers does not begin with articlesoffaith but
with axioms of reason, so it does not begin with:
fear but with wonder.
The wisdoln of the philosophers and the wis-
dom of the religious both consist in knowledge
of divine things, but "wisdom, aswe look at it,"
Aquinas \vrites, "is considered not only as being
cognizant ofGod, as it is with the philosophers,
but also as directing human conduct, since this
is directed not only by the human law, but hy
the divine law.... Accordingly the beginning
of \visdom as to its essence consists in the first
principles of wisdom, .i.e., the articles of
1106
tween human wisdom at its best and the in...
firiitewisdomof God. It does'more than say in
the words of Jeremiah: "Let not the'\-viseman
glory in his wisdom," for it also says that "fools
despise wisdom." In the Epistle of Jarnes .we
find true wisdom set apart from false. If the
krio,:"ledge of the wise man is not accompanied
by the "meekness of wisdom," if instead there
is .. "bitter envying and.strife .in your hearts,"
then "this wisdom descendeth not from above,
but is earthly, sensual, devilish..... But the
wisdom thatis from above is first pure, then
peaceable, gentle, and easy to beintreated, full
of mercy and good. fruits, without partia.lity,
and without hypocrisy."
St. Paul asks: "Hath not God made-foolish
the \visdom of this world? When
.. the by wisdom knew not God, i tpleased
God by the foolishness of preaching to save diem
that believe.
For the .Jews. require a sign, and ... the Greeks seek
after wisdom:
But we preach Christcfucified, unto. Jews a
stumbling-block, and unto Oreeks fqolishness;
But unto them which are called both Jews and
Greeks, Christ the power of God/ and the 'wisdom
of God.
Because the foolishness of God is wiser than mell;
and the weakness. of God is ,stronger than men.
"My speech and my preaching, ":St.Paulcon...
tinues to the Carinthians,
.... was not with entieing words of man'swisdorri,
but in demonstration of the Spirit ando(power:
That your faith should not stqnd in the wisdom. of
men, butin the power of God.
Howbeit we speak wisdom among that are
perfect; yet not the. wisdom of this world, nor of
the princes. of this world, .. thatcome. to nought:
But we speak the wisdom of God in am.ystery,
the hidden mystery, which qod. ordained
before the world unto our glory. ' ,
Wonder is the beginning of the kind of
ral wisdomwhich a philosopher like Aristotle re'"
gards as the ultimate goal of hun1an inquiry.
But the supernatural wisdom ofwhicn Scrip'"
ture speaks begins with the fear of God and
comes to man not through his efforts at learn...
ing, but only as a divine gift. "If any of you
lack wisdom," St. James declares, "let him ask
God, that giveth to all men libetally and 'up'"
braideth not; and it shall be givenhim."It is
;wrong for a man to take pride innis' G\vn lea:tn-
THE GREAT IDEAS
OUTLINE OF TO.PIGS
PAGE
1110
1109
1112
1115
1116
1113
1114
1111
charity is the perfection of the will, so ,visdom
is the perfection of the intellect. In the Divine
Comedy, Aquinas explains to Dante ,vhen
they meet in Paradise how lack of \visdom's or-
der in the mind goes hand in hand wi th love's
disorder. "He is VCfY low down among the
fools," the spirit says, "who affirms or denies
\vithout distinction, alike in the one and in the
other case: because it happens that oftentimes
the rash judgment bends in false directions,
and then self-love binds the intelligence."
\Vi th the accenton earth rather than on
heaven, with reliance upon reason rather than
upon faith, Spinoza voices a comparable insight
that to have wisdom is to love ,visely, for to
know wisely is to love God. "It is .therefore
most profitable to us in this life," he writes,
"to n1ake perfect the intellect or reason as far
as possible, and in this one thing consists the
highest happiness or blessedness of man; for
blessedness is nothing but the peace of mind
which springs from the intuitive knowledge of
God." Not only does "the highest possible
peace of mind" arise from this kind of knowl-
edge but, he adds, from it also "necessarilv
springs the intellectual love of God." J
CHAPTER 101: WISDOM
I. The nature, origins, and kinds of vvisdom
la. Diverse conceptions of natural wisdoln: the supreme form of human knowledge
lb. The distinction between speculative and practical wisdom, or bet\veen
sophical and poli tical wisdom
IC. Theological and mystical wisdon1: the supernatural wisdom of faith and vision;
the gift of wisdom
rd. The \visdom of God: the defect of hunlan ,visdom compared with divine wisdom;
the folly or vanity of worldly wisdoll1
2. Wisdom, virtue, and happiness
2a. Wisdoln as an intellectual virtue: its relation to other intellectual virtues, espe-
cially science and understanding; the vice or sin of folly
2b. Wisdo111 and man's kno\vledge of good and evil: the relation of wisdom to the
moral virtues
2C. Wisdo1l1 as a good: its role in the happy life; the place of the wise man in society
3. The love of \visdom and the steps to wisdom: the sophist, the philosopher, and the wise
man
4 The praise of folly: the \visdom of fools and innocents
tradition of ,vestern thought. No one who can
separate true wisdom from folly in disguise
places anything but the highest value on it in
the order of human goods.
The final utterance of the Chorus in Antig-
01le, that "wisdom is the supreme part of hap-
piness"; the Aristotelian doctrine that "the ac-
tivity of philosophic v/isdom is adnlittedly the
pleasantest of virtuous activities" and "all the
other attributes ascribed to the supremely hap-
py evidently those connec.ted .with this
actiVIty ; the statement by Plato in hIS Seventh
Letter, in \vhich he demands that his myth of
the philosopher-king be taken seriously, for
"the human race will not see better days until
either the stock of those who rightly and gen-
uinely follow philosophy acquire political au-
thority, or else the class who have political con-
trol be led by some dispensation of providence
to become real philosophers"-all these express
the tribute which pagan antiquity pays to ,vis-
dam in human life and society.
To the Christian-theologian, nlystic, or
poet-it is in Heaven with the saints \vho dwell
in God's presence that wisdom, like love, reigns
supreme. Nor are these two unconnected. As
a most perplexed intricacy resolved." As ne
who "is called a worldly wise Ulan," Pantagruel
goes on to remark, may "in the second jUdg-
ment of the intelligences which are above
be esteemed a fool," so tie may be
sage who lays "quite aside those cares \vhich are
conducible to his body or his fortunes..... AU
which neglects of sublunary things are vulgarly-
imputed folly."
