Active Fire Detection

H. Schmaltz

Table of contents 5.2 Active Fire protection .................................................................................................. 3 5.2.1 Fire Detection .......................................................................................................... 3 5.2.1.1 Preface ................................................................................................................ 3 5.2.1.2 Smoke detectors .................................................................................................. 4 5.2.1.2.1 Ionization Smoke Detectors ................................................................................ 4 5.2.1.2.2 Photoelectric Smoke Detectors ........................................................................... 5 5.2.1.3 Flame detectors ................................................................................................... 5 5.2.1.4 Heat detectors ..................................................................................................... 6 5.2.1.5 Multisensor Fire Detectors ................................................................................. 7 5.2.2 Fire Fighting ............................................................................................................ 8 5.2.2.1 Preface ................................................................................................................ 8 5.2.2.2 Suppression Agents ............................................................................................ 8 5.2.2.3 Fire Fighting Systems ......................................................................................... 9 5.2.2.3.1 Sprinkler System ............................................................................................... 10 5.2.2.3.2 Water Spray Extinguishing Systems ................................................................ 11 5.2.2.3.3 Water Mist Extinguishing Systems .................................................................. 11 5.2.2.3.4 Foam Extinguishing Systems ........................................................................... 12 5.2.2.3.5 Powder Extinguishing Systems ........................................................................ 12 5.2.2.3.6 Gas Extinguishing Systems .............................................................................. 13 5.2.3 List of References .................................................................................................. 14

5.2

Active Fire protection

5.2.1 Fire Detection 5.2.1.1 Preface For fire detection automatic fire detection systems are used in industrial plants. Such automatic fire detection systems make an early detection of fires possible. Depending on the type of system it is also possible to initiate preprogrammed control functions 5.2.3. Such functions can be alarm people in control rooms for activating fire extinguishing and intervention forces activating installations to limit smoke and fire spread, e.g. closing fire doors and fire dampers activating smoke and heat extraction systems activating stationary extinguishing systems disconnecting technical equipment from the power supply switching on emergency lighting activating evacuation systems.

Manual triggered fire detection systems require the permanent presence of people for initiating fire alarm. Fire detection systems consists normally of the control unit, peripheral equipment such as fire detectors and contacts, as well as alarm and control devices activated by the control unit. The knowledge of the outbreak of a fire and its development is important for fire prevention and fire fighting. To ensure reliable, early detection in the case of fire, it is equally important to be familiar with the different fire phenomena and the possible types of fire. Fire phenomena are physical values that are subject to measurable change in the development of a fire (e.g. temperature increase, light obscuration or flames). The processes in material combustion can be principally viewed from the perspective of a conversion of energy and substances. The energetic conversion releases energy into the environment. The substantial conversion produces depending on the substances present at the seat of fire products in any physical state, ranging from non-toxic to highly toxic. The energetic conversion releases energy by radiation and convection. The range of radiation released during a fire can be divided, by wavelength, into ultraviolet (UV), visible light and infrared (IR). Energy release by convection essentially takes place through the ambient air. First, the kinetic energy of the air molecules is increased, resulting in a temperature increase. The associated expansion leads to an upward air flow. Due to this flow, cooler air and thus oxygen is guided to the fire seat. The conversion of substances taking place in a fire is characterized by the various chemical reactions that can occur at the seat of fire, depending on the substances present. The substantial conversion of a fire is determined by the different chemical reactions that may go on at the seat of fire. The solid or liquid conversion products either remain at the fire seat (e.g. ashes) or are distributed into the direct environment of the fire. In the latter case, they form a socalled aerosol, as finely distributed solid or liquid suspended matters mixing with the ambient air. Gaseous conversion products always spread through the air. 3

In summary it can be said that large volumes of volatile fire aerosols are produced with almost all hostile fires. Smoke has thus become the most important fire phenomenon for an early detection of fire. Depending on the size and concentration of the fire aerosols, they may be visible or invisible. In general, fire aerosols are 10 to 10'000 times the size of gas molecules. Aim of this short introductive explanation about the fire phenomena was to point out that the knowledge about these phenomena is essential for the design of a fire detection system. The main task of an automatic fire detection system is to reliably identify a fire at the earliest stage possible, to alarm and to activate the preprogrammed control functions. This requires a careful selection of the smoke and fire detectors which can fulfill the special demands. The fire detectors can be distinguished into the following categories: Automatic fire detectors Semi-automatic fire detectors and Non-automatic fire detectors.

