Electronics Assignment 3

Ans1(a): 3 Ans 1(b): 3 Ans 1(c): 3 Ans 1(d): 3 Ans 1(e): 1 Ans 1(f): 4 Ans 1(g): 1 Ans 1(h): 3 Ans 1(i): 1 Ans 1(j): 3 Ans 2(a)
Conductor: A conductor is a material which has a very high conductivity because of the presence of large number of free electrons. Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure from an applied voltage source. Semiconductor: A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level some where between the e!tremes of an insulator and a conductor. "he figure shows the conduction and valence band for insulator, semiconductor and metals. "he energy band gap in insulators is #E$% &A$'E. "he energy bands (#E$&A) in metals.

"he energy band gap is semiconductor is larger than metals."he semiconductors have * valence electrons. Ans+,b- Common Emitter Configuration "he Emitter is a common terminal between input and output. .ere, the input is applied at base and output is ta/en at the collector.

0ig 12 "he Input and (utput characteristics ,0or Common Emitter n p n "ransistor"he input characteristics are a plot of the input current ,I3- versus the input voltage ,#3E- for a range of values of output voltage ,#CE- as shown in fig 11.

0ig 11 0or the common emitter configuration the output characteristics are a plot of the output current ,IC- versus output voltage ,#CE- for a range of values of input current ,I 3-. As shown in fig 1+, for a fi!ed value of I 3, as we increase the #CE, the collector current increases. "he $egion to the right of #CE,sat- is called saturation region. In this region, both the Emitter 3ase and Collector 3ase 4unctions are 0orward 3iased. "he Input and (utput characteristics ,0or Common Emitter p n p "ransistor"he input characteristics are same as that for n p n transistor, but here # 3E is replaced by #E3 and #CE is replaced by #EC.In output characteristics, the #CE is replaced by #EC

0ig 1+ "he output Characteristics of n p n "ransistor in CE Configuration. Ans+,c- &oad &ines &oad line is a tool to find the e!act current and voltage. Consider the 0ig.13. "he current through the resistor is

If I56 2, If #562,

#56 #S I56 #S7$

"he line which is s/etched by 4oining these two )oints are called 5C &oad &ine ,shown in 0ig 1*-

0ig. 13

0ig 1*. 5C load line 8 point 8 point is also called the operating point. "his is point of intersection of 5C &oad line and the # I Characteristics of a 5iode Ans+,d- C9(S Inverter

C9(S stands for complementary 9(S ,C9(S-,which is a combination of n channel and p channel 9(S0E"s. 0ig above shows a C9(S inverter. (peration of C9(S inverter "he C9(S inverter input voltage is either high ,:#55- or low,2#-.;hen the input voltage is high, 81 is off and 8+ is on. In this case, the shorted 8+ pulls the output voltage down to ground. ;hen the input voltage is low,81 is on and 8+ is off. <ow, the shorted 81 pulls the output voltage upto : #55. Since ,the output voltage is inverted, therefore the circuit is called a C9(S inverter. ;hen the input voltage is =ero, the output voltage is high. ;hen the input voltage is high, the output voltage is low. 3etween the two e!tremes, there is a crossover point where the input voltage e>uals #557+.At this point, both 9(S0E"S have e>ual resistances and the output voltage e>uals #557+ Ans+,e- <egative 0eedbac/ ;hen small amount of output is again given bac/ to the input then it is /nown as feedbac/ circuit. "here are two types of feedbac/ first )ositive 0eedbac/ ,when input and feedbac/ is added- second <egative 0eedbac/ ,when input and feedbac/ is subtracted-. In characteristics of negative feedbac/ are as follows 1. (verall gain decreases +. input impedance increases 3. output impedance decreases *. stability increases ?. bandwidth increases @. noise reduces A. <on linear distortion decreases. *.+ 3asic Ideas "he input to a negative feedbac/ can be either a voltage or a current. Also, the output signal can be either a voltage or a current. "his implies that four types of negative feedbac/ e!ist.

