Lecture 3: Transpiration Transpiration Transpiration means to perspire and is common within plants.

This is loss of water

vapor through leaves and/or stems. Most transpiration occurs through the stomata. Why do plants lose such large quantities of water to transpiration? Do you know the answer? To answer this question, let us look again at the function of the leaf. The chief function of the leaf is for photosynthesis, which is the source of all food for the entire plant ody. The necessary energy for photosynthesis comes from sunlight. Therefore, for a ma!imum amount of photosynthesis to occur, a plant must have a ma!imum amount of surface area a le to reach the sunlight. "n order for #$% to enter the plant cell, it must go into solution. Why? &ecause cell mem ranes are almost impervious to gaseous #$ %. Thus, there must e contact with a moist cell surface. Wherever water is e!posed to air, evaporation occurs. 'lants have developed a num er of special adaptations for limiting evaporation. (ll the adaptations cut down the supply of #$%. o ( sorption y roots ) the roots have two main functions, to anchor the plant in the soil and to meet the water requirements of the leaves. *ote+ (lmost all the water that a plant takes from the soil enters through the younger parts of the root. ( sorption takes place directly through the epidermis of the root, largely in the region of root hairs.
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Transportation of water ) water is transported from the root hairs to the corte! then to endodermis, ne!t to the pericycle and last to the !ylem.

$nce in the conducting elements of !ylem, the water moves upward through the root and stem to the leaves.
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Transpiration stream ) ,descri ed a ove-. "n addition to keeping the leaves of the plant provided with water, it distri utes mineral ions to the shoots as well. When transpiration is occurring, mineral ions are carried rapidly throughout the plant. .oot pressure ) is the pressure developed in the roots as a result of osmosis. When transpiration is very slow or a sent, as at night, the root cells may still secrete ions into the !ylem. Water transport ) water enters the plant y the roots and is given off, in large quantities y leaf. /ou can trace this pathway in a simple e!periment. 1. 'ut a cut stem in water colored with any harmless dye. 2. #ut the stem under water to prevent air from entering the conducting elements of the !ylem. 3. Trace the path of the liquid into the leaves. 4. Trace the stain to the conducting elements of the !ylem.

Regulation of Transpiration Transpiration is e!tremely costly to the plant, especially when the water supply is limited. ( num er of special adaptations e!ist that minimi0e water loss while optimi0ing the gain of #$%. 1. The cuticle and the stomata ) leaves are covered y a cuticle that makes the leaf largely impervious oth to water and car on dio!ide. &y far the largest amount of water transpired y a higher plant is lost through the stomata. 1tomatal transpiration involves two processes. The first is evaporation of water from cell wall surfaces ordering the intercellular spaces, or air spaces of the mesophyll tissue. The second is diffusion of water into the atmosphere y way of the stomata. #losing the stomata prevents the loss of water vapor from the leaf and prevents the entry of car on dio!ide into the leaf.
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2umidity ) water is lost much more slowly into air already laden with water vapor.

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(ir currents ) a ree0e cools your skin on a hot day ecause it lows away the water vapor that has accumulated near the skin surfaces, and so accelerates the rate of evaporation the same as plants.

Measuring Transpiration Transpiration can e defined as the process y which water is lost from plants to the atmosphere. "t is the evaporation of water from plants and can e thought of as plants 3 reathing3. While you cannot see transpiration taking place in the environment you can measure it y capturing the water loss of a plant inside a plastic ag placed around its leaves.

During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. 4or e!ample a large oak tree can transpire 56,666 gallons of water per year. ( out 76 percent of the earth8s atmospheric moisture can e attri uted to plant transpiration. The rest is supplied y evaporation and the water cycle. Transpiration is a iological process necessary for plant life which uses a out 96: of the water a sor ed y the roots of the plant. $nly a out 76: of the water taken up is used for chemical reactions and tissue formation in the plant.

