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NASA TECHNICAL TRANSLATION


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HELICOPTERS
CALCULATION AND DESIGN Volume I. Aerodynamics

by M . L, Mil et al.
Mashinostroyeniye Publishing Hoase
Moscow, 1966

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D. C.

SEPTEMBER 1967

NASA TT F-494

HELICOPTERS CALCULATION AND DESIGN Vol. I. A e r o d y n a m i c s By M. L. Mil', A. V. N e k r asov, A. S. B r a v e r m a n , L. N. Grodko, and M. A. Leykand

T r a n s l a t i o n of "Vertolety . R a s c h e t i pr oyektir ovaniye. 1. Aerodinamika." Izdatel'stvo M a s hi nos t r oyeniye, Moscow, 1966.

NATIONAL AERONAUT ICs AND SPACE ADMlN ISTRAT ION


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For sale

by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information Springfield, Virginia 22151 - CFSTI price $3.00

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ANNOTATION
I

The work ffHelicopters ( C a l c u l a t i o n and Design)" i s published i n three volumes. V01.1 Aerodynamics; Vol.11 Vibrations and Dynamic Strength; Vol.111 Design.

The first volume i s devoted t o ways of developing h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e i r design, and t h e p o s i t i o n occupied by h e l i c o p t e r s among o t h e r means of a v i a t i o n not requiring a i r f i e l d s . Various t h e o r i e s of r o t o r s and corresponding methods of determining t h e i r aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are presented: t h e c l a s s i c a l theory of a r o t o r w i t h hinged blades i n t h e g e n e r a l case of c u r v i l i n e a r f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; t h e momentum theory of an i d e a l r o t o r and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e energy method of c a l c u l a t i o n ; t h e c l a s s i c a l theory when using methods of numerical quadrature; t h e v o r t e x theory and methods of experimental determination of r o t o r performance i n f l i g h t t e s t s and i n wind tunnels. Various methods of aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of a h e l i c o p t e r and t h e theory of blade f l u t t e r a r e presented i n d e t a i l . T h i s volume gives an account of methods of c a l c u l a t i n g f l u t t e r i n hovering and i n forward f l i g h t . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s devoted t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n of f r i c t i o n i n t h e axial hinges of t h e hub and t o t h e t r a n s f e r of blade v i b r a t i o n s through t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism. Experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of f l u t t e r a r e described. The book i s intended f o r engineers of design o f f i c e s , s c i e n t i f i c workers, graduate students, and t e a c h e r s of higher i n s t i t u t e s of l e a r n i n g . It might be u s e f u l t o engineers of h e l i c o p t e r manufacturers and t o s t u d e n t s f o r f u r t h e r i n g t h e i r knowledge of t h e aerodynamics and mechanical s t r e n g t h of h e l i c o p t e r s . Maqy s e c t i o n s of t h e book w i l l be a u s e f u l t o o l a l s o t o f l i g h t and t e c h n i c a l s t a f f s of h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t units.

Numbers i n t h e margin i n d i c a t e pagination i n t h e o r i g i n a l f o r e i g n text.

ii

PREFACE

L2

The p r e s e n t book generalizes t h e experience of t h e s c i e n t i f i c work and p r a c t i c a l design a c t i v i t y of engineers of one of t h e Soviet teams working on t h e development of helicopters. Twenty years ago, when t h e team had j u s t set out on t h e i r work, everything i n this f i e l d seemed t o have been already long discovered and invented. Those t o whom belongs c r e d i t f o r t h e o r i g i n a l i d e a s and designs of rotarywing a i r c r a f t Leonard0 da Vinci, M.V.Lomonosov, N.Ye .Zhukovskiy (Joukowski), had long ago proposed almost a l l of t h e e x i s t i n g deB.N.Yurtyev, and o t h e r s s i g n s of helicopters. Designers, s c i e n t i s t s , and inventors i n various countries b u i l t dozens of h e l i c o p t e r models which successfully r o s e i n t o t h e air. However, not one of t h e s e r o t o c r a f t was suitable f o r p r a c t i c a l use, large-scale product i o n , o r r e g u l a r service.

A very d i f f i c u l t problem t h a t required considerable and tedious work remained unsolved, namely, t h e problem of developing h e l i c o p t e r s which would find p r a c t i c a l use i n everyday l i f e . To solve this problem we had a t our d i s p o s a l a n important s c i e n t i f i c basis i n t h e form of c l a s s i c a l works, t h e s t u d i e s of t h e Central Aero-Qdrodynamic I n s t i t u t e (TsAGI), and of f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s . However, t e s t i n g of each new airc r a f t confronted design engineers w i t h new acute problems and forced them t o work out many t h e o r e t i c a l problems t o f i n d t h e proper method of solving s p e c i f i c design problems.

This volume discusses t h e b a s i c problems of t h e theory, calculation, and design of h e l i c o p t e r s worked out by t h e team and representing t h e v i t a l i n t e r e s t s of i t s design a c t i v i t y .
The f a c t t h a t some of t h e authors had occasion t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n applying t h e c l a s s i c a l r o t o r theory t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n and design of t h e f i r s t autogiros, i n t h e o r i g i n a l experimental work on models and on f u l l - s c a l e r o t o r s i n wind tunnels, i n developing methods of aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of helicopters, and f o r more t h a n P j years i n designing a n e n t i r e family of h e l i c o p t e r s of then t h e same configuration i n a l l weight classes, o f f e r s an opportunity t o e l u c i d a t e t h e b a s i c problems of t h e theory and c a l c u l a t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r s t h a t have b e e n h checked out by p r a c t i c e .

A s e a r l y as 1948 t h e r e was not a s i n g l e h e l i c o p t e r i n s e r v i c e i n our country. Now thousands of such machines created by various design teams assist people i n many areas of t h e i r l i f e and a c t i v i t y .
Engineers and designers working on t h e design o r construction of helicopters, p i l o t s and technicians, students of a i r academies who are studying o r are i n t e r e s t e d i n h e l i c o p t e r s will find u s e f u l information i n this book.
iii

Engineering, e s p e c i a l l y a i r c r a f t engineering, i s r a p i d l y becoming obsolete. However, it i s hoped t h a t t h e general methods of approach t o t h e development of a new type of a i r c r a f t , as presented i n this book, W i l l o u t l i v e todayts helicopter models.

M. M i l t
1L

Chapter I of Vol.1, Sections 1 and 2 of Chapter 1 1 , and Section 2 of Chapt e r I11 w e r e w r i t t e n by M.L.Milt; Chapter IV and Section 5 of Chapter I1 were w r i t t e n by A.V.Nekrasov; t h e remaining Sections of Chapters I1 and I 1 1 and a l s o Subsections 19-28 of Section 2 of Chapter I1 w e r e w r i t t e n by A.S.Braverman.

I n preparing t h e manuscript, t h e authors were a s s i s t e d by engineers F.L. Zarzhevskaya, R. L.Kreyer, and L.G.Rudnitskiy.
R e v i e w e r R.A.Mikheyev made many valuable coments.
The authors express t h e i r s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o t h e s e coworkers.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

.......................................................... Notations ........................................................ I HISTORY HELICOPTERS BASIC ..................................... DESIGN PRINCIPLES Section . Evolution of t h e Helicopter Industry ............... . Development of Helicopters i n Size . Q u a l i t a t i v e Development of Helicopters.............. .......... 3 . Special-Purpose Helicopters ..................... 4 . Compound Helicopters with Additional Rotocraft ............................. Engines Section . The Helicopter Compared t o V e r t i c a l Takeoff
Preface
CHAPTER
EVOLUTION
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........... C H A P T E R I1 ROTOR AERODYNAMICS ................................... Section 1 . Experimental Development of Rotor Theory and Methods of i t s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ... Determination 1 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Rotor Theories ................ 2 . Development of Experimental Methods ............. Section 2 . C l a s s i c a l Theory of a Rotor with Hinged Blade
of

. . . . . Section 3 . . .

and Landing and Short Takeoff and Landing Aircraft 1 T a c t i c a l and Technical Requirements f o r VTOL and STOL M i l i t a r y Transport A i r c r a f t of t h e West 2 Means f o r Increasing t h e Flying Range of Helicopters 3 Helicopter with Takeoff Run 4 Takeoff Distance of Helicopter 5 C r i t e r i o n f o r Estimating t h e Economy of Various Transport A i r c r a f t 6 P o s s i b i l i t i e s of Increase i n M&mm Flying Speed Basic P r i n c i p l e s o f Design 1 Selection of Engine Horsepower and Rotor Span 2 Analysis of Multirotor Configurations