Automatic fire detectors are the most frequent used detectors which can indicate smoke, heat, flames and gas and thus activate an alarm in case of fire. Semi-automatic fire detectors are not able to activate an alarm in case of a fire. Semiautomatic fire detectors are normally camera systems. This system only gives information about changes of a situation to people which have to activate the alarm in such a situation. Not-automatic fire detectors are call points which have to be activated manually by a person which has detected a fire source. In the following only the detection principles of automatic fire detectors will be described. Among automatic fire detectors there are different varieties and brands of smoke and fire detectors. The following types of detectors with the most frequent use are available 5.2.3, [2]: Smoke detectors Flame detectors Heat detectors.

5.2.1.2 Smoke detectors Due to the fact that most fires produce smoke most fire detection systems consist of smoke detectors. A smoke detector will detect most fires much more rapidly than a heat detector. Smoke detectors differ by their operating principle. Two of the operating principles are: ionization photoelectric effect. 5.2.1.2.1 Ionization Smoke Detectors An ionization smoke detector produces electrically charged particles (ions) from neutral particles. For it an ionization smoke detector has a small amount of radioactive material that ionizes the air in the sensing chamber, i.e. it is made conductive. In this sensing chamber there are arranged two electrodes, biased by a DC voltage, Due to the ionization of the air between the two electrodes, there is a weak electric current. When smoke particles enter the ionization ar4

ea, ions attach to the smoke particles, reducing the flow of electricity. This reduction is proportional to the number of smoke particles in the measuring area. The signal coming from the ionization smoke detector is proportional to the number of smoke particles in the sensing chamber. Ionization smoke detectors are thus particularly suited for the detection of open fires, as such fires produce a large number of small, primarily invisible smoke particles. They are less suited for detecting smoldering fires that produce only few, large smoke particles. 5.2.1.2.2 Photoelectric Smoke Detectors The photoelectric smoke detectors are working according to the scattered light or the extinction light principle. At scattered light smoke detectors light emitter and light sensor are arranged in the sensing chamber in such a way that light from the emitter cannot strike the sensor directly. Only the light scattered from smoke particles (Tyndall effect) reaches the sensor and is converted into an electrical signal. If this reaches the alarm value, an alarm is automatically sent to the control panel. Special designs of scattered light smoke detectors are aspirating smoke detectors. These kinds of detectors use a suction system which draws air from the monitored area via a pipe system to the sensing chamber. An extinction smoke detector measures the light attenuation caused by absorption and scattering. A light source is focused on by a photoelectric cell. When there is no smoke, the photoelectric cell measures a signal. When smoke penetrates in the sensing chamber between the light source and the photoelectric cell, the signal measured is slightly reduced. This signal reduction caused by absorption and light scattering is proportional to the smoke density. Special designs of extinction smoke detectors are linear smoke detectors. Linear smoke detectors are used for measuring sections up to 100m. There are systems housing the emitter and receiver in the same casing use a remote reflector. In systems without a reflector, the emitter and receiver are separate. 5.2.1.3 Flame detectors Flame detectors convert the electromagnetic radiation emitted by flames into an electric signal. A flame detector responds either to radiant energy visible to the human eye (approx. 4000 to 7700 ) or outside the range of human vision. Similar to the human eye, flame detectors have a 'cone of vision', or viewing angle, that defines the effective detection capability of the detector. A flame detection system must be chosen for the type of fire that is probable. For example an ultraviolet (UV) detector will respond to a hydrogen fire, but an infrared (IR) detector operating in the 4.4 micron sensitivity range (emission spectrum of hot CO2) will not. Due to their fast detection capabilities, flame detectors are generally used only in high-hazard areas, such as fuel-loading platforms, industrial process areas, hyperbaric chambers, highceiling areas, and atmospheres in which explosions or very rapid fires may occur. Because flame detectors must be able to 'see' the fire, they must not be blocked by objects placed in 5

