Zsigmondy Theorem Proof

Zsigmondys Theorem
Lola Thompson
Dartmouth College
August 11, 2009
Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)
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Introduction
Denition
o (a modp ) := the multiplicative order of a (mod p ).
Recall: The multiplicative order of a (mod p ) is the smallest integer k such that ak 1 (mod p ). Example o (2 mod 5) = 4 since 21 2 (mod 5), 22 4 (mod 5), 23 3 (mod 5) and 24 1 (mod 5).
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Introduction
Theorem (Zsigmondy)
For every pair of positive integers (a, n), except n = 1 and (2,6), there exists a prime p such that n = o (a mod p ).
Lets see why the exceptional cases might not work:
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Introduction
Theorem (Zsigmondy)
For every pair of positive integers (a, n), except n = 1 and (2,6), there exists a prime p such that n = o (a mod p ).
Lets see why the exceptional cases might not work: If n = 1, then 1 = o (a mod p ) a1 1 (mod p ). But this is only true when a = 1.
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Introduction
Theorem (Zsigmondy)
For every pair of positive integers (a, n), except n = 1 and (2,6), there exists a prime p such that n = o (amod p ). (2, 6) is an exception means that there are no primes p such that 6 = o (2 modp ), i.e. for any prime p such that 26 1(mod p ), it must be the case that 23 1 (mod p ) or 22 1 (mod p ) also.
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Introduction
Theorem (Zsigmondy)
For every pair of positive integers (a, n), except n = 1 and (2,6), there exists a prime p such that n = o (amod p ). (2, 6) is an exception means that there are no primes p such that 6 = o (2 modp ), i.e. for any prime p such that 26 1(mod p ), it must be the case that 23 1 (mod p ) or 22 1 (mod p ) also. The fact that (2, 6) is an exception can be proven through elementary means, but well get it for free in the process of proving Zsigmondys Theorem.
Zsigmondys Theorem
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Outline
Zsigmondys Theorem
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Cyclotomic Polynomials
Denition
We dene nth cyclotomic polynomial as follows: n (x ) = (x ).
primitive nth root of 1
n (x ) has degree (n) since there are (n) primitive nth roots of unity. (Recall: If is primitive then k is primitive if and only if (k , n) = 1) Some Other Properties: Monic
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Denition
n (x ) has degree (n) since there are (n) primitive nth roots of unity. (Recall: If is primitive then k is primitive if and only if (k , n) = 1) Some Other Properties: Monic Irreducible
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Denition
n (x ) has degree (n) since there are (n) primitive nth roots of unity. (Recall: If is primitive then k is primitive if and only if (k , n) = 1) Some Other Properties: Monic Irreducible In Z[x ] (In fact, n (x ) is the minimal polynomial for over Q)
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Theorem
xn 1 =
d |n
d (x ) (x ) =
nth root of 1 d |n
(True since x n 1 =
(x )).
primitive d th root of 1
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The Mobius Function

The Mobius function (n) is an arithmetic function satisfying (1) = 1 and (d ) = 0 for every n > 1.
d |n
Example:
d |2
(d ) = (1) + (2) = 0.
Since (1) = 1 then it must be the case that (2) = 1. Example:

d |4
(d ) = (1) + (2) + (4) = 0.
Since we know that (1) + (2) = 0 then (4) = 0. 0, n = m p r , r > 1 1k , n = p1 p2 pk
In general: (n) =
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Theorem (Mobius Inversion Formula)

If f (n) =
d |n
g (d ) then g (n) =
d |n
f (d ) (n/d ).
Since x n 1 =
d |n
d (x ) then n (x ) =
d |n
(x d 1)(n/d )
(take log of both sides, apply Mobius inversion, then undo the logs). Example: 2 (x ) = (x 1 1)(2/1) (x 2 1)(2/2) = (x 1)1 (x 2 1) = x + 1.
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Some Examples: 1 (x ) = x 1 2 (x ) = x + 1 3 (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 4 (x ) = x 2 + 1 5 (x ) = x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 6 (x ) = x 2 x + 1 7 (x ) = x 6 + x 5 + x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 8 (x ) = x 4 + 1 In general, p (x ) = x p1 + x p2 + + x + 1. For k 1, pk (x ) = p (x p nonzero terms as p (x ).
k 1
). So pk (x ) has the same number of
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Values of Cyclotomic Polynomials