To the same general effect are Pierre's reflec-
tions in War and Peace on the period of his bliss-
ful insanity after the burning of Moscow. When
he recalls the views he formed of men and cir-
cumstances at the time of his madness, he al-
ways finds them correct. "I may have appeared
strange and queer then," he says to himself
1
"but I was not so mad as I seemed. On the con-
trary, I was wiser and had more insight than
at any other time, and understood all that is
worth understanding in life, because . .. be-
cause I was happy."
FOLLY IS NOT ALWAYS PRAISED in paradox, nor
is it seriously condemned only by the Christian
theologian who equates it with denying or turn-
ing away from God. "Folly, eldest of Jove's
daughters," says Agamemnon in the Iliad, "shuts
men's eyes to their destruction. She walks
delicately, not on the solid earth, but hovers
over the heads of men to make them stumble or
to ensnare them. Time was when she fooled
Jove himself." Agamemnon concludes the
story of Jove's befuddlement by how
in his rage Jove "caught Folly by the hair and
swore a great oath that never should she again
invade starry heaven and Olympus, for she
was the bane of all. Then he whirled her round
with a twist of his hand, and flung her down
from heaven so that she fell on the fields of
mortal men."
On the earthly plane, folly takes many forms,
of which, in judgment, the most
exasperating are dullness of wit, the boldness of
stupidity, and contentiousness in argument.
"Obstinacy ofopinion and heat in argument are
the surest proofs of folly," he observes. "Is there
anything so assured, resolute, disdainful, can"
templative, serious, and grave as the ass?"
Whatever the forms or aspects of folly, and
however the wisdom it implies or opposes be
conceived, one thing is clear throughout the
1108
is an evil wisdom called worldly wisdom ... so
too there is a good folly opposed to this evil wis-
dom, whereby man despises worldly things." If
there is ,visdom in such folly, so also, according
to Aquinas, there can be wisdom in those whom
the world regards as natural fools or innocents.
If they have grace, he writes, "baptized idiots,
like little children, have the habit of wisdom,
which is a gift of the Holy Ghost, but they
have not the act, on account of bodily im-
pediment which hinders the use of reason in
them."
Throughout the tradition of the great books
those who praise folly do not take exception to
the Psalmist's remark that only "fools despise
wisdom." Rather they find wisdom in the ap-
pearances of folly, and use the wisdom of fools
to expose the folly of those who pretend to be
wise. "I every day hear fools say things that are
not foolish," Montaigne declares; and echoing
him, Touchstone, the clown in As You Like It,
complains: "The more pity that fools may not
speak wisely what wise men do foolishly." To
which Celia replies: "By my troth, thou sayest
true; for, since the little wit that fools have ,vas
silenced, the little foolery that wise men have
makes a great show." And later,afteraconversa"
tion with Touchstone about the passing of time,
Jacques observes: "When I did hear the motley
fool thus moral on the time, my lungs began to
crow like chanticleer that fools should be so
deep contemplative."
The jesters and clowns in Shakespeare's com-
have a kind of wisdom. In Twelfth Night,
the clown \vho banters with Viola denies that
he is the Lady Olivia's fool, but says he is sim-
ply "her corrupter of words." The trouble, he
explains, is not that he lacks reason, but that
"words are grown so false that I am loath to
prove reason with them"; and he ends by tell-
ing Viola: "Foolery, sir, does walk about the
orb like the sun; it shines everywhere. I would
be sorry, sir, but the fool should be as oft with
your master as ,vith my mistress. I think I saw
your wisdom there."
Pantagruel persuades Panurge to take coun-
sel of a fool. "The wise may be instructed by a
fool," he says. "You know how by the advice
and counsel and prediction of fools, many kings,
princes, states, and commonwealths have been
preserved, battles gained, and diverse doubts of
THE GREAT IDEAS
REFERENCES
1. The nature, origins, and kinds of wisdom
1a. Diverse conceptions of natural wisdom: the
supreme form of human knowledge
7 PLATO: Charmides, 7d-9d; I1b-e; 12d-13d /
Phaedrus, 125a-126e / Symposium, 166c-167e /
Apology, 201b-203a / Phaedo, 232a / Repub-
lic, BK IV, 346a-347a; BK Vl-VII, 383d-398e /
Timaeus, 476a-b 1 Parmenides, 491e-d /
Sophist, 571a-e / Philebus, 634b-635b 1 Laws,
BK III, 670b-e 1 Seventh Letter, 80ge-810d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK I, CH 9 [I 92a33-b2]
268c-d; BK II, CH 2 [194b9-15] 271a; CH 7
[198a22-3I] 275b-e 1 Heavens, BK III, CH I
[298bI3-24] 390a-b 1 Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1-2
499a-501c; BK II, CH I 511b,d-512b; BK III, CH
I [995a23- b27] 513b,d-514b; CH 2 [996aI8-
997
a
34] 514d-516a; BK IV, CH 1-3 522a-525a;
BK VI, CH I 547b,d-548e; BK XI, CH 1-4 587a-
590a; CH 7 592b-S93a / Soul, BK I, CH 1
[403bIO-I7] 632d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VI, CH 7 390a-d; CH 13
[II45a7-I2] 394d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK I, 811a-813a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature 0.( Things, BK V [I-54]
61a-d; BK VI [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses) BK II, CH 22, 167d-
168a; BK III, CH 2 177e-178d; BK IV, CH 5
228a-230b
Id. The wisdom of God: the defect of human
wisdom compared with divine wisdom;
the folly or vanity of worldly wisdom
OLD TESTAMENT: Job passim, esp 9:1-4, II :1-12,
12:12-16, 26:1-14, 28:1-28, 38:1-41:34-(D)
fob passim,esp 9:1,-4, 11:1-12, 12:12-16, 26:1-
14, 28:1-28, 38:1-41:25 / Psalms, 92:5-6;
94: 11 ; 104:24; 119:97-14; 139; 147:4-5-(D)
Psalms, 91:6-7; 93: 11 ; 103:24; 118:97-104;
138; 146:4-5 / Proverbs, 3:5-8,19....20;8:22-31;
20:24; 21 :30; 23:4; 28:26/ Ecclesiastes passim,
Ib to Id CHAPTERI01: WISDOM 1111
42 KANT: Pure Reason, la-4a,e; 19a; 115d-117d; 9:191 Ecclesiasticus, I; 6:18-37; 11:15;17:1,6-