front of them. The infrared-type detector, however, has some capability for detecting radiation reflected from walls. Ultraviolet (UV) detectors generally use either a solid-state device, such as silicone carbide or aluminum nitride, or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors are essentially sensitive to both, sunlight and artificial light. A UV flame radiates in the 1850 to 2450 angstrom range. Virtually all fire emits radiation in this band, while the sun's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is solar blind, meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the sun. The implication of this feature is that it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors. UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbon, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays used in nondestructive metal testing equipment, and radioactive materials can produce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate the UV radiation from a fire, adversely affecting the ability of the detector to 'see' a flame. Likewise, the presence of an oil mist in the air or an oil film on the detector window will have the same effect. An infrared (IR) detector basically is composed of a filter and system used to screen out unwanted wavelengths and focus the incoming energy on a photovoltaic or photo resistive cell sensitive to infrared radiation. IR flame detectors can respond to the total IR component of the flame alone or in combination with flame flicker in the frequency range of 5 to 30 Hz. A major problem in the use of infrared detectors receiving only IR radiation is the possible interference of solar radiation in the infrared bandwidth. IR detectors are sensitive to most hydrocarbon fires (liquid, gases and solids). Fires such as burning metals, ammonia, hydrogen, and sulfur do not emit significant amounts of IR radiation in the 4.4 micron sensitivity range of most IR detectors. 5.2.1.4 Heat detectors Heat detectors are equipped with a temperature-sensitive element and are only suited for the detection of open fires. They respond either when the detecting element reaches a predetermined fixed temperature or to a specified rate of temperature change. In general, heat detectors are designed to operate when heat causes a prescribed change in a physical or electrical property of a material or gas. Heat detectors can be sub-divided by their operating principles Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors Rate of Rise Detectors Combination Detectors

Fixed-temperature heat detectors are designed to alarm when the temperature of the operating elements reaches a specific point. Upon achieving this temperature, the detector switches to alarm mode. These detectors are based on the functional principle of a thermistor (semiconductor element with temperature-sensitive resistor), a fusible element, a bimetal strip or the expansion of a liquid. The air temperature at the time of alarm is usually considerably higher than the rated temperature because it takes time for the air to raise the temperature of the operating element to its set point. This condition is called thermal lag. 6

With the rate-of-rise temperature detector, the temperature increase per unit of time required to trigger an alarm is defined (C/min). If the measured temperature increase per unit of time exceeds this threshold, an alarm is triggered. Rate-of-rise temperature detectors are usually based on the functional principle of a thermistor. In practice, rate-of-rise temperature detectors are usually designed so that they also switch to alarm mode when a predefined maximum temperature is exceeded similar to the fixed temperature detector (combination detector). As the reference value for alarm activation is the rate of rise, these detectors are clearly superior to the fixed temperature detectors. However, they are still restricted to low-risk applications and are only applied in situations where a smoke detector would be subject to massive deceptive phenomena. 5.2.1.5 Multisensor Fire Detectors Multisensor fire detectors are basically photo-electric smoke detectors - so they will respond to smouldering fires. The addition of a heat sensing element allows the multi-sensor to give a response to fast burning (flaming) fires which is comparable to that of an ionization detector. The multisensor fire detectors which are equipped with scattered light sensors and heat sensors are characterized by the following detection behavior: Good detection of smoldering fires with light and black smoke particles. Reliable detection of fires without visible smoke by the heat sensor. Immunity to deceptive phenomena such as vapor and exhaust gases.

The main advantage of multisensor fire detectors is that not only the strengths and weaknesses of the different sensors can be balanced due to the combination of the different measured quantities, but an interpretation of events becomes possible. The result is an improvement of the response speed (early detection of fires) and a considerably higher immunity to deceptive phenomena (no false alarms).

5.2.2 Fire Fighting 5.2.2.1 Preface The following information gives a basic understanding of the most common means used to extinguish various types of fire hazards. The information is based on publications and articles from the sources 5.2.3, [2], [3] and [4]. There are four methods used to suppress fires: Reduce its Temperature Remove the Fuel(s) Remove the Oxygen Inhibit the Chain Reaction.

Each of these methods has unique advantages based on the location and type of fire that is encountered. All suppression agents and/or strategies are all based on one or more of these methods. For fire fighting, the following extinguishing agents are internationally known and available today: water gases powder foam.