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Attachment; General Case; Curvilinear Motion Rotor Theory i n Curvilinear Motion 1 Coordinate System and Physical Scheme of t h e Phenomenon 2 I n e r t i a Forces Acting on t h e Blade 3 Aerodynamic Forces Acting on t h e Blade 4 Equation of Moments R e l a t i v e t o Flapping Hinge 5 Physical Meaning of t h e Obtained Result 6 Equation of Torque

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7. Rotor Thrust and Angle of Attack 8. Lateral Force 9. Longitudinal Force 10. Consideration of t h e Change i n t h e Law of Induced Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n during Curvilinear Motion Analysis of Obtained R e s u l t s 1 1 . Blade Flapping 12. E f f e c t of Curvilinear Motion at Autorotation of t h e Rotor 13. Behavior of t h e Resultant of Aerodynamic Forces i n Curvilinear Helicopter Motion Effect of Rotor Parameters and Hub Design on Flapping and Damping of t h e Rotor 1 4 . Rotor with a P r o f i l e Having a Variable Center o f Pressure 15. E f f e c t of Blade Centering 16. Rotor with Flapping Compensator Rotor Flapping i n C u r v i l i n e v Motion of t h e Rotor Axis a t Variable Angular Velocity 17. Uniformly Accelerated Rotation of t h e Rotor Axis 18. Harmonic O s c i l l a t i o n of t h e Rotor Axis C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor Aerodynamics Determined by Hinged Blade Attachment 19. Physical Meaning of Blade Flapping X ) . R e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Aerodynamic Forces over t h e Rotor Disk due t o Flapping 2 1 . Approximate Derivation of Formulas f o r Flapping Coefficients 22. E f f e c t of Nonuniformity of t h e Induced Velocity Field on t h e Flapping Motion Method of Calculating t h e Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Rotor f o r Azimuthal Variation of Blade P i t c h 23. Equivalent Rotor Theory 2 4 . Derivation of Formulas f o r a Rotor with Flapping Hinges as f o r a Rotor without Hinges. Conditions of Equivalence of Hinged and Rigid Rotors 25. General Expressions f o r Determining t h e Components of Blade P i t c h Change w,(pl, and 26. Determination of Flapping Coefficients of Rotor with Flapping Compensator 27. Determination of t h e Components of Blade P i t c h Change (pl and a f t e r Deflection of t h e Automatic P i t c h Control 2 . Sequence of Aerodynamic Calculation of a Rotor with Variable P i t c h ....................o..o.~o Section 3. Momentum Theory of Rotor 1 . Theory of an I d e a l Helicopter Rotor

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Page 2. Derivation of t h e Expression f o r t h e Torque Coefficient of a Real Rotor 3. Rotor P r o f i l e Losses ......................o..oo. 4 . Certain Considerations i n Selecting Blade Shape and P r o f i l e 5. Approximate Determination of Rotor P r o f i l e Losses 6. E f f e c t of A i r Compressibility of Rotor P r o f i l e Losses 7. Induced Losses of a R e a l Rotor 8 . Determination of Angle of Attack and P i t c h of Rotor .......................o~..o...o~. Section 4 . C l a s s i c a l Rotor Theory. Method of Numerical Integration 1. Formulas f o r Calculating Forces and Moments of a Rotor 2. Method of Calculation 3. Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of P r o f i l e s f o r Rotor Blades 4. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Aerodynamic Forces over t h e Rotor Disk 5. Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor 6. Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor i n Autorotation Regime 7. L i m i t of Permissible Helicopter F l i g h t Regimes (Flow Separation L i m i t ) 8 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of P r o f i l e Losses over Rotor Disk. Dependence of P r o f i l e Losses on Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade P r o f i l e s Section 5. V o r t e x Theory of Rotor 1 . Problems i n Vortex Theory 2. Theoretical Schemes f o r t h e Vortex "heory of a Rotor with a F i n i t e Number of Blades 3. Form of Free Vortices 4 . Determination of t h e Induced V e l o c i t i e s by t h e Biot-Savart Formula 5. Use of t h e Biot-Savart Formula i n Developing t h e Vortex Theory of a Rotor 6. Axial Component of Induced Velocity from Bound Vortices 7. Axial Component of Induced Velocity from S p i r a l (Longitudinal) Vortices 8 . Axial Component of Induced Velocity from Radial (Transverse) Vortices 9. I n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of t h e Vortex Rotor Theory 10. Constancy of Circulation of T r a i l i n g Vortices along S t r a i g h t Lines P a r a l l e l t o t h e h i s of t h e I n c l i n e d Vortex Cylinder and Possible Simplifications

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1 1 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Using t h e Lifting-Line Scheme and Scheme of a Vortex L i f t i n g Surface 12. Division of Vortices i n t o Types Close t o and Remote from t h e Blade; Use of "SteadyFlow Hypothesis" 13. Instantaneous and Mean Induced V e l o c i t i e s and Generation of Variable Aerodynamic Loads on t h e Blade 14. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e E x t r i n s i c Induced Velocity F i e l d 15. Vortex Theory of a Rotor with an I n f i n i t e Number of Blades Vortex Theory of Wang Shi-Tsun 16. Rotor Scheme 17. Determination of Induced V e l o c i t i e s 1 8 . Calculation Formulas f o r Induced Velocity Determination 19. Application and Evaluation of t h e P o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h e Wang Shi-Tsun Vortex Theory Vortex Theory of V.E.Baskin 20. Scheme of Rotor Flow 21. Determination of Induced V e l o c i t i e s from t h e Dipole Col.umn 22. Fluid Flow Induced by a Disk Covered with Dipoles 23. Boundary Conditions 2 4 . Transformation of Eq.(5.67) t o t h e Rotor Axes; Use of t h e Theorem of Addition of Cylindrical Functions 25. Determination of t h e Total Velocity P o t e n t i a l from t h e E n t i r e Dipole Column 26. Determination of Induced V e l o c i t i e s Section 6. Experimental Determination of Aerodynamik C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Rotor 1 . F l i g h t Tests f o r Determining t h e Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Helicopter 2. Wind-Tunnel Tests for Determining t h e Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Rotor Methods of Converting t h e Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a Rotor 3. Conversion of Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a Different Rotor S o l i d i t y Ratio 4. Conversion of Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Variation i n Minimum P r o f i l e Drag Coefficient of t h e Blade Sections exPo 5. Conversion of Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Variation i n t h e Peripheral Speed of t h e Rotor (Mo Numbers) 6. Conversion of Angle of Attack and Rotor P i t c h
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Page on Variation i n I n c l i n a t i o n of t h e Automatic P i t c h Control, Flapping Compensator, and Mass C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e Blade 7. Examples of Using t h e Conversion Formulas Section 7. Performance and Propulsive Efficiency Coeffic i e n t of a Rotor 1 . Performance and Efficiency of Rotor Proposed by K.Khokhenemzer 2. Determination of Performance and Propulsive Efficiency of a Rotor 3. Performance and Efficiency of a Rotor, Obtained from Fxperimental Data 4. Performance and Efficiency of a Rotor, Obtained from Calculated Graphs 5. Conversion of Performance and Efficiency on Variations i n Rotor Parameters 6. General Comments on Rotor Efficiency and Performance Section 8. Calculation of Rotor C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n Hovering and V e r t i c a l Ascent (Momentum Theory of Propellers) , , 1. Brief Review of t h e Momentum Theory of Propellers 2. Results of Calculating t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Rotor 3. Approximate Method of Determining t h e Dependence of m t on t 4. Conversion of Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Variation i n t h e Rotor S o l i d i t y Ratio 5. Determination of Optimal Aerodynamic Parameters of a Rotor with Consideration of t h e Dependence of C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Mo

.................. ..................................... ....................... ...... .... . ...................................... ...................................... ........................... ........... ........................ C H A P T E R I11 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF A HELICOPTER .................. Section 1. Basic Equations f o r Aerodynamic Design of a Helicopter ....................................... .... 1. Aerodynamic Design P r i n c i p l e of a Helicopter 2. Equation of Motion o f a Helicopter .............. 3. Various Methods of Determining Aerodynamic Rotor C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Methods of .............................. Aerodynamic Design 4. Calculation of Composite and Multirotor Craft ........................................... 5. Induction Coefficients of Two-Rotor Helicopters
and Helicopters with a Wing ' Section 2. Aerodynamic Helicopter Design by t h e Mil?-Yaroshenko Method 1. Equations of Motion and Design P r i n c i p l e s 2. Determination of Aerodynatnic Rotor C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