120b [fn I]; 172d-174a esp 173d;243e-248d esp 14; 19:20 ; 21:11; 24; 43:33; 45:26; 50:28-29;
246a-248d / Fund. Prine Metaphysic ofMorals, 51:17-(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1;6:18-37;
270e-d / Practical Reason, 337a-338e;.360d- 11:15; 17:1,6-14; 19:18 ; 21:13; 24; 43:37;
361d 1 Prif. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 45:31; 5:30-31; 51:22-23
365a-b; 368e-d; 377b-e NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 11:25-27 / Luke,
46 HEGEL: Philosophy 0..( Right, PREF, 6a-7a / 10:21-221 john, 1:4-5,9; 3:19-21; 8 :32; 16:12-
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158e,-160b; 14 / I Corinthians, 1:17-2:16; 3:16-'-20; 4: 10;
165a-b 8:2-31 Ephesians, 1:15-18;3:1-12;5:15-17 /
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 197b Colossians, 1:9-10; 2:2-3 1 II Thessalonians,
53 JAMES: Psychology, 758a 2:lo-14-(D) II Thessalonians, 2:10-13 /
james, 1:5; 3:13-r8
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IX, par 23-25
68a-c; BK XII, par 20 103e-d 1 City of God,
BK VIII, CH 10 271a-d; BK XI, cn 2323a'-c; BK
XIX,CH 20 523d-524a / Christian Doctrine,
BK II, CH 7 638d-63ge; CH 40 655b-656a;
CH 42 656c-d
19 AQUINAS: SU1nn1a Theologica, PART I, Q I, A I
3b-4a; AA 5-6 5c-7a; QI2, AA 12-13 60d-62b;
Q32, A I 175d-178a; Q64, AI, ANS 334a-335e
20 AQUINAS: Sumlna Theologica, PART II'-II, QQ
8-9 416d-426e passim; Q 19, A 7 469d-470e;
Q 45 598e-603c; PART III SlJPPL,Q 92 1025b-
1037e
21 DANTE: DvineComedy, . PARADISE, V [1-12]
112a-b
23 HOBBES : Leviathan, PART I, 83b; PART IV,
270e-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 208a-20ge; 212a-d;
238d-23ge
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 17b-e;
19b-c; 39d-40a;
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART I, 43e
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VII [19-130] 219b-
220a; BK XII [552-587] 331a-332a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 425-555 243b-270a; 793,
326b
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT
132, 50ge
37 FIELDING: Tom fones, 182b-e
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 308d-309a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 196a-198b;
BK VI, 248d-249a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI
146b,d-170desp 168b-e; BK VII, 189a-191a,c;
BK XI, 313e-314d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 770d-
771a
lh. The distinction between speculative and
, practical wisdom, .or between phil-
osophical and political wisdom
7 PLATO: Apology, 202d 1 Philebus, 633a-635b
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 8 rI098b24-26]
344b; BK VI,CH 3 [II39bI4-18] 388b; CH7-8
390a-391e esp CH 7 [II41820-351390a-b; CH II
[1143bI4J-CH 12 [II44aIO] 393b-d; CH 13
[II45a6-12] 394d / Rhetoric, BK I, cn II
[I37Ib26-28] 615b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK VIII, CH 4 266d-
267e
19 AQUINAS: Sununa Theologica, PART I, Q I,
A6, ANS 6b-7a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I.... II, Q66,
A 5, REP 1-2 79b-80e; PART II-II, Q. 19, A 7
469d-470c; Q 45, A3 600e-601a:
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XIII [88-
III] 126b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 60e-61a; 84e-d;
PART iv,
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 327b-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 4e-6e pas-
sim; 16d-"17a; 42a-c; 65d-66a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 245a-248d passim 1 Fund.
Prine Metaphysic of Morals,. 260d-261d / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 365b [fn I];
377b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART II, 271d-
272a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [238-239] 48a
le.Theological and mystical wisdom: the super-
natural wisdom of faith and vision; the
gift of wisdom
OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, 3:5-14; 4:29-(D)
III Kings, 3:5-14; 4:291 I Chronicles, 22:12-
(D) I Paralipomenon, 22 :12 /. II Chronicles,
I :7-12-(D) II Paralipomenon, 1:7-121 job,
28; 32:81 Psalms, 19:7; 111:10; 119:34-40,73,
9?-I04,125,I30,I44,169-(D) Psalms, 18:8;
110:10; 118:34-4,73,97-104,125,13,144,169/
Proverbs, 1:7; 2 :1-11; 3:5-6; 8; 9:10; 15 :33 /
Ecclesiastes, 2:26 1 Isaiah, II :1-5-(D} Isaias,
11:1-5 I Daniel, I esp 1:17; 2 esp 2:17-23; 4-5
esp 4:8-9, 4:18, S:lo-16-'-(D) Daniel, 1 esp
1:17; 2 esp 2:17-23; 3:98-5:31 esp 4:5-6,4:15,
5:10- 16
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6-9 esp 7:7,
7:15-16,7:24-26,8 :21-9:18-(D) OT, Book 0..(
Wisdom, 6-9 esp 7:7, 7:15-16, 7:24-26, 8:21-
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 9 270b-c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, Sa-b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR II, CH 6-TR... III,
CH 6 9a-12b 1 Fifth Ennead, TR III, CH 2-4-
216b-217d
18 AUGUSTINE: City 0..( God, BK VIII, CH 1-10
264b,d-271d '
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q I, A I
3b-4a; A 6 6b-7a; A 8, ANS 7c-8d; Q 14, A I,
REP 2 75d-76e; Q79, A 10, REP 3 423d-424d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q5f,
A 2 36a-37b; PART II-II, Q 9, A 2,ANS 424b-
42Sa; Q 19, A7, ANS 469d-470c; Q 45, A I, ANS
598d-599d
23 I-IOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 60c-61a; 72a-d;
PART IV, 267a-b; 269b-c
25 MONTAIGNE : Essays, 308c-d; 520b-522a; 5220
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 443b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 15d; 17b-c;
40a-48d esp 40a-41b, 43a-e, 44e-45a 1 Not/urn
Organum, BK II, APH 9 140b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, I 1a-2a I Meditations,
70e-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, PROP 40, SCHOL 2-
PROP 42 388a-e; PROP 47 390c-391a; PART V,
PROP 25-42 458d-463d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT I, D1V"t
453e-454a
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 182a-b
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and 10\\Ter halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passag.e