Extinguishing devices and extinguishing installations for manual fire fighting are means to accelerate and facilitate fire fighting on the spot. This includes: wall hydrants extinguishing water risers (dry / wet) hydrants.

In case of an accordingly high risk mostly of valuable property stationary automatic extinguishing systems are installed. There are water, foam, powder and gas extinguishing systems. Each basic type of extinguishing system can be divided into different subsystems and variants partly based on different principles. The aim of any fire protection objectives is: fire suppression and fire extinguishing. 5.2.2.2 Suppression Agents The following suppression and extinguishing agents are internationally known and available today: water gases 8

powder foam.

Water is the most widely spread and best-known extinguishing agent. The extinguishing principle of water is cooling so that the temperature of the burning material will be reduced. Water has a high specific heat capacity and an especially high evaporation heat. This cooling effect destroys the thermal base of the chain reaction. Moreover, unburnt combustible material is covered with water and hence separated from the oxygen. In addition, water absorbs heat. These effects reduce both the rate of fire propagation and after extinguishing the risk of re-ignition. During decades, carbon dioxide (CO2) and halons were virtually the only known extinguishing gases. As a consequence of the Montreal Protocol of 1987, halons were outlawed as extinguishing gas, and industry reacted by developing alternative solutions. This led to the use of other natural gases as extinguishing agents: Today, nitrogen (N2) and argon (Ar) are the most important natural extinguishing gases apart from CO2. Furthermore, compounds of these three natural gases are available as well. Other chemical alternatives to halons have been developed. The most significant group of chemical extinguishing gases not harmful to the ozone layer are the chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), their best-known representative being HFC227ea, marketed among others by Great Lakes under the name of HFC227ea. Lately, the chemical extinguishing agent Novec 1230 has been commercially available, an agent that neither d estroys the ozone layer nor essentially contributes to the greenhouse effect. While powder extinguishing systems are scarcely used due to considerable consequential damage (corrosion!), foam extinguishing systems for the protection of chemical and tank storage facilities are widely spread. In Germany, for example, 60% of all automatic extinguishing systems are sprinkler systems, 35% are gas extinguishing systems and the remaining 5% account for other system types 5.2.3. 5.2.2.3 Fire Fighting Systems Depending which of the methods for suppressing a fire is the right and most promising way, the appropriate fire fighting system has to be designed. Water has played the main part in fire extinguishing since ancient times, and it is for sure the oldest and most common extinguishing agent. Approximately 90% of all fires are solid fuel fires which can be easily extinguished with water. Therefore water is still the most widespread extinguishing agent today which also is reflected in the used fire fighting systems. The most commonly used automatic system using water is the sprinkler system. These systems are employed in almost all fields of industry, larger business enterprises, department stores, garages, meeting places, schools, hospitals, hotels, airports, etc. However it has to be mentioned that like most water extinguishing systems, sprinkler systems aim at suppressing a fire. This means that they are not able to extinguish a fire in any case, but they can fight and contain it until the fire brigade arrives to extinguish the fire completely. In addition to the sprinklers, automatically activated water spray extinguishing systems are available as well. Since the past 15 years, water is also used in systems operating with higher pressures, thus generating smaller droplets. These so-called water fog systems or water spray systems provide the extinguishing effect of classic water extinguishing systems and are consuming considerably less water while working equally reliably. 9

5.2.2.3.1 Sprinkler System Automatic sprinkler systems consist of a water supply system, providing adequate pressure and flow rate to a water distribution piping system which is supplied with sprinkler heads. The sprinkler pipe system is separated from the main water supply by a main alarm valve which serves to separate the sprinkler network from the water supply and to activate alarm in case a sprinkler head has been actuated. Three types of sprinkler systems are commonly used: wet-pipe systems dry-pipe systems pre-action systems.