As shown in table 1 the first type has an input voltage and an output voltage. "he circuit that uses this type of negative feedbac/ is called a #oltage Controlled #oltage Source ,#C#S-. A #C#S is an ideal voltage amplifier because it has a stabili=ed voltage gain, infinite input impedance, and =ero output impedance. In the second type of negative feedbac/, an input current controls an output voltage. "he circuit using this type of feedbac/ is called a Current Controlled #oltage Source ,IC#S-. "his circuit is also /nown as transresistance amplifier. "he third type of negative feedbac/ has an input voltage controlling an output current. "he circuit using this type is called a #oltage Controlled Current Source ,#CISsometimes called transconductance amplifier. In the fourth type, an input current is amplified to get a larger output current. "he circuit is called a Current Controlled Current Source ,ICIS-. An ICIS is an ideal current amplifier because it has a stability current gain, =ero input impedance, and infinite output impedance.

0ig13 ,a- #oltage Controlled #oltage Source ,b- Current Controlled #oltage Source

0ig1*,a-#oltage Controlled Current Source ,b- Current Controlled Current Source #C#S is a voltage amplifier and ICIS is a current amplifier where as IC#S is a current to voltage and #CIS is a voltage to current amplifier. Inpu t # I # (utput # # I Circuit #C#S IC#S #CIS Bin C 2 C Bou t 2 2 C i to v v to i Converte rs $atio #out7#in #out7Iin Iout7#in Symbol Av rm gm

ICIS

C "able 1

Iout7Iin

Ai

0igure 13 ,a- shows the practical circuit of #C#S, the input impedance is not infinite but it is very high. &i/ewise, the output impedance is not =ero, but it is very low. "he voltage gain is symboli=ed by Av. 0igure 13 ,b- shows IC#S which has very low input and output impedance. "he conversion factor of the IC#S is called transresistance ,r m-. 0igure 1* ,a- shows #CIS which has very high input and output resistance. "he conversion factor #CIS is called transconductance ,g m-. 0igure 1* ,b- shows ICIS which has very low input and very high output impedance. "he current gain is symboli=ed by Ai. *.3 #C#S #oltage 'ain 0igure 1? shows a <oninverting amplifier. "he op amp has an open loop voltage gain of A#(&. 3ecause of the voltage divider, part of the output voltage is fed bac/ to the inverting input. "he feedbac/ fraction 3 of any #C#S circuit is defined as feedbac/ voltage divided by the output voltage.

0ig 1? #C#S amplifier 36v+ 7 vout "he closed loop voltage gain is calculated as #in 6 #1 #+

#in 6 #1 D #out 3 #out 6 A#(&,#1 D #out 3A

v ,C&-

6 A#(& 7 ,1:A#(&E3-

"he second term in the denominator A#(& 3 is /nown as loop gain. Closed loop input impedance is given by Bin,C&- 6 ,1:A#(&E3- $in ;here $in is the open loop input resistance.

Closed loop output impedance is given by Bout,C&- 6 $out 7 ,1:A#(&E3;here $out is the open loop output resistance. "otal harmonic distortion is given by ".5C& 6 ".5(& 7 ,1:A#(&E3;here ".5(& is the open loop total harmonic distortion. *.* "he IC#S Amplifier 0igure 1@ shows a transresistance amplifier. It has an input current and an output voltage. "he IC#S amplifier is an almost perfect current to voltage converter because it has =ero input impedance and =ero output impedance.