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267 268 270 271 273 277 279 282

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...................... ........... Section 3. General Method of Aerodynamic Design f o r ............................... Rotary Wing A i r c r a f t 1. Construction of Auxiliary Graphs f o r Helicopter Performance Data ................................ .... 2. Determination of Helicopter Performance Data 3. Graphs f o r Determining Optimum Helicopter .......................... Aerodynamic Parameters Section 4. Aerodynamic Design of Helicopter Based on ....... Concepts of Rotor Performance and E f f i c i e n c y Helicopter Performance .......................... 2. Performance of Multirotor and Composite Helicopters ..................................... ......... 3. Determination of Helicopter F l i g h t Data 4. Calculation of a Helicopter with a Tractor Propeller ....................................... 5. Comparison of Helicopter and Airplane ........... 6 . Power of Front and T a i l Rotors i n a Helicopter For e-and-Aft Configuration ................... 7 . Retraction Landing G e a r on Helicopters ....... Section 5 . Aerodynamic Calculation of a Helicopter by t h e Power Method ................................... 1 . Determination of Required Power i n Horizontal Helicopter F l i g h t ............................. .. 2. Determination of Helicopter Performance Data ....
3. Calculation of F l i g h t Data 4. Limits of A p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e Method
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323 324 331 342 346 34.7 348 357 363 364 366 368 369 370 375 376 379 380 380 381 381 382 383 384 386

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3. R e l a t i o n between N P r , N i n d , and Npar during

Horizontal F l i g h t of a Single-Rotor Helicopter

CHAPTER I V ROTOR FLUTTER

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Section 1. Basic Assumptions and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an Approach t o F l u t t e r Calculation 1. Bending and Torsional Vibrations o f t h e Blade. Possible Cases of S t a b i l i t y L o s s 2. E f f e c t of Blade Attachment t o Hub and t h e P o s s i b i l i t y of Theoretical I n v e s t i g a t i o n of F l u t t e r of an I s o l a t e d Blade 3. Different Types of F l u t t e r D i f f e r i n g with Respect t o Blade Vibration. Flapping and Bending F l u t t e r 4. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Torsional Vibration Modes of a Blade and Possible Correlated Assumptions 5. Assumptions on Blade O s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e Plane of Rotation 6 . Determination of Aerodynamic Forces Acting on a Vibrating P r o f i l e Section 2. Flapping F l u t t e r of an I s o l a t e d B l a d e with Axial Flow past t h e Rotor

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1 Blade Model 2 Derivation of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of F l u t t e r 3 P a r t i c u l a r Solution of t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation 4 D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation o f Disturbed Motion 5 Notation of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations i n Matrix Form 6 Solution of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of B l a d e Vibrations 7 Determination o f t h e C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm 8 Blade Divergence 9 Parameters Characterizing Blade Balance ( E f f e c t i v e Blade Balance) 10 Dependence of C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm on Blade Balancing and Values of t h e Flapping Compensator Coefficient 1 1 Blade Arrangement 1 2 E f f e c t of Control R i g i d i t y 13 Conditions f o r Absence of F l u t t e r 14 Mechanism of Generation of Forces Exciting Flutter Section 3 Consideration of F r i c t i o n Forces during F l u t t e r 1 Character of t h e E f f e c t of F r i c t i o n Forces during F l u t t e r 2 L i n e a r i z a t i o n of F r i c t i o n Forces 3 Determination of F l u t t e r Speed with Consideration of F r i c t i o n 4 Effect of Forced Motion i n t h e Feathering Hinge Section 4 Rotor F l u t t e r with Consideration of Coupling of Blade Vibrations through t h e Automatic Pitch Control 1 Forms of Rotor F l u t t e r Observed i n Helicopter Experiments 2 Analytical Expression f o r Cyclic Modes of Rotor Vibration 3 Cyclic Vibration Modes i n Specific Cases and Control Loads 4 D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Rotor F l u t t e r with Consideration o f Coupling of Blade Vibrations through t h e Automatic P i t c h Control 5 Transformation of Eqs.(k.l8) i n P a r t i c u l a r Cases where Cyclic Modes a r e t h e Solution of t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Rotor F l u t t e r 6 Rotor F l u t t e r i n t h e Presence of Different R i g i d i t y of Longitudinal and L a t e r a l Controls Section 5 Flapping F l u t t e r of a Rotor i n Forward F l i g h t 1 Preliminary Statements 2 D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of B l a d e O s c i l l a t i o n s i n Forward F l i g h t

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.

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................................. ............... ...................... .......................................... ..................................... ......................... ................................ .............................. ............ .... ... ..... ......................... ..............................

..................... .............. ........................................ ....

................................... .................................... ...................................... ..... ................................... .............................. ..... .............................. ..................... ........................... ..............................

386 387 391 391 392 392 395 396 396 398 399 400 400
401 406

406 407 408 409 414 414

w4
4.16
418

422

424 424 424 xi

Page

3. Solution of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations 4. Determination of C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm

............

426 427

without Consideration of Harmonic Components of Blade Motion 5 . E f f e c t o f Flying Speed on C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm Section 6 . Calculation of F l u t t e r with Consideration of Bending and Torsion of t h e Blade 1 . Bending and Torsion of Blade during F l u t t e r 2. Determination of t h e Torque from Bending Forces on t h e Blade 3. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Binary Vibration 4. Solution of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations 5 . Calculation of F l u t t e r with Consideration of Three Degrees of Freedom 6 . Calculation of F l u t t e r with Three Degrees of Freedom Disregarding Blade Torsion 7. Calculation Results $. Bending F l u t t e r 9. Approximate Method of Determining t h e Mode of Bending Vibrations i n F l u t t e r Section 7 . General Method of Calculation of F l u t t e r and Bending S t r e s s e s i n t h e Rotor Blade during Flight 1. Calculation Method and i t s P o s s i b i l i t i e s 2. Basic Assumptions and Suggestions 3. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations 4. Boundary Conditions of t h e Problem 5 . Determination of Equivalent R i g i d i t y of t h e Control System 6 . Determination of Aerodynamic Forces 7 . Method o f Solving t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations 8. Transformation of P a r t i a l D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations i n t o Ordinary D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations 9. Determination of t h e Magnitude of t h e Moment of F r i c t i o n i n t h e Feathering Hinge of t h e Hub 10. Sequence of Performing t h e Calculation Section 8 . Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of F l u t t e r 1. Ground Tests f o r F l u t t e r 2. F l u t t e r Tests i n F l i g h t 3. Comparison of Calculation and Experiment under Conditions of Axial Flow p a s t t h e Rotor 4. Comparison of Calculation and Experiment i n Flight 5 . Check f o r F l u t t e r 6 . Experimental Determination of Control System Rigidity 7 . Experiments on Dynamically Similar Models References

............................... ................................... ................. ...

429 429 430 43 2 434 436


441 446 447

........................... .... ............ ................... ......... ........................... ............................... .............. ........................................... ...... ............. ........................ ............ ................................ ........... ... ..................................... .. .... . ... ........... ...................... ....................... .. ........................................ ............................. ...................................... ..... ......................................................

450 45 2 45 2 454 454 45 5 456 457 460


452

466 46 7 470 470 475 478

rc51 483 m7

xii

NOTATIONS

Lz

Ae-rsyngnic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
cy = angle of a, = angle of cyo = angle of Acy = downwash

a t t a c k of r o t o r ; a t t a c k of blade section; zero l i f t of blade p r o f i l e ; angle of flow;

a, =

da

dcv

= c;

tangent of angle of slope of t h e l i f t curve w i t h respect t o angle of a t t a c k of t h e p r o f i l e ; i n blade section;

CP

tan

ux = inflow angle
UY

= c i r c u l a t i o n i n blade section; M = Mach number of blade section; M, = average Mach number w i t h respect t o azimuth,

i n t i p s e c t i o n of blade (MO

2%);

T, t

M,, = f l i g h t Mach number (Mfl = ; C 2 = t h r u s t and c o e f f i c i e n t of t h r u s t of r o t o r


0

4)

(t
H, h
=
0

Q POTP (wR)~i s
=

)*

C 2 = l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e and c o e f f i c i e n t of longi-

t u d i n a l f o r c e of r o t o r (h
S, s =

~~ITR~(UIR)~

c, = 0

l a t e r a l f o r c e and c o e f f i c i e n t of l a t e r a l f o r c e
of r o t o r (s = -

2 ponR2(wR) );

