Som Chattopadhyay (Second Edition)

Indiana University/Purdue University at Fort Wayne

9
Pressure Vessels
9.1 9.2 9.3 Design Criteria
Design Loads Materials Allowable Stress

Earl Livingston (First Edition)

Babcock and Wilcox Company, Retired

Rudolph H. Scavuzzo (First Edition)

University of Akron

Design Formulas Opening Reinforcement

The pressure vessels used in industry are leak-tight pressure containers, usually cylindrical or spherical in shape, with various head congurations. They are usually made from carbon steel or stainless steel and assembled by welding. The early operation of pressure vessels and boilers resulted in numerous explosions, causing loss of life and considerable property damage. In the early 1920s, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers formed a committee for the purpose of establishing minimum safety rules for boiler construction. In 1925, the committee issued a set of rules for the design and construction of unred pressure vessels. Most states have laws mandating that these Code rules be met. Enforcement of these rules is accomplished via a third party employed by the state or an insurance company. These Codes are living documents in that they are constantly being revised and updated by committees comprised of individuals knowledgeable on the subject. Keeping current requires that revised Codes be published every 3 years with addenda issued every year. This chapter covers a generalized approach to pressure vessel design based on the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1: Pressure Vessels.

9.1 Design Criteria

The Code design criteria consist of basic rules specifying the design method, design load, allowable stress, acceptable materials, and fabricationinspection certication requirements for vessel construction. The design method, known as design by rule, uses design pressure, allowable stress, and a design formula compatible with the geometry of the part to calculate the minimum required thickness of the part. This procedure minimizes the amount of analysis required to ensure that the vessel will not rupture or undergo excessive distortion. In conjunction with specifying the vessel thickness, the Code includes many construction details that must be followed. Where vessels are subject to complex loadings such as thermal or localized loads, and where signicant discontinuities exist, the Code requires a more rigorous analysis to be performed. This method is known as the design by analysis method. A more complete background of both methods may be found in Chattopadhyay, 2004. The ASME Code is included as a standard by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The American Petroleum Institute (API) has also developed codes for low-pressure storage tanks, and these are also part of the ANSI standards. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code has worldwide applications, but many other industrialized countries have also developed their own boiler and pressure vessel codes. Differences in these codes sometimes cause difculty in international trade.

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TABLE 9.1 Acceptable Pressure Vessel Materials

Temperature Use Limit (F) Down to 50 +33 to +775 Plate Material SA-516a All grades SA-285 Gr. C SA-515 Gr. 55, 60, 65 SA-516 All grades SA-204 Gr. B, C SA-387 Gr. 11, 12 Class 1 Pipe Material SA 333 Gr. 1 SA-53 SA-106 Forging Material SA 350 GR. LF1, LF2 SA-181 Gr. I, II

+776 to +1000

SA-335 Gr. P1, P11, P12

SA-182 Gr. F1, F11, F12

Impact testing required. Note: SA is a classication of steel used in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.

Design Loads
The forces that inuence pressure vessel design are internal/external pressure; dead loads due to the weight of the vessel and contents; external loads from piping and attachments; wind, snow, and earthquakes; operating-type loads such as vibration and sloshing of the contents; and startup and shutdown loads. The Code considers design pressure, design temperature, and, to some extent, the inuence of other loads that impact the circumferential (or hoop) and longitudinal stresses in shells. It is left to the designer to address the effects of the remaining loads on the vessel. Various national and local building codes must be consulted for handling wind, snow, and earthquake loadings.

Materials
The materials to be used in a pressure vessel must be selected from Code-approved material specications. This requirement is generally not a problem, since a large database of acceptable materials is available. The factors that need to be considered in selecting a suitable material are: Cost Fabricability Service condition (wear, corrosion, operating temperature) Availability Strength requirements Several typical pressure vessel materials for a noncorrosive environment and for service temperatures between 50 and 1000F are shown in Table 9.1.