A wet-pipe sprinkler system, the main component of the sprinkler station, the alarm valve, is closed and the complete pipe volume is filled with water. In case of a pressure drop in the sprinkler pipe network because a sprinkler head has been activated, the alarm valve opens. If the wet-pipe sprinkler system is located in buildings which are not frost-free, the water may contain an anti freeze agent. However, for unheated rooms normally dry-pipe sprinkler systems are used. Dry-pipe sprinkler systems are set up similar to wet-pipe sprinkler systems. This pipe network is under air overpressure instead of water pres-sure, with the air taking on the task of keeping the alarm valve closed. As dry-pipe sprinkler systems are particularly used for unheated buildings, the water-containing part, i.e. the alarm valve, have to be installed in frost-free locations or have to be heated. Pre-action systems are installed in rooms where the activation of sprinklers would entail considerable damage, for example in electronic data processing rooms. For this reason any unwanted activation must be avoided at any rate. Like with dry-pipe systems, the pipe network is filled with pressurized air. The alarm valve station, however, is designed in such a way that it can only open when a fire detection system has additionally responded. This means that mechanical damage alone cannot lead to a water discharge. The sprinkler heads serve as selective fire detectors and are generating water droplets to distribute them over the coverage area. Fire sprinklers can be automatic or open orifice. Automatic fire sprinklers operate at a predefined temperature, utilizing a fusible element, a portion of which melts, or a frangible glass bulb filled with a liquid. The water bulb bursts when it is heated up, due to the strongly rising pressure of the filling material. With the fusible element sprinkler, the activation element is made up of the soldering joint of two plates. The soldering metal has a predefined melting temperature. When the glass bulb bursts or the soldering metal melts, the sealing element is catapulted from the nozzle by the water or air pressure in the sprinkler pipe network. The water flowing out is divided up into droplets by the spray plate and sprayed over the coverage area. The mostly used sprinkler types are listed in the following: spray sprinklers flat spray sprinklers sidewall sprinklers ESFR sprinklers 10

wide-range wall sprinklers.

The type of sprinkler which has to be used depends on the space between sprinkler and equipment, the ceiling heights and the size of the rooms where the sprinkler system has to be installed. A relatively new sprinkler type is the ESFR sprinkler (Early Suppression Fast Response) which has been developed for use in risky storage facilities with high storage heights, without sprinklers on intermediate levels. In addition to a quicker activation element, they have a different water distribution spectrum with a very high water charge of more than 40 l/m 2 per minute. ESFR heads emit larger droplets of water with greater momentum than conventional heads. ESFR heads not only output larger amounts of water, but a greater share of the water reaches the fire, hastening the extinguishing process. 5.2.2.3.2 Water Spray Extinguishing Systems Stationary water spray extinguishing systems are permanently installed systems with open nozzles that use water as an extinguishing agent. They can be activated manually and/or automatically. An additional mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or electrical triggering system is required for automatic activation. All buildings, rooms and items to be protected are covered by a depressurized network of pipes and open extinguishing nozzles. The nozzles do not have a release element and work as a group. Consequently, selective fire extinguishing is not possible. The water hits the nozzles spray plates and is distributed over the entire area. The water spray system has been developed for areas with a particularly high combustible load, such as fuel storage facilities where a quick fire spread has to be expected. In such cases, neither wet nor dry extinguishing systems with their individually opening sprinkler heads could control the quickly spreading fire, especially because a limited number of sprinkler heads distribute the water only locally and too late. Due to the very high water volumes discharged in case of activation, water spray systems require an extremely high capacity of water supply. 5.2.2.3.3 Water Mist Extinguishing Systems Water mist extinguishing systems convert water to an uniform and extremely fine water mist by means of special nozzles and a pressure of up to about 120bar. The term "water mist" refers to fine water sprays in which 99% of the volume of the spray is in drops with diameters less than 1000 microns. As the reaction surface of the droplets in relation to the quantity of water is immense, large quantities of energy are quickly detracted from the fire and thus the temperature level is reduced rapidly. Surrounding objects will be protected efficiently from heat radiation. Through the abrupt evaporation of the droplets, additional large quantities of energy of the fire are absorbed. At the same time, the water volume is increased 1640 times by evaporation and the oxygen contents at the source of the fire are reduced. The use of water mist in fire suppression, compared to the use of gaseous agents and conventional sprinkler systems, has shown advantages as following: no toxic and asphyxiation problems, no environmental problems, low system cost, limited or no water damage and 11

high efficiency in suppressing fires.