M,,

m m, = 2 = torque and torque c o e f f i c i e n t of r o t o r 0 Mt

N = power of motor (of r o t o r i n Chapt.11);

Y, t, = 2 = l i f t and l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of r o t o r
0

(tY

5 ~ T T R ~ ( W Rh )
xiii

X, t, =

CX = propulsive f o r c e and c o e f f i c i e n t of pro(5

/6

p u l s i v e f o r c e of r o t o r \ t , =
\

$ ~O-TTR~(WR)~

-) ;

c y , c X p = c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i f t and p r o f i l e drag of blade s e c t i o n ( a i r f o i l ) r e f e r r e d t o dynamic pv2; pressure B = c o e f f i c i e n t of t i p l o s s e s ; Velocities

w R = angular v e l o c i t y ;
V,

(7 = )V
\

WR /

= p a t h v e l o c i t y of h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t ; = horizontal, v e r t i c a l , and l a t e r a l components

V,,

V , , V,
OR

of f l i g h t v e l o c i t y ; v,

( 7= 2 ) = induced v e l o c i t y ;
I-

U,

U =

u\ = r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of flow p a s t a blade wR element;


u \
wR

U , , U , ,

- = -, ux (u. U, wR

= A )= h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l components of r e l a -

t i v e v e l o c i t y of flow p a s t a blade element;

h = c o e f f i c i e n t of f l a w ; p, = c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( c o e f f i c i e n t ) of r o t o r perf ormance

Geometric C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

D = diameter of r o t o r ; R = r a d i u s of r o t o r ; F = d i s k area; r = r a d i u s of r o t o r blade s e c t i o n F =


I -

b = blade chord , b =

R ==);
9

2 ) R/

z b = number of blades; z , = number of r o t o r s ;


o =
th.h,
zbb0*7

TTR

= load f a c t o r of r o t o r ;

t V e h = d i s t a n c e from a x i s of r o t a t i o n of r o t o r t o

t h e h o r i z o n t a l ( f l a p p i n g ) and v e r t i c a l (drag) hinges, r e s p e c t i v e l y ; c = thickness of p r o f i l e section, c = 2; .~ b $ = f l a p p i n g angle of blade;

a,, b, = c o e f f i c i e n t s of flapping; cp, cpo = blade angle ( p i t c h ) ; angle between chord of blade
N.,

11

p r o f i l e and plane of r o t a t i o n ;
= angles of d e f l e c t i o n of automatic p i t c h controlmechan i s m ; N. with index = mutual influence c o e f f i c i e n t of

l i f t i n g elements;
I1,
lo = blade angle at F = 0.7 f o r @ = N. = 7 = 0; l a = components of change of blade angle r e l a t i v e t o t h e

plane of r o t a t i o n , due t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism; v = change of blade angle due t o e l a s t i c deformation of blade.

HELICOPTERS; CALCULATION

AND DESIGN.
Editor

V0L.I:

AEEODYNAMICS

L2

M. L.Milt,

ABSTRACT. A r e v i e w of t h e h i s t o r i c a l development of Russian and Western helicopters, i n s i z e and l i f t capacity, f o r c i v i l and m i l i t a r y purposes i s followed by d e t a i l e d discussions on r o t o r aerodynamics f o r various angles of a t t a c k , blade s e t t i n g , flapping angle, center-of-pressure p o s i t i o n , blade v i b r a t i o n ( n a t u r a l , forced, harmonic, e t c .), and o t h e r r o t o r parameters i n t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on r o t o r rpm and c r a f t s t a b i l i t y . Formulas are given f o r t h e f o r c e s and moments of r o t o r damping i n hoveri n g and forward f l i g h t ; f o r t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s over t h e r o t o r d i s k due t o flapping; f o r c y c l i c p i t c h change of r o t o r s with v a r i a b l e and constant p i t c h . The theory of a n i d e a l h e l i c o p t e r i s developed on t h e basis of optimum blade p r o f i l e , prevention of r o t o r p r o f i l e l o s s e s , and proper balancing. F l u t t e r i n hovering and forward f l i g h t i s calcul a t e d , with emphasis on f r i c t i o n i n t h e a x i a l hub hinges and t r a n s f e r of x i b r a t i o n s through t h e automatic p i t c h control. CHAPTER I
EVOLUTIONAL HISTORY O F HELICOPTERS AND BASIC DESIGN PFUNCIPUS ( S e l e c t i o n of Parameters and Configuration)

. Evolution of t h e H e l i c m t e r Industry Section 1

Designing i s always d i r e c t e d toward t h e f u t u r e . However, f o r a b e t t e r p i c t u r e of t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of t h e f u t u r e development of helicopters it i s u s e f u l t o attempt t o understand t h e b a s i c t r e n d s of t h e i r evolution from p a s t experience. Naturally, we are not i n t e r e s t e d here i n t h e p r e h i s t o r y of helicopter construction, which we w i l l only b r i e f l y mention, b u t i n i t s h i s t o r y from t h e t i m e when t h e h e l i c o p t e r as a new type of a i r c r a f t became useful f o r p r a c t i c a l application. The w r i t i n g s of Leonard0 da Vinci going back t o l.483 contained t h e f i r s t mention of an apparatus w i t h a v e r t i c a l rotor, a h e l i c o p t e r . The f i r s t s t a g e of evolution ranges from t h e model of a h e l i c o p t e r developed by M.V.Lomonosov i n 17% through a long series of designs, models, and even f u l l - s c a l e apparatus which w e r e not destined t o rise i n t o t h e air, t o t h e construction of t h e worldts first h e l i c o p t e r which, i n 1907, was able t o become airborne. T h i s four-rotor h e l i c o p t e r w a s constructed by t h e French designers Breguet and Riche. I n 1923, a passenger became airborne f o r t h e f i r s t time i n t h e U S A i n a h e l i c o p t e r designed by de Bothezat. The f i r s t world a l t i t u d e record of a h e l i c o p t e r of 18 m w a s s e t i n 1930 on t h e I t a l i a n c o a x i a l h e l i c o p t e r by dtdscanio.

In Russia, a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r was b u i l t i n 1911, on t h e basis of t h e s c i e n t i f i c research by N.Ye.Zhukovskiy devoted t o h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r s , by a The configurations of this machine group of his s t u d e n t s headed by B.N.Yur'yev. represent t h e b a s i c scheme of t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s used widely at p r e s e n t . B.N.Yurtyev was able t o resume this work only i n 192.5. I n 1932, a group of engineers headed by A.M.Cheremukhin constructed t h e h e l i c o p t e r TsAGI 1-EA (Fig.l.1) which reached an a l t i t u d e of 600 m and stayed i n t h e air f o r le min, which f o r t h a t time was a n outstanding achievement. It s u f f i c e s t o s a y t h a t t h e o f f i c i a l a l t i t u d e record e s t a b l i s h e d three years l a t e r on Breguetts new c o a x i a l h e l i c o p t e r was only 180 m.

A t this time t h e r e was a pause i n t h e development of h e l i c o p t e r s . A new branch of rotary-wing a i r c r a f t came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t , known as autogiros. The i d e a of t h e autogiro, as an a i r c r a f t with a r o t a r y wing ( f r e e l y r o t a t i n g airf o i l ) never l o s i n g speed, occurred t o t h e young Spanish engineer Juan de l a Cierva i n t h e 1920s. A t t h a t time, conventional a i r c r a f t whose development had been vigorous during t h e years of World W a r I and which, by then, c a r r i e d /8 armament and t h u s had g r e a t e r wing loading w e r e troubled by a new problem of spin, i.e., s t a l l i n g . It appeared simpler t o develop a safe and s u f f i c i e n t l y p e r f e c t e d autogiro t h a n t o b u i l d a helicopter. The r o t o r , freely r o t a t i n g due t o t h e r e l a t i v e flow, eliminated t h e need f o r complex reduction gearing and transmissions. The hinged attachment of t h e r o t o r blades t o t h e hub used on a u t o g i r o s gave far g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h t o t h e blades and higher s t a b i l i t y t o t h e autogiro. Final&, engine f a i l u r e ceased t o be a threat, as had been t h e case i n t h e first h e l i c o p t e r s ; t h e autogiro, w i t h a u t o r o t a t i n g blades, had no d i f f i c u l t y i n landing a t low speed.

.-_

-.

..

.....

..

. . - .. .

Fig.l.l

Helicopter TsAGI 1-EX.