0ig 1@ IC#S amplifier "he e!act e>uation of the output voltage is given by (utput voltage is given by #out 6 ,iin $f"he circuit is a voltage converter by ta/ing different values $f we can very the output voltage. "he e!act e>uation of the output voltage is given by

Input and output impedances are given by

*.? "he #CIS Amplifier

0ig 1A #CIS amplifier 0igure 1A shows a transconductance amplifier. It is similar to a #C#S amplifier, e!cept that $& is the load resistor as well as the feedbac/ resistor. "he active output is not the voltage across voltage across $& : $1F rather, it is the current through $&. "he output current is given by iout 6 vin 7 $1 iout 6 vin gm "he e!act output current is given by

"he circuit is a voltage to current converter . "he input and output impedances are given by

*.@ "he ICIS Amplifier

0ig 1G ICIS amplifier An ICIS circuit amplifies the input current. 3ecause of the heavy negative feedbac/, the ICIS amplifier tends to act li/e a perfect current amplifier. It has very low input and very high output impedance. "he closed loop current gain is given by

"he input and output impedances are given by

Ans+,f- 5#9: "he first digital voltmeter was invented and produced by Andrew Hay of <on &inear Systems ,and later founder of Haypro- in 1I?*. 5igital voltmeters ,5#9s- are usually designed around a special type of analog to digital converter called an integrating converter. #oltmeter accuracy is affected by many factors, including temperature and supply voltage variations. "o ensure that a digital voltmeterJs reading is within the manufacturerJs specified tolerances, they should be periodically calibrated against a voltage standard such as the ;eston cell. and was last develop and improve to "al/ing and 5igital #oltmeter it sense all 5igital voltmeters necessarily have input amplifiers, and, li/e vacuum tube voltmeters, generally have a constant input resistance of 12 megaohms regardless of set measurement range An analog to digital converter ,abbreviated A5C, A75 or A to 5- is a device that converts the input continuous physical >uantity to a digital number that represents the >uantityJs amplitude. "he conversion involves >uanti=ation of the input, so it introduces a small amount of error. "he inverse operation is performed by a digital to analog converter ,5AC-. Instead of doing a single conversion, an A5C often performs the conversions ,KsamplesK the input- periodically. "he result is a se>uence of digital values that have converted a continuous time and continuous amplitude analog signal to a discrete time and discrete amplitude digital signal. An A5C may also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage or current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current. .owever, some non electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be considered A5Cs."he digital output may use different coding schemes. "ypically the digital output will be a twoJs complement binary number that is

proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities

Section C Ans 3,a- : "he Cho/e Input 0ilter Cho/e Input 0ilter ,0ig +A- are used to filter the ouput of a $ectifier."he Cho/e,or inductor- has a primary charcterisitcs of opposing a change in current.3ecause of this,a cho/e Input filter ideally reduces the A.C current in the load resistor to =ero. 0or designing a cho/e input filter ,we have two re>uirements. 1. Cho/e Input filter should L C value much smaller than $& at the input fre>uency.;hen this re>uirement is satisfied,we can ignore the load resistance $&. +. ;e should have L& much greater than LC at the input fre>uency.;hen this condition is satisfied ,the ac output voltage approaches =ero.

0ig.+A ,a- Cho/e Input filter ,b- AC E>uivalent Circuit

0iltering the (utput of a $ectifier "he easiest way to understand the filtering operation is by using the superposition theorem. "he Superposition "heorem states that if we have two of more sources,we can analyse the circuit for each source separately and then add the individual voltages to get the total voltage,0ig +G-.

"he $ectifier output has two different components: a 5.C voltage, the average value- and an A.C voltage,the fluctuating part-. ;hen A.C voltage is concerned,the inductive reactance is =ero and capacitive reactance is infinite."hus ,almost all the 5C component is passed on to the load resistor and almost all the AC component is bloc/ed. In this way, we get almost perfect 5C voltage."he only deviation is small AC load voltages called $ipple.