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the 10'wer half of page 119. When the text IS
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower of the. left-
hand side of the page, the letters e and d tothe upper and lower halves of the nght-hand SIde of
thepage. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, the passage begins in the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS : One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES : The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering ofchapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a. (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45-(D) II Esdras, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the \\Tork or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1110
THE GREAT IDEAS
2b.Wisdom and man's knowledge of good and
evil: the relation of wisdom to the moral
virtues
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3 / I Kings, 3:5-14-
(D) III Kings, 3 :5-14 /IIChronicles, 1:7-12-
(D) II Paralipomenon, 1:7- 12 / Job, 28 :28 /
Psalrns, 14:1-4; 37:30; 53-(D) Psalms, 13: 1-
4; 36 :3; 52 / Proverbs, 1-2; 5:22-
23; 6:6-8,32 -3.3; 7:4-5; 8; 9:9-18 ; 10:8,19,23,
31; II:12; 12:16; 13:1,14,19; 14:8-9,16-18,29;
15:21 ,24,,3.3; 17:10; 18:6-7; 19:3; 24:9; 28:7;
29:3 / Ecclesiastes, 2:26; 7:9-10,25-26; 8:5;
10:12- 15
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdoln of Solon1on passim, esp 1:1-
7, 6:12-25, 7:22-3, 8 :5-7, 9:9-18, 10:8-10,
12:23-2 4, 13:1- 2, 14: 11- 14, 14:22-31-(D)
OT, Book of JVisdom passim, esp 1:1-7,6:13-
27,7:21-3,8:5-7,9:9-19, 10:8-10, 12:23-24,
13:1- 2, 14:11-14, 14 :22-31 / Ecclesiasticus, I:
4-10,14-21,26-27; II :15- 16; 17:1,7; 18:27;
19:18-25; 21:11-12,22-26; 22:16-18; 23:2-3;
27: 11 ,13; 39: 1- 11 ; 43:.33; 45:26; 47: 12- 20; 50:
28-29-(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1:4-10,16-27;
11:15-16; 17: 1 ,6; 18:27; 19:18-22; 21:12-15,
25-29; 22:19-22 ; 23:2-3; 27: 12,14; 39: 1- 15;
43:37; 45:.3 1; 47: 14-22 ; 5:3-31
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 7:26-27 / Romans,
1:18-25; 16:19 / Philippians, 1:9-11 / Colos-
sians, I :9-10 / James, 3 :13-18
5 AESCHYLUS: Agalnelnnon [160-183] 53d-54a
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1348-1353] 142d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, UK I, 370a-c
7 PLATO: Charmides, ia-13c passim, esp ib-c,
12d-13a / Laches, 31a-b; 33a-3ia / Protagoras,
56b; 58a-64d esp 62a-64a / Euthydemus, 69a-
7la / Crat"vlus, 86e-d / Syn1posittln, 166c-
1112
(1. The nature, orIgIns, and. kinds of wisdom.
Id. The wisdom oj God: the deject oj hu-
man wisdom comparedwith divine tlJisdotll;
the jolly or vanity oj worldly wisdofTt.)
esp 1:12-18, 2:12-26, 3:11,6:8,7:16-17,7:23-
25, 8:16-'17, 11:5, 12:8-12 / Isaiah, 29: 14-16;
33:18-19; 4:12-31 esp 40:28; 44:2 4-2 5-(D)
Isaias, 29:14-16; .33:18-19; 4:12-31 esp 40:28;
44:24-25 / Jeremiah, 8:8-9; 9:23-24; 10:7-8,
12-15; 51 :15-18-(D) Jeremias, 8 :8-9; 9:2 3-
24; 10:7-8,12-15; 51:15-18 / Ezekiel, 28:1-7-
(D) Ezechiel, 28 :1-7 / Daniel, 2 :20-23
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom ofSolomon, 7:15-16; 8 :1-4;
9:1-4,13-17; I7:7-8-(D) OT, Book of Wis-
dom, 7:15-16; 8:1-4; 9: 1-4,13-17; 17:7-8 /
Ecclesiasticus, 1:1-10; 3:20-25; 11:15; 15:18-19;
19:24-25; 21 :12; 23 :19-20 ; 24: 1-9,24- 2 9;
37:19-21; 39:19-20; 42:17-25-(D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 1:1-10; 3:21-26; II :15; 15: 19-
20; 19:21-22; 21:14-'15; 23:27-29; 24: 1'-14,35-
39; 37:22- 24; 39:24-25; 42 :17-26
NE\V TESTAMENT: Matthew, II :16- 19 / Luke,
7:31-35; 16:8 / John, 1:1,4-5,9 / Romans,
I 1:33-.36 / I Corinthians, 1:17-2 :16; .3 :16-20;
8 :1-3 / Colossians, 2 :2-3,8 / Jalnes, .3 :13-18
5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant .lWaidens [86-103] 2a-b
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [.386-433] 343a-b /
Iphigenia Among the Tauri [570--575] 416a
7 PLATO: Apologv, 203a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK I, CH 2 [982b28-
983311] 501a-b; BK XII, CH 7 [1072bIJ:-29]
602d-603a; CH 9 605a-d; CH 10 [1075b20-24]
605e
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK x, CH 8 [I I 78b200-23]
433b-c / Politics, BK VII, CH I [1323b21-25]
52ie
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 14 120d-121e
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH LI-'-13
163e-165b / Fifth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 4-6
241b-242d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK III, par 8 14d-
15a; BK V, par 5 28b-e; BK XII, par 20 103e-d /
City o.f God, BK IX, CH 22296d-29ia; BK XI,
CH 10, 328e-d / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH
8-14 626e-628b
19 AQUINAS: Sumlna Theologica, PART I, Q I,
A 6, ANS and REP I 6b-ia; Q 3, A 6, REP I
18e-19a; Q 4, A 2, REP .3 21b-22b; Q 14, A I,
REP 2 i5d-i6e; Q 15, A 2, REP 2 92a-93b; Q 21,
A 2, ANS 125e-d; A 4, ANS and REP 4126e-12ie;
Q 27, A 2, REP 2 154e-155b; Q 34, A I, REP 2,4
185b-18ib; Q 39, A 8 210a-213a; Q 44, A 3,
ANS 240b-241a; Q 45, A 6, REP 2-3 247a-248b;
Q 47, A I, ANS 256a-257b; A 2, ANS 25ib-258c;
Q 62, A 6, ANS 322a-d; Q 65, A 2, REp 3 340b-
341b
20 AQUINAS: SUl1tma Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51,
A I, REP 2 12b-13e; Q 91, A3, REP I 209d:-210e;
PART II-II, Q 45, A I, REP I 598d-599d; A 4,
REP I 601a-e; A 6, REP 1-2 602b-603e; Q 46
603e-605a,e passim esp A I, REP 2-3 603e-
Id to
604b, A 3, REP 2 604d-605a,c; PART lIT, Q12
A 2, CONTRARY and REP 3 7iib-7i8b; .A 3:
REP 2 ii8b-ii9a
25 1,10NTAIGNE: E'ssays, 212a-215a; 238e-239c;
251e-252b
30 BACON: Advancemelft of Learning, 17b-c;
19b-e; 98d-99b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [188-193] 115b;
BK VII [19-13] 219b-220a; BK VIII [179-2L:J,]
236a-b; BK XII [561-573] 331b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 425-555 243b-270a
35 LOCKE: Huntan Understanding, BK II, CH XXIII,
SECT 34 213a-b; BK III, CH VI, SECT II, 2ilc;
SECT 12, 2i2b; BK IV, CH X, SECT 5-6 350a-c
35 BERKELEY: lfuman Knowledge, SECT.32 418d-