How Transpiration Occurs Water is lost from the stomata of the plant. 1tomata are pores found in the epidermis of the underside of leaves. They are located on the lower surface of leaves to reduce water loss due to minimi0ed solar radiation. The moist air in these spaces has a higher water potential than the outside air, and water tends to evaporate from the leaf surface. The stomata act as pumps which pull water and nutrients from the roots through the rest of the plant to the leaves in a phenomenon known as transpirational pull.

Transpirational pull drives water flow in the plant. Water is a sor ed y the root hairs of a plant and is passed through vascular tissues into the !ylem where it is transported to the leaves and stomata. ;ascular tissue is made ofm ore than one cell type and in plants consists of the !ylem and phloem. These carry water and nutrients throughout the plant along vascular undles of cells arranged end to end to form long, narrow conduits.

"n the vascular tissue water molecules form a column. The uppermost molecule turns to water vapor and is transpired through the stomata. (s a water vapor droplet evaporates the column of water forms a concave meniscus. The high surface tension of water pulls the hollow formation outwards generating force. The force provides enough pull to lift water through the vascular tissue of the plant to the leaf surface. "n large trees, water may e lifted hundreds of feet from the roots to the canopy.

The actions of the stomata are closely related to the hydration of the plant. The stomata pores are regulated y surrounding guard cells which regulate the rate of transpiration. When guard cells ecome turgid they cause stomata to open allowing water to evaporate. When transpiration e!ceeds the a sorption of water y a plant8s roots a loss of turgor occurs and the stomata close. <uard cells loose water and ecome flaccid. This also occurs when the plant has ecome dehydrated or when the plant is not photosynthesi0ing such as at night. "f a flaccid state continues the plant will wilt and eventually die. The shape of guard cells changes depending on the level of potassium which relates to the water potential of the cell. The rate of transpiration can e directly related to whether the stomata are open or closed.

When Transpiration Occurs Transpiration occurs during photosynthesis when the stomata open for the passage of car on dio!ide gas. #ar on dio!ide is a necessary component of photosynthesis that the plant must get from their environment. Water transported to the leaves is converted to a gas. (s car on dio!ide is allowed into the leaf, water vapors escape through evaporation to the atmosphere. 'lants lack mem ranes that are permea le to car on dio!ide and impermea le to water making transpiration an inevita le consequence of photosynthesis.

Why Transpiration Occurs There are several reasons why plants utili0e transpiration. The direct effect of transpiration is to regulate the temperature of the plant and to provide water for photosynthesis. "t also serves to move nutrients and sugars through the vascular tissues of the plant. Transpiration also helps to regulate turgor pressure in the plant8s vascular tissues. 'lants sweat through transpiration. The water that dissipates into the atmosphere pulls e!cess heat with it away from the plant. This reduces overheating and cools the leaves. Water is one of the su stances needed for photosynthesis and must e pumped

from the roots of the plant. The 3engine3 pulling water and nutrients up the plant is transpiration. *utrients are a sor ed from the soil and moved throughout the plant8s cells y way of transpiration. The minerals distri uted during this process are necessary for iosynthesis in the leaves.

Environmental Effects There are many environmental factors that can affect the rate of transpiration. " will address five of the most important here= light, temperature, humidity, wind, and soil water.

>ight stimulates the opening of the stomata at day reak. (s the stomata opens to allow photosynthesis to occur, the transpiration rate increases. With light comes heat. The leaf can e heated y the temperature of the environment and also y the heat released during photosynthesis. Transpiration provides a cooling mechanism for the plant to release e!cess heat in the leaves and maintain internal temperature necessary for iological and chemical processes to occur. Transpiration occurs more quickly at higher temperatures due to increased evaporation. 1ummer tends to e a time of decreased transpiration in plants ecause of increased temperature. ( difference of 76?# can lead to three times the amount of transpiration in a leaf. "n dry climates transpiration is increased. Water is forced to diffuse more rapidly into the air due to the concentration difference etween the environments outside and inside the plant. >ow humidity creates a vapor gradient etween the plant and the air. "n dry air, there is a lack of water, forcing water to e pulled from the plant to the atmosphere increasing transpiration. Therefore, in humid climates, transpiration is less effected y diffusion $n windy days the moisture present in the air is swept away from the leaf causing it to transpire more. $n calmer days, the humidity rate can rise causing a decrease in transpiration. The amount of wate rin the soil also plays a ma@or role in the rate of transpiration. The plant must have a continuous supply of water to e a le to transpire. "f adequate water cannot e a sor ed y the roots and carried up the !ylem, the rate of transpiration will decrease. ( lack of water supply will also decrease the rate of photosynthesis and the overall health of the plant.