Cierva, working i n England, created s e v e r a l autogiro designs, t h e best known of which was t h e C-30 autogiro which was produced as a p i l o t series. Autogiros w e r e a l s o b u i l t i n t h e USA by t h e P i t c a i r n and Kellett Companies and i n t h e Soviet Union at TsAGI by t h e designers I.P.Bratukhin, V.A.Kuznetsov, N.I.Kamov, ,N.K.Skrzhinskiy, M . L . M i l , , and others.
The A-7 The f l y i n g speed of Soviet autogiros i n 1937 reached 260 km/hr. autogiros designed by N.I.Kamov were used a t t h e f r o n t during t h e first year of World W a r 1 1 .

The g r e a t l i f t capacity of t h e r o t a t i n g r o t o r gave t h e autogiro a s h o r t ground run. Even though, a mechanical d r i v e from t h e engine, f o r spinning t h e r o t o r before takeoff, was used i n this design t o f u r t h e r shorten t h e takeoff run. I n t h e design of t h e B r i t i s h C-4.0 autogiro t h e r o t o r was given a spin-up before f l i g h t t o a n rpm such t h a t , a t t h e i n s t a n t of disengagement from t h e t h e machine, due t o engine - which, i n forward f l i g h t , r o t a t e d t h e p r o p e l l e r t h e marked increase i n p i t c h , took o f f without a run, r i s i n g v e r t i c a l l y i n t o t h e air.

Only one s t e p remained f o r t h e development of a t r u e helicopter. And this step, as i s always t h e case i n technology, was made almost simultaneously i n various countries. T h i s was t h e beginning of t h e present development s t a g e of h e l i c o p t e r s . It was started by f l i g h t s ' o f t h e FW-61 h e l i c o p t e r designed by Professor Focke i n G e r m a n y (1937), t h e VS-300 h e l i c o p t e r designed by Sikorsky i n the U S A (1939), and t h e Wmegalf h e l i c o p t e r designed by 1.P.Bratukhin i n t h e USSR (1940). All t h r e e of t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r s used a hinged r o t o r capable of autorotation, which had a l r e a d y become standard f o r autogiros.

World War I1 somewhat delayed t h e development of h e l i c o p t e r s . They w e r e s t i l l unsuitable f o r p r a c t i c a l use, and t h e ways and means f o r experimental s t u d i e s w e r e limited. After t h e end of t h e w a r (1946 and 1947), l a r g e numbers
of designers and inventors invaded this new and promising area of development of a v i a t i o n engineering. Within a s h o r t time, l i t e r a l l y dozens of new h e l i c o p t e r Lp designs were created. T h i s was a contest of t h e most d i v e r s e schemes and conf i g u r a t i o n s , generally of t h e single- o r two-seater type and used mainly f o r experimental purposes. M i l i t a r y agencies w e r e t h e only users of this expensive and complex equipment. The f i r s t h e l i c o p t e r s i n various countries were used as l i a i s o n and reconnaissance m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t . I n t h e development of helicopters, j u s t as i n many o t h e r areas of technology, one can c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h two t r e n d s of development: t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e t r e n d concerned with s i z e of t h e machine and t h e almost simultaneous q u a l i t a t i v e t r e n d concerned with improvement of t h e c r a f t w i t h i n a c e r t a i n s i z e o r weight class. The former t r e n d r e p r e s e n t s development w i t h respect t o l i f t capacity and t h e second with respect t o improvement of t h e t a c t i c a l o r economic f e a t u r e s of helicopters.

1 . Development of He-licapters i n Size


A study of f o r e i g n h e l i c o p t e r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e use of helicopters f o r landing Marines from s h i p s was t h e determining f a c t o r i n t h e f u r t h e r development of m i l i t a r y h e l i c o p t e r s as troop c a r r i e r s . The American landing of troops i n S-55 h e l i c o p t e r s a t Inchon during' t h e Korean War (1951) was a t y p i c a l example of this trend.

The s i z e range of t h e assault h e l i c o p t e r s was predicatedon bulk and weight of ground t r a n s p o r t a t i o n means used by t h e troops and t o be dropped by air. It i s a known f a c t t h a t conventional weapons mainly a r t i l l e r y - transported by prime movers are c l o s e i n weight t o t h e weight of t h e prime movers themselves. Thus, t h e l i f t capacity of t h e f i r s t t r a n s p o r t h e l i c o p t e r s i n armies of o t h e r 1600 kg ( t h e weight of a l i g h t military t r u c k used as c o u n t r i e s was 1200

prime mover together with t h e respective weapons). Subsequently, t h e required l i f t capacity of h e l i c o p t e r s was increased t o 6 8 t o n s which, i n accordance with military technique, was based on automobile c a r r i e r s with a l i f t capacity of 3 - 4 tons. S t i l l later, f o r example i n p r o j e c t s developed by Sikorskg Airc r a f t , t h e l i f t capacity of h e l i c o p t e r s r o s e t o 20 25 t o n s and f i n a l l y t o 36 - 40 tons. Such weights correspond t o t h e weight of l i g h t and medium tanks or of self-propelled landing c r a f t . Whether.this development trend i n s i z e increase w i l l ever come t o an end depends on t h e constantly changing m i l i t a r y planning. Artillery systems are being l a r g e l y replaced by missiles, f o r which reason t h e foreign p r e s s o f t e n mentions t h e need t o t r a n s p o r t m i s s i l e s o r m i s s i l e systems, t h e prime f a c t o r i n determining t h e s i z e of modern helicopters.

I n t h e attempt t o s i n g l e out t h e main t r e n d of f u t u r e h e l i c o p t e r development, a f t e r successively o u t l i n i n g t h e c r e a t i o n of new types of machines i n t h e f e w designer firms t h a t have been s u c c e s s f u l i n developing experimental models i n t o p r a c t i c a l prototypes and i n s t a r t i n g p i l o t s e r i e s , i t w i l l be found t h a t t h e major development was toward an i n c r e a s e i n t h e lift capacity of helicopters.
TABLE 1 . 1
. . . .

Helicopters
USA -

USSR
Characteristics
~

M i -1
. .

Mi-4 1952 1.2-1.6


4

Mi-6 S-51
_ ..

S-58
. . .

-Project

Year o f p r o d u c t i o n L i f t capacity, ton- f o r c e

in

1948 0.3

1957 8-12 7 39-41

1946 0.3

1956 1962 1.2 5-6


3
4

20

Increase over previous model F l y i n g weight, ton- f o r c e

2.3

7.2

17.0

Table 1 . 1 gives d a t a characterizing t h e development of t h e l i f t capacity of single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e same configuration by two a i r c r a f t construct i o n departments - helicopters M i - 1 (Fig.l.2), Mi-& (Figol.3), Mi-6 (Fig.l.&), Mi-10 (Hg.l.5), S-51 (Fig.l.6), S-58 (Fig.l.7), and S-64 ( f i g a l * 8 ) .

A s we see from Table 1 . 1 , t h e l i f t capacity i n c r e a s e s severalfold w i t h each prototype.


However, it i s easy t o show t h a t an increase i n s i z e and weight of helicopters i s impossible without a q u a l i t a t i v e improvement of t h e engines used / 1 0 (reduction i n weight p e r u n i t horsepower and i n c r e a s e i n econony, i.e., decrease i n f u e l consumption). Actually, an i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g weight i s p o s s i b l e e i t h e r by increasing t h e r o t o r span o r t h e i n s t a l l e d power, or both f a c t o r s

G = T = (kqND)"..
The weight of t h e engine i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f i r s t power of i t s output, w h i l e t h e weight of t h e machine itsew i n c r e a s e s o n l y i n proportion t o t h e 2/3 power.

Fig.l.2

M i - 1 Helicopter.

Thus, a h e l i c o p t e r with a l a r g e r power-to-weight r a t i o w i l l have a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r design weight, owing t o t h e power p l a n t .

I n l i k e manner t h e weight of t h e blade and, accordingly, t h e weight of t h e l i f t i n g system change i n proportion t o t h e t h i r d power of t h e diameter, whereas t h e weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r again changes only i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e 2/3 power. Here a l s o , t h e weight of t h e l i f t i n g system of a l a r g e r h e l i c o p t e r proves t o be r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r . Thus, on i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e of a h e l i c o p t e r i t s load r a t i o , i.e., t h e r a t i o of u s e f u l load t o f l y i n g weight, should be decreased, if t h e r e i s no weight improvement i n engines, blade design, reduction gears, o r transmissions. Actually, i n t h e 1930s papers were published t h a t demonstrated t h e uselessness of developing h e l i c o p t e r s with a power g r e a t e r than 500 hp, s i n c e an i n c r e a s e i n power would not lead t o a n i n c r e a s e i n u s e f u l load. / 1 3 According t o t e c h n i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of t h a t time, t h e weight of r o t o r s , reduct i o n gears, and of t h e e n t i r e machine as a whole increased w i t h increasing power more r a p i d l y than t h e l i f t .
However, i n developing a new m i l i t a r y and e s p e c i a l l y a new generalhelicopter, t h e designer w i l l not t o l e r a t e a lowering of t h e achieved purpose l e v e l of load r a t i o .