419a
37 FIELDING: T01n Jones, 182b-e; 37ge-380a
42 I(ANT: Pure Reason, 242a-b / Practical Reason,
303b-304b; 324b-325a; 344a-c; 346a-e;354d-
355d / Judgement, 592a-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 455b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 164,
144e-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 158c-
160b
48 MELVILLE: Aloby Dick, 313b-314a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
130b-c
2. Wisdom, virtue, and happiness
2a. Wisdom as an intellectual virtue: its rela-
tion to other intellectual virtues, espe-
cially science and understanding; the
vice or sin of folly
OLD TESTA:t\fENT: Psabns, 14: 1-4;
Psalms, 13:1-4; 52:1-4/ Proverbs, 8:12; 10:14;
12:15-16 ; 14:8,,33; 15:2 ; 16:21--23; 17:2 4;
18:15; 21:11; 24:9/ Ecclesiastes, 2:13; 4:5;
7:4-7,25--26; 8:5; 9: 13-18 ; 10:1-.3,12-15 /
Jerentiah, 8:8--9--' (D) Jeren1ias, 8:8-9
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdo111 of Solomon, 7 1I 5-22 ; 8:5-
8; 12:23-'14:31 esp 13:1-2, 14:11'--14, 14:22-
(D) OT, Book of lVisdo111, 7: 15-22 ; 8:5-8;
12:23-14:31 esp 13:1-2, 14:11-14, 14:22 /
Ecclesiasticus, 1:4,19,25; rO:I-3; 18:28-29;
21:12-- 19; 22:7-8,11-15; 33:5; 34: 1; 38 :24-25;
39:1-3-(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, I :4,24dl;
10:1--3; 18:28- 29; 21 :14-22 ; 22:7-18 ; 33:5;
34: 1; 38 :25-26; 39 :1- 3
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 7:26-27 / Romans,
1:18- 25
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XIX [74-144] 137d-138e
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 86c-d / Republic, BK IV,
346a-355a esp 346e-34ia, 353d-354b; BK VI-
VII, 383b-398c; BK IX, 423e-d / Laws, BK III,
670b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK V, CH 6 [I 3
6b
7- 141
188b-c; CH 8 [I38a37-b5] 191a; BK VI, CH 6
[I45a27-32] 199a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 4 [I095bIO-I3)
340ed; CH 13 fII03a3-IO] 348c-d; BK VI, eH 3
[II39bI4-18] 388b; CH 6-11 389d-393b
121J CHAPTER 101: 1113
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK I, 811a-813a 16id / Aleno, 183c-184e; 189b-d / Phaedo,
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 15, 156a-b 226a-b; 230d-234e esp 232a-b, 233d-234c /
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 12, 164b Republic, BK I, 306e-308a; BK III, 33ib-d;
/ Fifth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 4-6 241b-242d BKIV, 346a-355a; BK VI-VII, 383d-398e /
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VII, par 14, 48a-b Critias, 485b-c / Theaetetus, 530b... 531a /
/ City of God, BK VIII, CH 10, 271b-e; BK XIV, Philebus, 635e-639a,e / Laws, BK I, 643e-d;
cH 28 39ia-d; BK XIX, CH 20 523d-524a BK III, .669b-6ilb; BK XII, i95e-i96b /
19 AQUINAS: Sum1na Theologica, PART I, Q 14, Seventh Letter, 801b-e; 806b-c; 808e-d
A I, REP 2 i5d-i6c; Q 79, A 9, ANS 422b-423d; 8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 24
A 10, REP 3 423d-424d; PART I-II, Q 2, A I, [I80a7-15] 248a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 2
REP 1-2 615d-616e [982b4-lo] 500d; BK III, CH 2 [996a21-bI3]
20 AQuINAs: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 57, 514d-515a
A 2 36a-3ib; Q 66, A 5 i9b-80c; PART II-II, 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VI, CH 5 389a-d; CH
Q 9, A 2, ANS 424b-425a; Q 45, A I, ANS and 12-13 393b-394d; BK x, CH 8[1178316-181
REP 2 598d-599d; A 2, ANS and REP 3 599d- 432d / Polidcs, BK VII, CH I [1323b21-36]
600e; A 3, ANS and REP I 600e-60Ia; A 4,R.EP 52ic-d
1-2 601a-c; Q 46 603e-605a,e 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 22, 16id-
23 HOBBES: LetJiathal1, PART I, 56d; 60e-d 168a; BK III, CH 2 liie-li8d; BK IV, CH 5
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 521d-522a 228a-230b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, I la-2a 14 PLUTARCH: Demetrius, i26a-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VII [109-13] 219b- 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR II, CH 6-7 9a-lOa;
220a / Areopagitica, 392b TR III, CH 611d-12b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic ofMorals, 260d- 18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XIX, CH 20 523d-
261d / Practical Reason, 33ia-338e; 360d- 524a
361d 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, QI, A 6,
REP 3 6b-ia; Q 64, A I, ANS 334a-335e; Q 79,
A 10, REP 3 423d-424d; PART I-II, Q2, A I,
REP I 615d-616c; A 2, REP 3 616d-61ib
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 57,
A 4, ANS 38a-39a; A 5, ANS 39a-40a; Q 58, A 4,
ANS 44a-d; PART II-II, Q 19, A 7, ANS 469d-
4iOc; Q 45 598c-603c esp AA 3-4 600c-60Ie;
Q 46, A 2,ANS 604b-d; A 3 604d-605a,e
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 112a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5ge-60a; iOd-i2a; 4iBe-
480c
27 SHAKESPEARE: All's Well That Ends Well,
ACT I, SC I [109-116] 143e / Macbeth, ACT
III, SC I [48-54] 295b; ACT IV, SC II [1-17]
302b-e
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART III, 49d-50b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART V, PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON: Comus [331-489] 40b-44a esp [375-
385] 41b-42a / Paradise Lost, BK VIII L316-
3.37] 239a-b; BK IX [679-779] 262a-264a;
BK XI [84-98] 301a / Samson Agonistes [38-
59] 340b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 460 254b
35 LOCKE : Human Understanding, BK I, CH III,
SECT 16, Ilia
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones,31e-rl:; 182a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 344d-345c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256a-b / Practical Reason, 33ia-338e; 360d-
361d / Metaphysical Elements of Ethics,
365b [fn I]; 368b-369a; 37ib-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART II, 2i9d-
281a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 194b-195a;
19ib; BK VIII, 335a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v,
120b-121d
THE GREAT IDEAS
CHARTER 101: WISDOM
1114
(2. Wisdom, virtue, and happiness.)