Hazar Transpiration can e ha0ardous to plants if there is a higher rate of transpiration than rate of moisture a sorption through the roots. This is called moisture stress or plant stress. This often happens to houseplants in the winter months when we increase the

am ient temperature. 4urnaces typically create dry heat which results in a warm, dry environment. Aven well watered plants may wilt if the plant cannot adapt it transpiration rate.

!lant " aptations (s discussed a ove, environmental factors can play a large role in the rate of transpiration. 'lants in hot arid environments have found ways of limiting their water loss to avoid dehydration. 1ome of the adaptations desert plants use are+ the a sence of leaves, stomata that can open and close or that only open at night, #5 photosynthesis, special water storage capa ilities, alternative root structures, and periods of dormancy.

Berophytes are plants that have adapted y altering their physical structure. These plants e!hi it several adaptations which allow them to survive in harsh climates. Berophytic plants, such as cacti, do not have leaves ut instead depend on chlorophyll in the outer tissue of their skin to conduct photosynthesis. &y eliminating leaves or greatly reducing leaf si0e, transpiration is reduced. The wa!y surface of their skin seals in moisture and produces food for the plant. 1ome desert plants have smaller stomata or a lower frequency of stomata pores. 4ewer, smaller stomata reduce the opportunity for water loss. Many desert plants open their stomata at night when water loss is lessened due to cooler temperatures and lack of solar radiation. #losing stomata during the day limits the uptake of car on dio!ide and therefore the rate of photosynthesis. This is usually related to a slower growth rate. (daptations in the physiological pathways of some desert plants reflect a change in the way car on dio!ide is a sor ed from the atmosphere. "n #5 plants car on dio!ide gas is quickly captured, allowing the stomata to e closed more often than in plants not adapted for this. "n #5 plants car on is fi!ed into a four car on compound as malate or aspartate acid. This is a very efficient means of photosynthesi0ing.. 1ucculent plants store water in speciali0ed tissues. This allows plants to survive dehydration in arid climates y providing a means to rehydrate from their stored water sources.

'hreatophytes have adapted to arid environments y growing long roots which allow them to access moisture deep elow the surface of the soil and reach the water ta le. The roots of mesquite trees have een recorded as long as C6 feet. These are

considered tap roots. $ther plants have radial root systems which fan out to quickly a sor moisture during rare rainfalls. .adial root systems typically consist of fi rous roots spread out relatively near the soil surface. Tall sage rush has an e!tensive root system with roots that radiate out up to %D meters from the plant. 1ome desert plants com ine the two systems and have a set of radial roots and one deep tap root. (n e!ample of this is the creosote ush. (nother way plants cope with the perils of an arid environment is to ecome dormant during the winter or duing times of drought. This is true of annuals and ephemerals which produce seeds that wait to germinate during optimum conditions. 'lants that use this technique may remain dormant for years. 'lants in the >ilicate and >omatium families store energy for use during dormant periods. (lthough the parts of the plant a ove the ground including the leaves and the stalk desiccate in the heat, nutrients are stored in the root system, allowing the plant to survive. (nnuals germinate, grow, and produce their seeds or pollen during time of rainfall. Many annuals grow during the spring so they can take advantage of spring thaws and mild temperatures. &y summer, they have seeded themselves and have withered.