Thus, a quantitative^^ development with r e s p e c t t o s i z e i s impossible w i t h o u t a q u a l i t a t i v e development; i n f a c t , it always i s concurrent with t h e qualitat i v e advance of technology. The development of h e l i c o p t e r s l a r g e r t h a n t h e first two- o r three-place models took p l a c e i n a comparatively s h o r t time, s i n c e t h e u n i t weight of p i s t o n engines always decreased with an i n c r e a s e i n power. But i n 1953, a f t e r develapment of t h e l3-ton Sikorsky S-56 h e l i c o p t e r (Fig.l.10) w i t h two 2300-h~ p i s t o n

F'ig.l.3

Mi-4 Helicopter.

Fig.l.4

Mi-6 Helicopter.

F'ig.l.5

Mi-10 Helicopter.

fig.l.6

S - 5 l Helicopter.

Fig.l.7

S-58 Helicopter.

Fig.l.8

S-64. Helicopter.

engines, t h e s i z e series of h e l i c o p t e r s i n t h e West was discontinued and o n l y i n t h e USSR was it p o s s i b l e , i n 195'7, t o develop t h e Mi-6 h e l i c o p t e r with a f l y i n g weight of 4 0 t o n s by using turboprop engines.

2. Qualitative DeveloDmenLof Helicopters


In t h e middle of t h e 1950s, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of h e l i c o p t e r s became appreciably g r e a t e r so t h a t a l s o t h e i r use p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r t h e n a t i o n a l economy increased. T h i s moved problems of economy i n t o t h e foreground.
The operating c o s t p e r hour of a h e l i c o p t e r p l a y s a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n whether t o use them for geological surveys, i n a g r i c u l t u r e , or f o r transporting passengers. Amortization, i.e., t h e p r i c e of a h e l i c o p t e r divided by i t s s e r v i c e l i f e , c o n s t i t u t e s a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e c o s t . The s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s determined by t h e d u r a b i l i t y of i t s components. The problem of increasing t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of blades, s h a f t s , transmissions, r o t o r hubs, and o t h e r units of t h e h e l i c o p t e r became a prime problem, which h e l i c o p t e r des i g n e r s are s t i l l studying a t p r e s e n t . Today, a l i f e of 1000 hours i s no longer a r a r i t y f o r series-produced h e l i c o p t e r s and t h e r e are no grounds t o doubt i t s f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e . When using h e l i c o p t e r s i n transportation, t h e concepts of c o s t p e r ton-mile of t h e transported load and t h e c o s t p e r passenger-mile become decisive. T h i s i s the hourly ope r a t i n g c o s t divided by hourly productivity, i.e., by t h e product of t h e weight of t h e payload and t h e c r u i s i n g speed. Since t h e construction weight l a r g e l y determines t h e p r i c e of a helicopter, t h e d i r e c t r e l a t i o n between economy and load r a t i o of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s obvious. Flying speed a l s o acqvilres a new r o l e .
1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

"his automaticallS. leads t o t h e i d e a of developing h e l i c o p t e r s with higher economic indexes. The development of turboprop engines with an appreciably smaller u n i t weight t h a n p i s t o n engines made i t p o s s i b l e t o produce h e l i c o p t e r s with a l a r g e r load r a t i o w h i l e r e t a i n i n g , i n each weight category, t h e r o t o r dimensions.

Fig.l.9

Size Evolution of Helicopters.

GeneralQ, replacement of p i s t o n engines by turboprop engines not o d y results i n a decrease i n r e l a t i v e weight of t h e power p l a n t but a l s o i n some i n c r e a s e i n power; produces a d u a l e f f e c t and a l s o leads t o an appreciable

i n c r e a s e i n c r u i s i n g speeds.

In t h e diagram (Fig.l.9) we t r a c e d t h e s e q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e development t r e n d s of t h e most common h e l i c o p t e r s produced by t h e three design engineering departments. Given are t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s designed by Sikorsky A i r c r a f t (USA), t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s , and t h e foreand-aft h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e P i a s e c k i A i r c r a f t Corporation, which subsequently became t h e Vertol LEV. of Boeing.

&

-@
Fig.l.10

>

* .

S 5 6

Helicopter.

Thus, t h e s i z e development t r e n d on t h e b a s i s of p i s t o n engines (solid l i n e s i n F'ig.l.9) was terminated as e a r l y as 1953. Then, as turboprop engines of t h e necessary s i z e were developed over a period of f i v e t o t e n years, secondgeneration h e l i c o p t e r s appeared ( p o i n t s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s e i n t h e diagrams a r e connected w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l models by t h e broken l i n e of q u a l i t a t i v e development). Thus, t h e h e l i c o p t e r s S-55, S-58, and S-56 with p i s t o n engines served s-62 e c t i v e l y , f o r t h e turboprop machines S-61 (Fig.l.ll), as prototypes, and S-65 (Fig.l:;3. The same holds f o r t h e fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e B . l & 1tChinook" (Fig.l.13). V e r t o l Div. of Boeing V-lO7 and v The Soviet turboprop h e l i c o p t e r s Mi-2 ( f i g e l . & ) and M i - 8 (Fig.l.15) a l s o c o n s t i t u t e a f u r t h e r development of t h e well-known h e l i c o p t e r s M i - 1 and Mi-&. The unusually long s e r v i c e l i f e of h e l i c o p t e r s i s striking i n comparison w i t h a i r p l a n e s . Almost a l l p i s t o n h e l i c o p t e r s shown i n t h e diagram ( w i t h . t h e exception of t h e experimental h e l i c o p t e r s XL16 and S-56) w e r e i n production and s e r v i c e before t h e appearance of t h e i r second turboprop generation, and t h e Mi-1 h e l i c o p t e r has managed t o s t a y i n production f o r 15 y e a r s and i s approaching t h e record longevity of t h e E - 2 a i r p l a n e .

/16

W e can assume t h a t t h e weight c a t e g o r i e s of h e l i c o p t e r s i n d i c a t e d i n 9

llllllll Ill1 I I

Fig.1.U

S-61 Helicopter.

Fig . 1 . 1 2

, % 6 5 Helicopter.

..

....

Fig.l.13

Chinook Helicopter.

10

Table 1.2 have become e s t a b l i s h e d by now.


What w i l l be t h e f u t u r e development of helicopters?

/18

The process of developing a new generation of helicopters, on t h e basis of improved turboprop engines, i s now being completed i n t h e l i g h t e s t category of helicopters. The l a g i n this weight category can be a t t r i b u t e d t o d i f f i c u l t i e s

Fig .le&

Mi-2 Helicopter.

Fig.l.15

Mi-8 Helicopter.

i n developing a l i g h t e r and simultaneously more economic low-power turboprop engine i n comparison w i t h p i s t o n engines. I n t h e end, such a n engine was developed i n t h e U S A by t h e Allison Company - this was t h e T-63 weighing only 174 l b s at a power of 315 hp and a consumption of 280 gm/hp-hr. The award i n t h e competition f o r a l i g h t three- o r four-place m i l i t a r y h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e U S A was made t o t h e Hughes A i r c r a f t Compaw, which created t h e UH-6A h e l i c o p t e r (Fig.l.16) weighing only 2680 l b s a t a n empty weight of about 1340 l b s ; this is

11

Fig.l.16

Hughes Helicopter UH-6A.

8 i p . l O l 7 F a i r c h i l d Hiller Helicopter FH-ll00.


an appreciable t e c h n i c a l achievement which required a number of new design solut i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e use of a rotor with a n e l a s t i c s p r i n g r e t e n t i o n of t h e blades i n s t e a d of t h e conventional hinge attachment. T h i s h e l i c o p t e r has a high load r a t i o (50%) combined w i t h a high c r u i s i n g speed (213 km/hr), f o r a l i g h t It i s machine. The F a i r c h i l d K U e r FH-llOO i s a l s o i n this c l a s s (Fig.l.17). obvious t h a t t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r s considerably o u t s t r i p t h e l i g h t l i a i s o n recona r 1 1 , both w i t h respect t o speed and l i f t capacity naissance a i r c r a f t of World W and, furthermore, have t h e g r e a t advantage of v e r t i c a l takeoff and landing. Thus, t h e d e c i s i o n made i n a number of countries t o replace l i g h t reconnaissance aircraft by h e l i c o p t e r s i s not surprising.