2c. Wisdom as a good: its role in the happy
life; the place of the wise man in society
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:33'37-45 I Exodus,
18 :21-26 I Deuteronomy, 1:1.3 lIKings, 3 :5-
28; 4:29-34; 10:I-10-(D) III Kings, 3:5-28;
4:29-34; 10:1--10 I II Chronicles, 1:7-12; 9:1-9
- (D) II Paralip01nenon, 1:7-12 ; 9:1-9/ Job,
28:12-201 Psabns, 90:12-(D) Psalms, 89:12
I Proverbs, 1:1-5:2; 8-9; 10:1; 12:8; 14:1,3,24,
35; 15:20,24; 16:16,20,22; 17:2,10,21,25; 19:2,
8,13,20; 20:15,26; 21 :20-22; 22:17-21 ; 2.3:15-
16,19-25; 24:1-14;26:1,8; 27:11; 28:2,26; 29:8
I Ecclesiastes, 1:17-18 ; 2:12-'26;6:8; 7:5,11-
12,16-19; 8:1,5; 9:11-18; 10:1-6; 12:8-12-
(D) Ecclesiastes,
12-13,17-20; 8:1,5; 9:11":"18; 10:1-6;>12:8-12
I EzekJel, 28:2-7-(D) Ezechiel, 28:2-7 I
Daniel- (D}Daniel,1 :1-3:23; .3 :91':""12:13
ApOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:18--(D) OT, Tobicts,'4:19
I Wisdom of Solomon passim, esp,.3: II-'-I5, 4:
8-9, 6:12-25,-7:7--10:21-(D) OT, of
Wisdom passim, esp 3: 11- 15, 4:8-9,6:13-27,
7:7-10:21 1 Ecclesiasticus, 1:16-19; 4:11-19,
23--24; 6:18-37; 7:5;19; 8:8-9; 9: 14-1');17; 10:
1,.-4,25; Ir:l; 14:20-15:10; 19:8,18; 20:13,29-
31 ;21:12-13,15-17,21,24-26; 22:16-17; 24 :1-
22; 25:4-'5,10; 26:14; 27: 12; 34:8; 37:19-':26;
44: 1- 15: 47:
13-17; 51 :13,.:..z8-(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1:20-
24; 4:12-22,28-29; 6:18""'37;7:5,21; 8:9--12;
9:21-22,24; 10:1-4,28;11 :1; 14:22-15:10; 19:
8,18; 20:13'31-33; 21 :14....16,18--20,24,27:..29;
22 :19-20 ;24:1-30; .2i5:6-7, 13; i 26 :18 ;27:13;
34:8 ; 37:21- 29; 38 :25-39: 15; 40:20,25; 41:
17:'-18; 44:1- 15; 47 :15":"18; 51 :-18-36 / Susfinna
-(D)OT, Daniel; 13 I Bel and Dragon-(D)
OT, Daniel, 14
NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 1I:31 I fames; 3:1 3- 18
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XI [618-644] 78d-79a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1--57] 99a-d;
[3oo-462}102a:..I03c 'I Antigone; [632 -765]
136c-137d; [1348-1353] 142d I Ajax [1226-
1263]
5 EURIPIDES: Medea 214c-d I Bac-
chantes [386-433] 343a-b
6 HERODOTUS : History, . BK r, 6c:"8a; BK VIII,
280a-b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I,
370a-a; 383.a-384a; BK II, 402a-404d
7 PLATO: Charmides, 13b-d I Laches, 33a-34b I
Protagoras, 44a-45b 1 Euthydemus, 69a-71a;
76a; B3c-84a / Symposium, 167a-d I,Meno,
IB3c-1B4c I Apology, 207a-20Ba I Phaedo,
226a-b; 233c-234c / Gorgias, 272b-273b;
291c-292b I Republic, BK IV, 346a-356a 'pas-
sim, esp 346a-347a, 354d-355a; BK V-VII,
368c-401d I Timaeus, 476a-b / Theaeietus,
525c-526a; 52Bc-531a /Statesman, 59Bb-60Bd
/ Philebus '609a-639a,c esp I
Laws, BK I, 643c-d; BK II, 6S5b-'656a; BK III,
669b-671b; BK V, 688d; HK xu, 796b"d t
Seventh Letter, 801b-B02c; 803c-804b; 806"b-c.
BOBe-809a "
8 ARISTOTLE : Metaphysics, BK I} CH 1 [98 rbl3_
24] 500a; CH 2 500b-5<Hc; BK XII, CH 7 [IOj20
13-291 602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I,CH 5 {I095bI3-log6a
4] 340d-341a; CH 8 [1098bI9-32] 344a-b;BK.
VI, CH 7 [I 14IaI8-b7] 390a-c; CH 8 390d-391c.