Theorem
Suppose n > 1. Then: (1) n (0) = 1 (2) n (1) = p, n = pm , m > 0 1, otherwise
To prove (2): Evaluate n=

d |n d >1
x n 1 x 1
at x = 1 in 2 dierent ways to nd
d (1). We know that p (x ) = x p1 + + x + 1, so p (1) = p .

e
e1 Moreover, pk (1) = p . By unique factorization, n = p1 pgg . Since there are ei divisors of n that are powers of pi for each prime pi dividing n then, from our formula above, d (1) = 1 when d is composite.
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Values of Cyclotomic Polynomials

Theorem
Suppose n > 1. Then: (3) If a > 1 then (a 1)(n) < n (a) < (a + 1)(n) . (4) If a 3 and p | n is a prime factor, then n (a) > p.
Proof of (3) If a > 1 then geometry implies that a 1 <| a |< a + 1 for every point = 1 on the unit circle. The inequalities stated above follow from the fact that | n (a) |= | a |. Proof of (4) Since (n) p 1 then when a 3, we have n (a) > 2(n) 2p1 (by (3)). But 2p1 p since p 2.
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Key Lemma
Lemma
Suppose that n > 2 and a > 1 are integers and n (a) is prime. If n (a) | n then n = 6 and a = 2. Proof Let p = n (a), where p | n.
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Key Lemma
Lemma
Suppose that n > 2 and a > 1 are integers and n (a) is prime. If n (a) | n then n = 6 and a = 2. Proof Let p = n (a), where p | n. If a 3 then n (a) > p by (4), which is obviously false.
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Key Lemma
Lemma
Suppose that n > 2 and a > 1 are integers and n (a) is prime. If n (a) | n then n = 6 and a = 2. Proof Let p = n (a), where p | n. If a 3 then n (a) > p by (4), which is obviously false. Thus, a = 2 and n (2) = p .
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Key Lemma
Lemma
Suppose that n > 2 and a > 1 are integers and n (a) is prime. If n (a) | n then n = 6 and a = 2. Proof Let p = n (a), where p | n. If a 3 then n (a) > p by (4), which is obviously false. Thus, a = 2 and n (2) = p . Since n (2) = p then p | (2n 1) (since n (x ) always divides x n 1), i.e. 2n 1(mod p ).
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Key Lemma
Lemma
Suppose that n > 2 and a > 1 are integers and n (a) is prime. If n (a) | n then n = 6 and a = 2. Proof Let p = n (a), where p | n. If a 3 then n (a) > p by (4), which is obviously false. Thus, a = 2 and n (2) = p . Since n (2) = p then p | (2n 1) (since n (x ) always divides x n 1), i.e. 2n 1(mod p ). So, p must be odd.
Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College) Zsigmondys Theorem August 11, 2009 13 / 1
Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd.
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Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd. Factor n = p e m where p m.
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Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd. Factor n = p e m where p m. Its a well-known fact from abstract algebra that if n is as above and if is a root of n (x ) over Fp then m = o ().
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Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd. Factor n = p e m where p m. Its a well-known fact from abstract algebra that if n is as above and if is a root of n (x ) over Fp then m = o (). As a result, since we know that n (2) 0(mod p ), then m = o (2 mod p ).
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Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd. Factor n = p e m where p m. Its a well-known fact from abstract algebra that if n is as above and if is a root of n (x ) over Fp then m = o (). As a result, since we know that n (2) 0(mod p ), then m = o (2 mod p ). If e > 1 then p = n (2) = pe m (2) = m (2p ) = pm (2p
e e 1
).
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Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd. Factor n = p e m where p m. Its a well-known fact from abstract algebra that if n is as above and if is a root of n (x ) over Fp then m = o (). As a result, since we know that n (2) 0(mod p ), then m = o (2 mod p ). If e > 1 then p = n (2) = pe m (2) = m (2p ) = pm (2p This contradicts (4), since 2p
e 1 e e 1
).
2p > 4.
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Key Lemma
So far, we have: p = n (2), p | n, p odd. Factor n = p e m where p m. Its a well-known fact from abstract algebra that if n is as above and if is a root of n (x ) over Fp then m = o (). As a result, since we know that n (2) 0(mod p ), then m = o (2 mod p ). If e > 1 then p = n (2) = pe m (2) = m (2p ) = pm (2p This contradicts (4), since 2p Thus, n = pm.
e 1 e e 1
).
2p > 4.
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Key Lemma
At this point, we have deduced: p = n (2), p | n, p odd, n = pm where p m.
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Key Lemma
At this point, we have deduced: p = n (2), p | n, p odd, n = pm where p m. Were trying to show that n = 6.
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Key Lemma
At this point, we have deduced: p = n (2), p | n, p odd, n = pm where p m. Were trying to show that n = 6. Now, p = pm (2) =
m (2p ) m (2)
>
(2p 1)(m) (2+1)(m)
2p 1 3
(from (3)).
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Key Lemma
m (2p ) m (2)
>
(2p 1)(m) (2+1)(m)
2p 1 3
(from (3)).
But then 3p + 1 > 2p , which is impossible if p > 3.
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Key Lemma
m (2p ) m (2)
>
(2p 1)(m) (2+1)(m)
2p 1 3
(from (3)).
But then 3p + 1 > 2p , which is impossible if p > 3. Therefore, p = 3 and m = o (2 mod 3) = 2, so n = 2 3 = 6.
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Recap and Extensions
We have proven the following Key Lemma:
Lemma
Suppose that n > 2 and a > 1 are integers and n (a) is prime. If n (a) | n then n = 6 and a = 2. We can extend the Key Lemma to show that if n (a) is a divisor of n for some n > 2 and a > 1, then n = 6 and a = 2.
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Good Pairs, Bad Pairs
Denition
Let a, n Z+ , a > 1. The pair (a, n) is good if n = o (a mod p ) for some prime p .
Lemma (Good Pairs Condition)