Fine mist is applied to critical equipment fires, where heat absorption and cooling of the fire plume are the primary features, whereas sprinklers with larger droplets are applied to penetrate the fire plume and cool the product in combustion. Small droplets will slow down quite quickly because of their low mass. They also have low momentum and therefore have difficulty penetrating a hot plume to cool the fire. Water mist is applied to special applications, where specific protection of equipment and critical components that can be cooled and the fire extinguished quickly and a return to normal operations can be achieved rapidly. Sprinklers, providing larger droplets, protect large fire properties and large high hazard fires. 5.2.2.3.4 Foam Extinguishing Systems Foam extinguishing systems, like sprinkler systems, are permanently installed fire extinguishing systems. They are used for fires involving solid and liquid materials. To create the foam, a constant percentage quantity of foam compound is added to the water by means of admixing devices. The resulting water/foam mixture is then foamed with air in downstream foam generators. Extinguishing foam is a highly effective and consisting of water, fire extinguishing foam (concentrate) and air. The amount of air defines the type of foam and its properties. Extinguishing foam takes advantage of different extinguishing effects and modifies their properties: cooling, smothering, separating, covering, damming and displacing. Singly or together they ensure fast extinguishing. The foam system suppresses the fire by separating the fuel from the air. These systems typically inject a concentrated foam mixture into a water based deluge system. Foam extinguishing systems are classed in three general categories according to foam concentrate type, low, medium, and high expansion. The characteristics and use of the different foam types is as follows: Low-expansion foam is wet foam with a high weight and a small volume. It is used for fires of liquids or solids. The extinguishing effect of low-expansion foam is largely based on the separating and cooling effect. The expansion ratio is about 8 20 times. Medium-expansion foam is a moist to dry foam (depending on the expansion ratio) with a low weight and a large volume. Medium-expansion foam is significantly lighter than lowexpansion foam. In addition to the suppressing effect of medium-expansion foam it also has a separating and secondary cooling extinguishing effect. The expansion ratio is up to 200 times. High-expansion foam has an exceptionally low weight and a large volume. Highexpansion foam is also particularly dry. Due to its low weight, it can not be thrown and must be sprayed through special foam generators in the extinguishing area. The extinguishing effect is largely a separating and suppressing effect. The expansion ratio is up to 1000 times.

5.2.2.3.5 Powder Extinguishing Systems Powder extinguishing systems are permanently installed in places where other extinguishing agents would not guarantee a safe extinguishing procedure in case of liquid, gas and certain chemical fires. For fighting metal fires, special extinguishing powders are available as well. 12

The extinguishing principle is based on the interruption of the combustion process by intervening in the chemical reaction and the associated energy deprivation. If the extinguishing area is a closed room in which people are also present, they must be evacuated before extinguishing due to the risk of suffocation. After the acoustic alarm, a delay period must be set in order to ensure a safe evacuation of the area. This system type is used rather rarely since the very finely distributed powder forms residues that are difficult to remove and highly corrosive. In addition, the powder cannot be used with electric or electronic facilities. 5.2.2.3.6 Gas Extinguishing Systems Gas extinguishing systems are typically used in critical area of a business operation such as, computer / server rooms, telecoms rooms, electrical switchgear rooms, and other high risk areas where water damage must be avoided. Other areas protected are archive stores, laboratories, gas turbines, oil installations, power generation to name but a few. It is also used where extinguishment of fires in shaded or enclosed areas such as inside control cabinets is required. There are various gases that can be used for gas extinguishing systems. The selection of the suitable gas will depend on the specific application. The following natural gases are suited for extinguishing purposes, as they are gaseous at ambient conditions and can be extracted without significant expenditures: carbon dioxide (CO2) nitrogen (N2) argon (Ar)

In addition, mixtures of these gases are commercially available, for example Inergen (52% N2, 40% Ar, 8% CO2) or Argonite (50% N2, 50% Ar). The extinguishing effect is achieved by displacing oxygen from the seat of the fire, causing it to suffocate. The gases heat binding capability also plays its part. There are virtually no emission limits for argon when used as an extinguishing agent. It is heavier than air, which makes it an ideal extinguishing medium. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a well-established extinguishing gas for protecting equipment and rooms.

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5.2.3 List of References [1] Siemens Brandschutz-Wegweiser Siemens AG, Industry Sector Ausgabe 04.2010 FireNet http://www.me.utexas.edu/~ezekoye/rsch.dir/firesite Fire Protection Solutions http://www.fire-protection-solutions.com/ Argus fire http://www.argusfire.co.uk/

[2]

[3]

[4]

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