CH 12 [1143bI7-1144a6] 393b-c; BK VII, CH
[1152b3J-II5.388] 404a-b; BK X, eH 2 [1172b26_
32] 426d-427a; CH 7-8 431d-434a / Politics
BK VII, CH I [I323b21-36] 527c-d; CH 2
23-35] 528b; eH .3 fI325bI4-32] 529d-530a
11 NICOMACHUS: Aritll1netic, BK I, 81ld
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [1-61)
15a-d; BK V [I-54] 61a-d; [1113-1135] 75c-d
BK VI [1-42] 80a-d '
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK HI, eH 22 195a-
201a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BKII, SECT 17
BK V, SECT 9 270b-c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics" II [490-493]65b
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 47a-48c I Numa Pom-
pilius, 59c-60b I Solon 64b,d-77a,cesp 68b-d
/ Pericles, 122d-123c I Alexander, S43b-544a;
566a-567d / .Cato the Younger, 637bc-c I
717a-b I Dion, 782c-788b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK IV, 72a; BK VI, 9Ic;
BK XIV, 153d-155a; BKXV, 172c-173d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, Tit II, CR 7, 9d-10a;
TR IV,CH 4-16 14a.-19b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK HI, par 7 14c-d I
City of God, BK VIII, Cll 5, 267d; CH 8, 270c
19 AQUINAS: Surllma Theologica, PART Q 2,
A I, REP 2 615d-616c; Q 3, AA 5.-;.6 626b-628a
20 AQUINAS: Sum1na Theologica, PART I-II, Q66,
A 5, REP 1-2 79b-80c; PART II-II, Q 19, A %
ANS 469d-470c; Q 45, A 2, REP 2 599d.. 600c;
A 3, REP 3600c-601a; AA 4-6 6018r-603c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, IV Sc-7a;
PURGATORY, III [16-45] 56a-b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285--308] 164a-b;/ Tale
of Melibeus, par 12-13 404a-405a; par 15,
407a-b; par 20-21, 409a-b; par 29412b-413a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 164a,c
24RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, 'BK III,
127b,d-129a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 55d-62a; 69d-72a;126b-
127c; 150c-151a; 231d-242d passim; 308c-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT III, SC II
[178-185] 337b lIst Henry IV, ACT I, II
[89-100] 436b-c
27 SHAKESPEARE: All's Well That Ends
ACT I, SC 1 [109-116] 143c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I,
PART II, 332b-333b; 340d--343a esp
353b-356d; 361a-d
30 BACON: Advancelnent of Learning, Sa-b;; 20b..
26a; 27c; 30a-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, Ila--2a Aleditations, III,
88d:'89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, .PART IV, APPENDIX, IV
447b-c; XXXII 450c-d; PART V, PROP 25-42
458d-463d
32 MILTON: C01nus Paradise
Lost, DK VIII [540-566] 244a-b I Areopagitica,
383a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 94
46a-c; CH VIII, SECT lOS 4Bc-49a; CH XIV,
SECT 166 63d-64a / Human Understanding,
BK II, CH XXI, SECT 55-56 192c-193b;BK III,
CH X, SECT 8 293c-d
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 4,
452a-b; DIV 5452d-453b
37 FIELDING: Tom fones, 182a"c
38 MONTESQUIEU:. Spirit of Laws, BK XXIV,
202d-203a
38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 373d-374a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 32a-b;205d-206a;
284a-c; 338d-339c; 644b-645d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 72c; 76d-77b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 339b-d; 360d-361d
esp 361d / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of
Ethics, 365b [fn I]; 36Bc-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 49, NUM-
BER 57, 176d-177a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 374c-377a;
384b-387d; 401a-406a passim, esp 403b-404c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 122d; 296b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 4b-5c I
Philosophy of History, PART II, 279d-280b;
PART IV, 360b-c; 363d-364c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [8094-8133] 197a-
198a
48 MELVILLE: lW.oby Dick, 107a-b; 313b-314a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XV, 643a-b
3. The love of wisdorn and the steps towisdom:
the sophist, the philosopher, and the
wise man
OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, 3:5-28 ; 4:29-34; 10:
I-Io-(D) III Kings, 3:5-28 ; 4:29-34; 10:1-10
I II Chronicles, I :7-12- (D) II Paralipomenon,
1:7-12 I fob, 32 :7-9 I Psalms, 90:12; 111:10---
(D) Psalms, 89:12; 110:10 I Proverbs, 1:5-6;
2:1-9; 4:5-13; 8:1-11,,32-33; 9: 1- 6,10; 10:13-
14; 12:1; 13: 1,20; 14:6,,33; 15:2,7,14,,31-33;
16:21-23; 17:16,24; 18:15; 19:8,20,2'); 21:11;
22 :17-21; 23 :12,23; 24 :13-14 I Ecclesiastes,
1-4 passim, esp 1:12-2:14; 8:1,16-17
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom o..f Solomon, .6-9-(D)
OT, Book of Wisdom, 6-9 I Ecclesiasticus,
PROLOGUE; 1:14-20,26; 3 :29; 4: 11- 19,24-25;
6:18-37; 8:8-9; 9: 14":"15; 14:20-27;18:28-29;
21 :11-15; 24: 1,18-22,,30-34; 25: 10; 26:14; 34:
9; 37:2 3-24; 38:24'-39: 11 ; 40:20; 47: 13-17;
5:27-29; 5I:13-3o-(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus,
PROLOGUE; 1:16-25,33; 3:31; 4:12-22,29-3;
6:18-37; 8:9- 12; 9:21,23; 14:22-2 7; 18:28-29;
21:12-18; 24:1,24-3,41-47; 25:13; 26:18; 34:
9; 37:2 6-2 7; 38 :25-39: 15; 40:20 ; 47: 15-18 ;
5:29-31 ; 51:18-38
NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 2:52 / fames, 1:5
1115
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [395J 343a
7 PLATO: Lysis, 22b-c /Protagoras,
Euthydenlus 65a-84a,c JPhaedrus, 125b-126c;
140d / Symposium, 166c-167c; 169c..172d I
Apology, 201d-203a / Phaedo, 223b-225c esp
225c I Republic, BK II, 320b-c; UK V-"VII,
368c-401d I Ti,naeus, 476a-b/ Parmenides,
491a-d I Theaetetus, 52Bc-531a esp530b-c /
Sophist, 558c-d; 571a-c; 577c-579d esp 579a-d
I Seventh Letter, 808cc-809a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK I, CH 2 [982bll-
27] SOOd-SOla; BK IV, CH 2 [1004bI8-271523d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 611096all-17]
341h; BK X, cn 7 [II77a28-b3] 432a
11 NlcoMAcHus:Arithmetc,BKl, 81la
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [1,.:..61]
15a-d; BK III [1-30J 30a-b; BKV [1-54J61a-d;
BK VI [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, .UK II,CH. 17158d-
161a; BK III, CH 2 177c-178d; Cll 10 185d-
187a; CH 15 190a-191a; ca: 19192c-d;CH 21
193d-195a; 'CH 24 203c-210a esp 207d-210a;
BK IV,CH 5, 228a-b;GH6 230b-232c; CH 8
235b-237d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT .12
262bc-C; BK V, SECT 9 BK VI,SECT 12
274c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR III 10a-12b I
Fifth Ennead, TR IX, CH 1-2 246c-247b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK III, par 8-10 14d-
lSd 1 City of God, BK VIII, CH 1-3, 264b,d-
266b; CH 5-8 267d-270d esp CH 8, 270c-d;
CH 10 271a-d I Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH
7 63Bd-639c; CH 31 651d-652b; CH 37-38
653d-654c; BKIV, CH 5 677a-d . ... -
19 AQUINAS: SU1nmaTheologica, PART I, QI2,A
I, ANSSOc-51c; A8,REP 4 57b-58b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q
68, A 7, REP I 94c-95c; PART II-II, Q 19, A 7
469d-470c; Q 45, A 6, REP 3 602b-603c; PART
III, Q 12, A 2, CONTRARY 777b-778b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, IV [124-
132] 112a
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-308] 1q4a-b I
Knight's Tale [2438-2452] 200a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II,
81a-83b
25. MONTAIGNE:. Essays, 55d-62a; 65c-66a; 69d-
72a; 238c-d; 239d-240a
31 .DESCARTES: Rules, I 1a-2a I Dscourse, PART
I, 41d-42a; 43d-44a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 327 231a-b; 425-555243b-
270a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT I 451a-
455b passim, esp DIV 2 451b-c, DIV 7 453c-
454a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 523c-52Ba,c passim,
esp 525b-c, 526c-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 337a-338c; 360d-361d
I Pref Metaphysi'cal Elements of Ethics, 365b
[fn I]; 368c-d
CROSS-REFERENCES
For: Other discussions of the distinction between speculative and practical wisdom, or bet\veen
wisdom and prudence, see PHILOSOPHY 2a; PRUDENCE 2a; THEOLOGY 3b.