(a, n) is good if and only if there is a prime p such that p | (an 1) but p (an/q 1) for every prime factor q | n. Example 32 1 uses the same primes as 31 1, so (3, 2) is bad.
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Good Pairs, Bad Pairs
Lemma
(a, 1) is bad when a = 2. (a, 2) is bad when a = 2m 1 for some m > 1. All other pairs (a, 2k ) are good. Example 22 1 = 3, 23 1 = 7, 26 1 = 63 = 32 7. Thus, (2, 6) is bad.
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Zsigmondys Theorem
Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). [In other words, there exists a prime p such that n = o (a mod p ) for every pair (a, n) except (2, 6)] Proof Outline Suppose (a, n) is bad and n > 2. We will translate this into a problem about cyclotomic polynomials and use the Key Lemma to derive a contradiction unless a = 2 and n = 6.
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Two More Lemmas

In order to prove Zsigmondys Theorem, we will need the following two lemmas:
Lemma (1)
If x n 1 = n (x ) n (x ) then n (x ) =
d |n d <n
d (x ) and (x d 1) | n (x )
in Z[x ] whenever d | n, d < n.
Lemma (2)
n Suppose that d | n and ad 1 (mod p). If d < n then p | d . In any case, p | n.
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Proving Zsigmondys Theorem

Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). Proof Pick an odd prime factor p | n (a).
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Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). Proof Pick an odd prime factor p | n (a). Suppose that (a, n) is bad, so that k = o (a mod p ) is a proper divisor of n.
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Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). Proof Pick an odd prime factor p | n (a). Suppose that (a, n) is bad, so that k = o (a mod p ) is a proper divisor of n. Let x n 1 = n (x ) n (x ).
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Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). Proof Pick an odd prime factor p | n (a). Suppose that (a, n) is bad, so that k = o (a mod p ) is a proper divisor of n. Let x n 1 = n (x ) n (x ). From Lemma (1), (ak 1) | n (a), so p | (an 1) also.
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Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). Proof Pick an odd prime factor p | n (a). Suppose that (a, n) is bad, so that k = o (a mod p ) is a proper divisor of n. Let x n 1 = n (x ) n (x ). From Lemma (1), (ak 1) | n (a), so p | (an 1) also. So p 2 is a factor of n (a) n (a) = an 1.
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Theorem (Zsigmondy)
If n 2, the only bad pair (a, n) is (2, 6). Proof Pick an odd prime factor p | n (a). Suppose that (a, n) is bad, so that k = o (a mod p ) is a proper divisor of n. Let x n 1 = n (x ) n (x ). From Lemma (1), (ak 1) | n (a), so p | (an 1) also. So p 2 is a factor of n (a) n (a) = an 1. By Fermats little Theorem, ap1 1(mod p ), so k | p 1, hence k < p.
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From Lemma (2), we know that if k | n and ak 1(mod p ), then if n and p | n. k < n, we must have p | k
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n It follows that p is the only prime factor of k , so we can write u n = k p for some u 1.
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n It follows that p is the only prime factor of k , so we can write u n = k p for some u 1.
We can also use Lemma (2) to show that p is the only prime factor of n (a). In other words, n (a) = p t for some t 1.
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Finishing Up
Weve already shown that p is odd and p | n and n (a) = p t .
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Finishing Up
Weve already shown that p is odd and p | n and n (a) = p t . If t > 2 then p 2 divides
a n 1 , an/p 1
since (an/p 1) | n (a).
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Finishing Up
a n 1 , an/p 1
We can use the exponent law to derive a contradiction to the n 1 statement that p 2 | aa n/p 1 . Thus, n (a) = p .
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Finishing Up
a n 1 , an/p 1
We can use the exponent law to derive a contradiction to the n 1 statement that p 2 | aa n/p 1 . Thus, n (a) = p . Now, if a 3 then n (a) > p , which we know is false.
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Finishing Up
a n 1 , an/p 1
We can use the exponent law to derive a contradiction to the n 1 statement that p 2 | aa n/p 1 . Thus, n (a) = p . Now, if a 3 then n (a) > p , which we know is false. Hence, we must have a = 2. By the Key Lemma, n = 6.
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Finishing Up
a n 1 , an/p 1
We can use the exponent law to derive a contradiction to the n 1 statement that p 2 | aa n/p 1 . Thus, n (a) = p . Now, if a 3 then n (a) > p , which we know is false. Hence, we must have a = 2. By the Key Lemma, n = 6. Therefore, (2, 6) is the only bad pair.
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Finishing Up
a n 1 , an/p 1
We can use the exponent law to derive a contradiction to the n 1 statement that p 2 | aa n/p 1 . Thus, n (a) = p . Now, if a 3 then n (a) > p , which we know is false. Hence, we must have a = 2. By the Key Lemma, n = 6. Therefore, (2, 6) is the only bad pair. Weve proven Zsigmondys Theorem!
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A Special Case of Zsigmondys Theorem
A special case of Zsigmondys Theorem states the problem in terms of Mersenne numbers: Consider the k th Mersenne number Mk = 2k 1. Then, each of M2 , M3 , M4 , ... has a prime factor that does not occur as a factor of an earlier member of the sequence EXCEPT for M6 .
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Acknowledgements
Thanks to Dr. Dan Shapiro, whose expository notes on the subject were invaluable in writing this talk. Bibliography: 1. Introduction to the Theory of Numbers by Harold N. Shapiro 2. Abstract Algebra by David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote
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Zsigmondy Theorem Proof

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lets see why the exceptional cases might not work:

Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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The Mobius Function

Since (1) = 1 then it must be the case that (2) = 1. Example:

(d ) = (1) + (2) + (4) = 0.

Since we know that (1) + (2) = 0 then (4) = 0. 0, n = m p r , r > 1 1k , n = p1 p2 pk

Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Theorem (Mobius Inversion Formula)

Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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). So pk (x ) has the same number of

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Values of Cyclotomic Polynomials

To prove (2): Evaluate n=

d (1). We know that p (x ) = x p1 + + x + 1, so p (1) = p .

Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Values of Cyclotomic Polynomials

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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Lola Thompson (Dartmouth College)

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