0ig+G ,a-$ectifier with Cho/e Input 0ilter ,b-$ectifer (utput has 5C and AC components

,c-5C E>uivalent Circuit ,d- 0ilter output is direct current with small ripple. "he Capacitor Input 0ilter "he Cho/e Input 0ilter produces a 5C output voltage e>ual to the average value of the rectified voltage."he capacitor input filter produces a 5C output voltage e>ual to the pea/ value of the rectified voltage."his 0ilter is most widely used in power supplies. Capacitor Input 0ilter with <o &oad "he circuit is shown 0ig.+I 5uring the first >uarter cycle,the diode is 0orward 3iased.5uring the remaining cycle,the capacitor stays fully charged and diode remains open."hat is why,the output voltage is constant.

0ig +I ,a- Mnloaded capacitor input filter ,b-output is pure 5C voltage ,c- Capacitor remains charged when diode is off Effect of &oad $esistor on Capacitor Input 0ilter,0ig 32-

0or the capacitor input filter to be constant, we need to connect a load resistor across the capacitor. As long as $&C time constant is much greater than the period, capacitor remains almost fully charged and the voltage appro!imately # ). "he only deviation from perfect 5C voltage is small ripple. "he smaller the pea/ to pea/ value of this ripple, the more closely the output approaches a perfect 5C voltage. 3etween the pea/s, the diode is off and the capacitor discharges through the load resistor. Since the capacitor discharges only slightly between pea/s, the pea/ to pea/ ripple is small.

0ig.32 ,a- &oaded capacitor input filter ,c-0ull wave output has less ripple. Surge Current

,b- (utput is direct current with small ripple

0ig.31 Surge $esistor limits surge current. ;hen the power is turned on,the filter is uncharged.At the first instant,when the power is applied,the capacitor loo/s li/e a short circuit."he initial charging current may be very large.All that e!ists in the charging path to impede the current is the resistance of the transformer winding and the bul/ resistance of the diodes. "he initial rush of current when the power is turned on is called the SM$'E CM$$E<". (rdinarily,the designer of the power supply will select a diode with enough current rating to withstand the surge current. (ccasionally,a designer may decide to use a Surge $esistor."he surge resistor reduces the surge current to safe level. Ans 3,b-5etermining the output waveform for the networ/ of 0ig. below

;e have to solve this e!ample using the same steps discussed in above e!ample. Ans

Ans *: A 3ipolar Nunction "ransistor ,3N"- is a three terminal device whose operation is dependent on the interaction of both ma4ority and minority carriers and hence it is called bipolar device. "ransistor means transfer of resistor i.e, transfer of resistance from low resistance ,input -to high resistance ,output- circuit. Construction of a 3N" 1. n p n : "he n D p Dn transistor is formed by sandwiching a thin OpP type semiconductor between two OnP type semiconductors.,0ig 1-3ase comes between collector and emitter region. 3ase is thin and lightly doped. 5oping level of "he emitter is heavily doped than the collector. Emitter is intermediate between Emitter and 3ase .Emitter and collector are much wider than base and are heavily doped.

0ig 1

0ig @ Applying HC& ,we obtain Alpha 5.C,Qdc-6 IC7IE , IE 6 I3 : IC 3eta 5.C ,Rdc- 6 IC7I3

Ans ?: < channel enhancement Dtype 9(S0E" "he basic construction of the n channel enhancement type 9(S0E" is provided in 0ig.1. A slab of p type material is formed from a silicon base and is referred to as the substrate. As with the depletion type 9(S0E", the substrate is sometimes internally connected to the source terminal, while in other cases a fourth lead is made available for e!ternal control of its potential level. "he source and drain terminals are connected through metallic contacts to n doped regions, but note in 0ig.1 the absence of a channel between the two n doped regions. "his is the primary difference between the construction of depletion type and enhancement type 9(S0E"sSthe absence of a channel as a constructed component of the device. "he Si(+ layer is still present to isolate the gate metallic platform from the region between the drain and source, but now it is simply separated from a section of the p type material. In summary, therefore, the construction of an enhancement type 9(S0E" is >uite similar to that of the depletion type 9(S0E", e!cept for the absence of a channel between the drain and source terminals.