Allowable Stress
The allowable stress used to determine the minimum vessel thickness is based on the tensile and yield strengths of the material at room and design temperatures. When the vessel operates at an elevated temperature (typically above 800F), the creep properties of the material must be considered. These properties are adjusted by design factors that limit the hoop membrane stress to a value that precludes tensile rupture, excessive elastic and plastic deformations, and creep rupture. Table 9.2 shows typical allowable stresses for several carbon steels commonly used for unred pressure vessels.

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TABLE 9.2 Typical Allowable Stresses for Use in Pressure Vessel Design
Material Specication SA-515 Gr. 60 Temperature Use Limit (F) 700 800 900 700 800 900 700 800 900 700 800 900 700 800 900 Allowable Stress (psi) 14 400 10 800 6 500 16 600 14 500 12 000 11 7000 9 300 6 500 14 400 10 800 6 500 16 600 12 000 6 500

SA 516-Gr. 70

SA-53 Gr. A

SA-106 Gr. B

SA-181 Gr. 1

9.2 Design Formulas

The design formulas used in the design by rule method are based on the so-called maximum principal stress theory of failure involving the average hoop stress. The maximum principal stress theory of failure states that failure occurs when the greatest of the three principal stresses reaches the material yield strength. Ignoring the radial stress, the other two principal stresses can be determined by simplied engineering mechanics formulas. The Code recognizes that the shell thickness may be such that the radial stresses may not be ignored; accordingly, adjustments have been made in the appropriate formulas. These formulas include a parameter, the weld joint efciency factor, to address the nature of the examination performed at the welded joints during the fabrication of the vessel. Table 9.3 shows various formulas used to calculate the wall thickness for a number of pressure vessel congurations.

9.3 Opening Reinforcement

Vessel components are weakened when material is removed to provide openings for nozzles or access. High stress concentrations exist at the opening edge and decrease radially outward from the opening, becoming negligibly small beyond distances twice the diameter of the opening. To avoid failure in the opening region, compensation or reinforcement is required. Some ways in which this can be accomplished are: 1. Increase the vessel wall thickness. 2. Increase the nozzle wall thickness. 3. Use a combination of additional shell and nozzle thicknesses. The Code procedure is to relocate the removed material to an area within the effective boundary around the opening. Figure 9.1 shows the steps necessary to reinforce an opening in a pressure vessel. Numerous assumptions have been made with the intent of simplifying the general approach. The example shown in Figure 9.2 uses the design approach indicated by the Code to perform a simple sizing calculation for a typical welded carbon steel vessel. Figure 9.3 shows typical nozzleshell and headshell junctures that meet the Code requirements. Design specications for the many associated vessel parts, such as bolted anges, external attachments, and vessel supports, can be found in Chattopadhyay, 2004.

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TABLE 9.3 Code Formulas for Calculation of Vessel Component Thickness

Cylindrical shell t= Hemispherical head or spherical shell t= 2:1 ellipsoidal head t= Flanged and dished head t= Flat head PR SE - 0.6 P PR 2 SE - 0.2 P PD 2 SE - 0.2 P 1.77 PL 2 SE - 0.2 P

t = d CP SE

where t = Mimimum required thickness (in.) P = Deisgn pressure (psi) R = Inside radius (in.) S = Allowable stress (psi) D = Inside diameter (in.) L = Inside spherical crown radius (in.) E = Weld joint efciency factor, determined by joint location and degree of examination C = Factor depending upon method of head-to-shell attachment

Dening Terms
Code The complete rules for the construction of pressure vessels as identied in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels. Construction The complete manufacturing process, including design, fabrication, inspection, examination, hydrostatic test, and certication. This applies to new construction only. Hoop membrane stress The average stress in a ring subjected to radial loads uniformly distributed along its circumference. Longitudinal stress The average stress acting on a cross-section of a vessel in the axial (lengthwise) direction. Pressure vessel A leak-tight pressure container, usually cylindrical or spherical in shape, subjected to internal pressure. Stress concentration Local high stress in the vicinity of a geometrical discontinuity such as a change in thickness or an opening in a shell. Weld efciency factor A factor intended to reduce the allowable stress for welded connections, dependent on the degree of weld examination performed during the construction of the vessel.