12

TABLE 1.2

Characteristics

Light

1.ia i son

Light Multipurpose

1 T>i:i:rt
[

_ ._ -

Medium Transport

L i f t c a p a c i t y or number o f p l a c e s

2-4

per-

10-12

ton o r persons ton

3 ton o r 6-8 '25 30 p e r -

ton

20

ton

40

ton

sons ton

FI i g h t w e i g h t

1.5-2

ton

3.5-4

10-12

20-40 to]

Of course, a new generation of l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s Will a l s o be developed i n o t h e r countries of t h e world. I n France, this i s being done on t h e basis of t h e 3.50-hp Turbomecca-Oredon-I11 engine. I n West Germany, t h e %&ow Conipaqy i s working on such a machine.

Thus, i n speaking of t h e q u a l i t a t i v e development trend of helicopters, i t i s obvious from t h e foregoing t h a t each new generation of engines gives r i s e t o a new generation of h e l i c o p t e r s i n a l l weight categories, simultaneously having g r e a t e r econow and better f l i g h t performance data. T h i s l i n e of development probably has no upper limit.

As regards t h e s i z e evolution of helicopters, no machine with a l i f t capacit y of 20 t o n s (see Table 1.2) has been developed as y e t .
According t o a request f o r proposals, announced i n t h e USA, firms such as W a n , F a i r c h i l d Hiller, and Sikorsky A i r c r a f t are working on t h e development of a h e l i c o p t e r with a l i f t capacity of 20 tons. I n West Germany, t h e Bzlkow Company i s working on a h e l i c o p t e r with a 40-ton l i f t capacity. Below, we w i l l r e v i e w t h e p o s s i b l e ways of developing heavy and superheavy helicopters.

3 . Speci=al-Pumose Helicopters
It i s necessary t o mention a l s o t h e development of various models of special-purpose h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h i n t h e i n d i c a t e d weight categories. I n this connection, l e t us make a brief remark on t h e new concept of using h e l i c o p t e r s i n t h e Army which has r e c e n t l y developed i n t h e West - e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e USA nameb, t h e c r e a t i o n of so-called airborne mobile troops.

/19

I n this instance, h e l i c o p t e r s are used i n p l a c e of motorized t r a n s p o r t f o r The B e n 11Iroquois11 h e l i c o p t e r UH-ID (Fig.l.l8) i s p a r t i c u l a r l y adapted f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g troops by platoons (11-12men).

a l l types of troop movement.

Z g h t reconnaissance three- o r four-place armed h e l i c o p t e r s (Hughes helicopters OH-6A); f l y i n g i n f r o n t of battle formations, are a l s o a necessity. Finally, r e g u l a r troop-carrier h e l i c o p t e r s of various classes, supplying t h e

13

I IIIIIIII

means of ground f i r e support such as a r t i l l e r y , rockets, and tanks, t a k e over t h e t a s k of troop movements.

Also used i n r e a l i z a t i o n of this concept are h e l i c o p t e r s for a i r support of i n f a n t r y , c o n s t i t u t i n g a unique type of assault h e l i c o p t e r s . Ordinary helicopters armed with radio-controlled missiles and weapons a r e p r e s e n t l y used for this purpose.

Fig.l.18

Bell llIroquois11 Helicopter UH-LD.

Such an airborne mobile d i v i s i o n is supplied from t h e air by a i r p l a n e s and h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e Air Force Materiel Command.

It i s not d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t behind this concept p a s t m i l i t a r y experience, wherein any new type of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t h a t became accessible engendered a new type of troops. Beginning w i t h cavalry, we r e c a l l t h e bicycle and motorcycle units of World W a r I, and t h e motorized i n f a n t r y , motorized d i v i s i o n s , and airborne troops of World War 1 1 . It i s c l e a r by now t h a t this concept i s f i n d i n g followers i n many western
countries Thus, t h e 12-place SA-330 (Fig.l.19) h e l i c o p t e r ordered by t h e French Army A similar machine i s corresponds t o t h e 11-place Iroquois h e l i c o p t e r (USA). being designed a l s o i n West Germany. The need t o r e t a i n t h e c l a s s of 10-to 1 2 - p h c e l i g h t t r a n s p o r t h e l i c o p t e r s

i s confirmed a l s o by t h e p r a c t i c a l experience with t h e 12-place Mi-4 helicopters i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy. It i s obvious t h a t t h e development of more economic (for a i r l i n e s ) 30-place Mi-8 helicopters does not i n t e r f e r e with t h e advantage of using t h e 10-place h e l i c o p t e r s i n the n a t i o n a l economy for geology and o t h e r
purposes.

4.

Compound Helicopters w i t h Additional W i n e s _

Rotocraft

/20

O f considerable i n t e r e s t was t h e appearance of compound h e l i c o p t e r s which use p r o p e l l e r s f o r forward f l i g h t , as autogiros d i d earlier. Such are t h e Rotodyne Ferry designed by Hislop and e s p e c i a l l y t h e r o t o c r a f t of t h e Soviet designer N.I.Kamov.

In 1964, world records f o r machines of this type w e r e set on t h e r o t o c r a f t Ka-22: speed 360 km/hr, l i f t capacity 16 tons. N.I.Kamov*s r o t o c r a f t again focused a t t e n t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r world, a f t e r 20 years, on t h e side-by-side configuration which had been s u c c e s s f u l l y developed by Focke i n Germany and by 1.P.Bratukhin i n t h e USSR. T h i s machine r e c a l l e d t h e g r e a t advantages of t h e side-by-side configuration i n f l y i n g range and l i f t capacity w i t h a running takeoff which must be accounted f o r i n a successful design.

fig.l-19

SA-330 Helicopter.

A f u r t h e r development of compound h e l i c o p t e r s with p r o p e l l e r i s represented by t h e h e l i c o p t e r prototype with a d d i t i o n a l t u r b o j e t engines now being proposed i n t h e West f o r m i l i t a r y purposes. A n i n t e r e s t i n g rototype of an assault h e l i c o p t e r i s t h e Lockheed composite h e l i c o p t e r (fig.l.207 T h i s two-place experimental machine, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e main 55C-hp turboshaft engine d r i v i n g a four-blade rotor with e l a s t i c blade retention, uses a turbofan engine mounted on a small wing and permitting rev-up t o 426 km/hr when b r i e f l y c u t i n during f l i g h t .

The successful development of dual-flow turbofan engines, e s p e c i a l b with

a l a r g e bypass r a t i o , may l e a d t o t h e development of models which, a t c r u i s i n g speed, would have a s p e c i f i c consumption of t h e order of C, = 0.5 kg/kg hr.
Since

c,= -.c 75rl


v
R

it i s not d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e t h a t , i n this case, t h e consumption p e r horsepower of an equivalent p r o p e l l e r engine a t a p r o p e l l e r e f f i c i e n c y of 0.75 and a f l y i n g speed of 150 m/sec i s only about 200 gm/(hp hr)

15

If we a l s o t a k e i n t o account t h e small weight of such a motor i n comparison w i t h t h e weight of a turboprop engine, i t becomes clear t h a t t h e use of turbofan engines of this type can be economics- advantageous even a t lower c r u i s i n g & speeds and may lead t o t h e development of compound h e l i c o p t e r s with an auxiliary t h r u s t engine and Wing f o r passenger t r a n s p o r t between urban c e n t e r s a t c r u i s i n g 4.50 km/hr. A t t h e same time, such h e l i c o p t e r s may speeds of t h e order of 350 f i n d m i l i t a r y use as fire-support c r a f t f o r troops.

Fig.1.20

Lockheed Helicopter S 5 l A .