0ig 1 3asic (peration 1. (peration with #'S62# and #5S6 positive. If #'S is set at 2 # and a voltage applied between the drain and source of the device of 0ig.1, the absence of an n channel ,with its generous number of free carriers-will result in a current of 2 Amperes. +. (peration with #'S6 positive and #5S6 positive. In 0ig. + both #5S and #'S have been set at some positive voltage greater than 2 #, establishing the drain and gate at a positive potential with respect to the source."he

positive potential at the gate will pressure the holes ,since li/e charges repel- in the p substrate along the edge of the Si(+ layer to leave the area and enter deeper regions (f the p substrate, as shown in the figure. "he result is a depletion region near the Si(+ insulating layer void of holes. .owever, the electrons in the p substrate ,the minority carriers of the material- will be attracted to the positive gate and accumulate in the region near the surface of the Si(+ layer. "he Si(+ layer and its insulating >ualities will prevent the negative carriers from being absorbed at the gate terminal. As # 'S increases in magnitude, the concentration of electrons near the Si(+ surface increases until eventually the induced n type region can support a measurable flow between drain and source. "hreshold #oltage # " "he level of #'S at which the channel begins to conduct is called

the "hreshold #oltage, #". Since the channel is none!istent with # 'S 6 2 # and TenhancedU by the application of a positive gate to source voltage, this type of 9(S0E" is called an enhancement type 9(S0E".

0ig + As #'S is increased beyond the threshold level, the density of free carriers in theinduced channel will increase, resulting in an increased level of drain current. .owever,if we hold #'S constant and increase the level of #5S, the following conditions results. 1. If #'S #5S V #" , the n channel 9(S0E" will wor/ in &inear $egion, and the drain

current I5 will increase linearly with increase in drain voltage # 5S. +. If #'S #5S 6 #", the gate will become less and less positive with respect to drain. "hus, the number of electrons near to the drain terminal also reduces and channel will be become )I<C.E5 (00 at the drain terminal. ,0ig 3-

3. If #'S #5S V #",the n channel 9(S0E" will enter into SA"M$A"I(<. <ow, the drain current will not increase ,even if we increase #5S further.

0ig 3 0ig3 5rain Characteristics

0ig * "ransfer Characteristics of n channel Enhancement 9(S0E" 0or levels of #'S V#", the drain current is related to the applied gate to source voltage by the following nonlinear relationship:

: "he / term is a constant that is a function of the construction of the device. Ans@,a-: (p Amp ,operational amplifier- is basically an amplifier available in the IC form. "he word ToperationalU is used because the amplifier can be used to perform a variety of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc. 0igure 1 below shows the symbol of an (p Amp.

:#CC #1Inverting input #+ <oninverting input )arameters of ideal amplification: # EE

1- "he input resistance of amplifier should be as large as possible, Ideally 6C +- (utput resistance should be as small as possible, ideally 6o 3- Amplification should be as large as possible, ideally6C *- 3and width should be as large as possible, ideally 6C ?- (ffset voltage should be as large as possible, ideally 6C @- C9$$ should be as large as possible, ideally6C A- Slew rate should be as large as possible, ideally 6C AnsA : "he cathode ray oscilloscope ,C$(- is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and aplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of fre>uencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation ma/e it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. "he heart of the C$( is a cathode ray tube shown schematically in 0ig. 1.

"he cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode ,negative electrode- and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. "he assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode ,positive electrode- is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. 3etween the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates one oriented to provide hori=ontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical deflection to the beam. "hese plates are thus referred to as the hori=ontal and vertical deflection plates. "he combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. ;herever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is e!cited and light is emitted from that point. "his coversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise dar/ened screen. III. 0re>uency 9easurements: ;hen the hori=ontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage measurements can still be ta/en from the vertical deflection. 9oreover, the signal is displayed as a function of time. If the time base ,i.e. sweep- is calibrated, such measurements as pulse duration or signal period can be made. 0re>uencies can then be determined as reciprocal of the periods.