References
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2004, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels. ASME, New York Chattopadhyay, S. 2004, Pressure Vessels: Design and Practice, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Further Information
Each summer, usually in July, the Pressure Vessel and Piping Division of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers organizes an annual meeting devoted to pressure vessel technology. Over 500

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C L Nozzle

An

tn Tn As

ts y

Ts

C L Shell

x = y = d = D = ts = Ts = tn = Tn = Rn =

Larger of d or Rn + tn + Tn Smaller of 21/2Ts or 21/2Tn Diameter of circular opening (in.) Inside diameter of shell (in.) Required thickness of shell (in.) Actual thickness of shell (in.) Required thickness of nozzle (in.) Actual thickness of nozzle (in.) Inside radius of nozzle = d /2 (in.)

Area of required reinforcement (in.2) Area available in the shell (in.2) Area available in the nozzle (in.2) (d ) (ts) Larger of: d (Ts ts) 2Tn (Ts ts) or 2(Ts + tn)(Ts ts) 2tn (Ts ts) An = Smaller of: 2 [21/2 (Ts)(Tn tn) or 2 [21/2 (Tn)(Tn tn)] Ar < (As + An): Acceptable configuration

Ar As An Ar As

= = = = =

FIGURE 9.1 Opening reinforcement requirements.

papers are presented, many of which are published as ASME special publications in book form. Archival papers are also published in the Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology. Research programs for the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code are often conducted by the Pressure Vessel Research Council (PVRC). This research is normally published in Welding Research Council (WRC) bulletins. These bulletins provide excellent documentation of major research contributions in the eld of pressure vessel technology. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) also conducts extensive research for the electric power industry, and this work includes some research on pressure vessels.

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DESIGN SPECIFICATION Design pressure = 700 psi Design temperature = 700F Material: Shell SA-516 Gr. 70 Head SA-181 Class 70 Nozzle SA-106 Gr. B Weld efficiency factor = 1.0 = E (full radiographic examination) Shell Thickness PR ts = SE 0.6P 700(30) = 16 600(1.0) 0.6(700) = 1.30 in. Use 11/2" = Ts

Th Hemispherical head

30" R

200"

Tn
8"

P R E S

= = = =

700 psi 30 in. 1.0 16 600 psi (SA-516 Gr. 70, Table 9.2)

60"

Ts

Hemispherical Head Thickness PR th = 2SE 0.2P 700(30) = 2(16 600)(1.0) 0.2(200) = 0.64 in. Use 1" = Th Nozzle Thickness PR tn = SE 0.6P 700(4) = 16 600(1.0) 0.6(700) = 0.17 in. Use 13/4 = Tn

P R E S

= = = =

700 psi 4 in. 1.0 16 600 psi (SA-106 Gr. B, Table 9.2)

Opening Reinforcement Calculation (see Fig. 9.1)

Areqd = (d )(ts ) = (8)(1.3) = 10.4 in.2 An = Smaller of: 2[21/2(Ts)(Tn tn)] or 2[21/2(Tn)(Tn tn)] Ts < Tn Use Ts 2[21/2(11/2)(13/4 0.17)] = 11.7 in.2
economical than increasing the shell thickness. An = 11.7 in.2 > A reqd = 10.4 in.2 OK

d ts Ts Tn tn

= 8 in. = 1.3 in. = 11/2 in. = 13/4 in. = 0.17 in.

This example places all the required reinforcement in the nozzle wall since it is more

FIGURE 9.2 Sample vessel calculations.

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10

1/ " 2

11/2"

8"
1/ " 4

4"

3/ " 4

13/4"
1/ "R 2

" 11/2

13"

30" R Nozzle-Shell Juncture

1"

301/2" Radius

3:1 Taper Head Tangent Line

11/2"

60" Diameter

Head-Shell Juncture

FIGURE 9.3 Fabrication details.

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