The relation of wisdom to other intellectual virtues, see SCIENCE Ia(I); VIRTUE AND VICE
2a(2).
Various conceptions of the supreme form of human knowledge, see DIALECTIC 2,a; META-
PHYSICS I.
The relation of philosophical to theological wisdom, see KNOWLEDGE 6c(5); PHILOSOPHY
Ia; THEOLOGY 2, 4a.
Comparisons of divine and human wisdom, see I(NOWLEDGE 7a; TRUTH 2d.
Other discussions of the kno\vledge of good and evil, and of the relation of knowledge to
virtue, see GOOD AND EVIL 6a; KNOWLEDGE 8b(I); VIRTUE AND VICE Ia; and for the rela'"
tion of wisdom to happiness, see HAPPINESS 2b(7); PHILOSOPHY 4a.
The conception of the philosopher king, or of the place of the \vise Inan in society, see
MONARCHY 2b; PHILOSOPHY 4C; STATE 8b.
The conception of philosophy as the love of wisdom, and for the distinction bet,veen the
sophist, the philosopher, and the wise man, see PHILOSOPHY 6a-6b; TRUTH 8e.
THE GREAT IDEAS
1117
BONAVENTURA. On the Reduction of the Arts to
Theology
NICOLAS OF CUSA. De Venatione Sapientiae
ERASMUS. The Praise of Folly
DONNE. The Triple Foole
SUAREZ. Disputationes Aletaphysicae, I (5)
CHARRON. De lasagesse
GRACIAN Y MORALES. The Art of Worldly Wisdotn
S. JOHNSON. IIistory of Rasselas
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL I,
BK IV; VOL II, SUP, CH 17
--. "The Wisdom of Life," in Complete Essays
R. Rabbi Ben ,Ezra
NIETZSCHE. Thw Spake Zarathustra
MANN. The Magic Mountain
WHITEHEAD. Adventures of Ideas, CH 4
MARITAIN. The Degrees ofKnowledge, CH 6-7
--. Science and Wisdom, PP 3-33
CHAPTER 101: 'VISDOM
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Listed belo\v are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics vvith \vhich this chapter deals. These "vorks are divided into t,vo groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the ,yorks cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings \vhich follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
II.
I.
Dit/l1ze Prol1idence and the Problen1 of
Evil
.........-. On the Trinity, BK XIII
On the Trinity of Boethius
...---. Sumtna Theologica, PART II-II, QQ 176- 177
iF. BACON. The Wisdom ofthe Ancients
.........-.-. "Of \Visdoln for a Man's Self," "Of Seeluing
Wise," in Essays
CICERO. De Officiis (On Duties), II
IioRACE. Satires, BK II (3, 7)
Pirke Aboth (Sayings ofthe Fathers)
MAIMONIDES. The Guidefor the Perplexed, PART III,
CH 54
4
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III
201a-202d '
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 150c-151a; 231d-242d'
esp 233b, 235b-c, 238c-d; 499d-SOOa; S02a-
S04c; 508a-512a; 520b-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Lost, ACT V
SC II [68-74] 274d / As You Like It, ACT r'
sc II [92-96] 599d-600a; ACT II,SC VII [12-61]
607b-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Twelfth Night, ACT I, SC v
[1-146] 4b-5d; ACT III, SC I [r-75] 14a-d; ACT
IV, SC I [1-24] 21c-d; sc II [76-113] 23a-'0 I
King Lear 244a-283a,c esp ACT I, SC IV [106-
345] 251b-253c, sc V 254a-c, ACT II, SC IV
[1-128] 258b-259d, ACT III, SC VI [1-91] 266c-
267c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 194a;
PART II, 334d-336a; 340d-343a esp 341c-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XII [561-573] 3310
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 271 222a; 327 231a-b
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
261c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE [85-88] 3a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 307a; 380a-381a;
385b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XII, SS9d; BK xv,
643a-b
52 DosTOEVSKY: Brothers KaralnaZOt', BKV,
121d
1116
(3. The love of wisdom and the steps to wisdom:
the sophist, the philosopher, and the wise
man.)
43 MILL: Liberty, 276b-277a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 4b-5c /
Philosophy of History, PART II, 271d-272a;
279d-281a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [354-601] 11a-16b;
[1011-1125] 25b-28a
4. The praise of folly: the wisdom of fools and
innocents
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 8:2; 131-(D) Psahns,
8:3; 130 / Ecclesiastes, 1:17-18 ; 4:13
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 19:24-(D) aT,
Ecclesiasticus, 19:21
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 11:25-26; 18:1-4;
21 :15-16 / Mark, 10:13-15 / Luke, 10:21 /
I Corinthians, 1:17-2:16; 3:18-20;4:10 / II
Corinthians, 1:12 / I Peter, 2:1--2
5 EURIPIDES: Bacchantes [386-433] 343a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 11-12
CH 14 627d-628b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 45,
A 5, REP 3 601c-602b; Q 46, A I, REP 2 603c-
604b
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK I, STANZA
90-93 12b-13a