In analyzing t h e ways and means of h e l i c o p t e r development, one cannot sides t e p t h e question of v e r t i c a l takeoff a i r c r a f t . W i l l t h e development trend and use of h e l i c o p t e r s come t o a n abrupt end with t h e appearance of such c r a f t , as had been t h e case with autogiros when h e l i c o p t e r s came i n t o being?
Section 2. The Helicopter C g r i p e V - e r t L c a l Takeoff and LandinR and Short Takeoff and Landing Aircraft When t a l k i n g of t h e prospects of h e l i c o p t e r engineering development, one must study t h e problem of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of coexistence of h e l i c o p t e r and o h e l i c o p t e r s have a f u t u r e ? O r are t h e potentiv e r t i c a l takeoff a i r c r a f t . D a l i t i e s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r exhausted? Can t h e h e l i c o p t e r successfully compete with v e r t i c a l takeoff a i r c r a f t ? W i l l t h e i r development trend terminate, as was t h e case with autogiros which ceased t o exist with t h e appearance, i n 1940, of t h e first successful helicopt,ers? A comparative i n v e s t i g a t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r s and VTOL o r STOL c r a f t as means i n t r a n s p o r t a v i a t i o n not requiring a n a i r f i e l d w i l l enable us t o answer t h e s e fundamental problems.

It i s known t h a t r e c e n t l y t h e matter of v e r t i c a l takeoff a i r c r a f t ( i n English, VTOL) and short-run a i r c r a f t ( i n English, Sn>L) has become urgent-. (For footnote, s e e follow5ng page)

16

Actually, t h e present f l y i n g speed of f i g h t e r s , reaching 2500 3000 km/hr, requires such high-power engines t h a t very l i t t l e remains t o add f o r t h e i r v e r t i c a l takeoff. Therefore, judging by t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n o t h e r countries we can assume t h a t f i g h t e r s and f i g h t e r bombers W i l l be developed mainly as /22 VTOL a i r c r a f t not r e q u i r i n g t h e use of an a i r f i e l d . The d i r e c t i o n of development of t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t , whose power p l a n t i s limited by considerations of economics or quite simply by f u e l consumption, tends toward STOL a i r c r a f t . Some propose t h a t t h e f u t u r e development of h e l i c o p t e r s w i l l o f f e r a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n t o t r a n s p o r t problems f o r a range up t o 600 km than do VTOL a i r c r a f t or s p e c i a l STOL t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t .

I n examining t h e p o s s i b l e development trend of a v i a t i o n , we cannot limit t h e study t o a n a n a l y s i s based on t h e present state of t h e a r t i n science and technology

By using such methods, many s c i e n t i s t s have repeatedly a r r i v e d a t erroneous conclusions concerning t h e l l l i m i t s 1 1 i n t h e development of various a i r c r a f t or helicopters, s i n c e t h e y d i d not provide f o r t h e development of parameters' chara c t e r i z i n g t h e weight and economic p e r f e c t i o n of engines or p e r f e c t i o n of design and materials used. It i s necessary t o extrapolate t h e i r development somehow t o the future.
Leaving room i n t h e f u t u r e f o r such an i n v e s t i g a t i o n , we w i l l estimate t h e e Will compare h e l i c o p t e r s with VTOL and STOL a i r c r a f t , s i t u a t i o n a t hand. W using d a t a of t h e best h e l i c o p t e r s t h a t have been b u i l t as w e l l as of a i r c r a f t being i n t h e design or construction stage.
1. Tackical and Technical Reqr&rements f o r V E L and STOL MiEtary Tra-nsport A&raft of t h e West

The t a c t i c a l and t e c h n i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r VTOL t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t , worked out i n t h e USA, c a l l f o r a f l y i n g range of 550 - 700 km, a l i f t capacity' of 3600 kg or 32 troops, and a c r u i s i n g speed of 450 - 550 km/hr a t a gross weight of not more t h a n 16,000 kg. A t t h e same time a very long d e l i v e r y range, of t h e order of 4000 km, i s required, which i s probably intended f o r t h e possib i l i t y of f e r r y i n g a i r c r a f t from t h e U S A over t h e ocean.

In studying STOL t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t , one comes across ordinary c l a s s i c a l p r o p e l l e r t r a n s p o r t planes such as, f o r example, t h e British-Canadian D e Havilland llCaribourl (Eg.l.21).
By STOL t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t we mean a i r c r a f t t h a t use engine power f o r reducing t h e takeoff and landing runs. T h i s i s useful and necessary.
A study of STOL a i r c r a f t must include one of t h e f i r s t a i r c r a f t of this O n this a i r c r a f t t h e e n t i r e type, t h e French a i r c r a f t Breguet-941 (Fig.1.22). A l l p r o p e l l e r s are i n t e r wing area i s i n t h e zone of p r o p e l l e r slipstream.
VTOL

/23

v e r t i c a l takeoff and landing; STOL

s h o r t takeoff and landing.

17

connected by a transmission which provides safe takeoff or landing i f one o r two of i t s f o u r engines f a i l . The p r o p e l l e r slipstream, d e f l e c t e d downward by a double-slotted f l a p , produces a d d i t i o n a l lift, which reduces takeoff speed and shortens t h e run. However, t h e s e qualities are achieved a t t h e expense of a n increase i n empty weight and shorten t h e range of this STOL a i r c r a f t . Helicopters can operate successfully a t such a range.

Fig.l.21

British-Canadian Transport Plane D e Havilland IICaribouIl.

Fig.1.22

French STOL A i r c r a f t Breguet-941.

Despite t h e g r e a t type d i v e r s i t y of VTOL and STOL a i r c r a f t , it i s not d i f f i c u l t t o arrange them l o g i c a l l y i n a general c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a i r c r a f t . They should be placed between h e l i c o p t e r s and a i r p l a n e s .

It i s comonly known t h a t t h e l a r g e r t h e area over which a i r flows (it makes no d i f f e r e n c e whether it flows through a r o t o r o r t h e nozzle of a j e t engine) or, more p r e c i s e l y , t h e smaller t h e v e l o c i t y imparted t o t h e a i r ? a s s f o r producing l i f t i n a i r c r a f t o r helicopter, t h e smaller w i l l be t h e power required f o r this p e r u n i t weight of machine.
Thus, t h e ordinary h e l i c o p t e r and t h e a i r c r a f t t a k i n g o f f v e r t i c a l l y by the t h r u s t of j e t engines a r e a t opposite p o l e s of this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (Fig.1.23).

18

I n t h e p u r s u i t of g r e a t e r range and probably higher speed, t h e h e l i c o p t e r was provided with a wing; as t h e wing area and hence t h e l i f t increased f u r t h e r ( s i n c e t h e t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r a t maxi" f l y i n g speed decreases so much t h a t it i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r forward f l i g h t ) , p r o p e l l e r s appeared on t h e wing. Thus arose t h e B r i t i s h IIRotodyne" ( F i g . 1 . a ) and t h e Soviet r o t o c r a f t designed by N.I.Kamov a i r c r a f t which i n p l a c e of one l i f t i n g and moving system have two, (Fig.1.25) one being t h e r o t o r and wing f o r s u s t e n t i o n and t h e o t h e r being a system of t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s , i n c l i n e d forward t o t h e t h r u s t vector of t h e r o t o r , t o provide forward propulsion. During v e r t i c a l takeoff, t h e wing and t h e p r o p e l l e r s are useless, and i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t t h e r o t o r i s s q e r f l u o u s . The attempt t o avoid such superfluous u n i t s whose weight unavoidably reduces t h e u s e f u l load l e d t o a configuration w i t h a wing and pivoted r o t o r ( B e l l XV-3, Fig.1.26) i n /24. which t h e r o t o r i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t becomes a p r o p e l l e r , and t o a configuration w i t h a pivoted wing whose p r o p e l l e r s during takeoff turning t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e wing - a c t as r o t o r s as, f o r example, t h e XC-l42 a i r c r a f t produced by Chance Vought - @-an - H i l l e r (Fig.1.2'7).

J e t a i r c r a f t takTgg o f f

t run

Fig.l.23

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Scheme f o r VTOL and STOL A i r c r a f t .

F'ig.1.24.

Rotodyne Rotocraft.

Passing now t o a i r c r a f t w i t h an engine more powerful t h a n t h a t of t h e above types of a i r c r a f t , t h e STOL j e t a i r c r a f t i s provided with means f o r downward def l e c t i o n of t h e blast from t h e j e t engines o r from various types of auxiliary turbofan engines. The configuration of t h e Breguet-941 a i r c r a f t (see Fig.1.22) can be regarded as a v a r i a n t of an ordinary a i r p l a n e which, t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i f t coeffic i e n t , u t i l i z e s t h e a i r f l o w over t h e wing created by t h e p r o p e l l e r s , or else as a v a r i a n t of an a i r c r a f t with a pivoted wing where t h e t h r u s t of t h e p r o p e l l e r s i s not l i t e r a l l y turned but i s d e f l e c t e d downward by means of t h e mechanized wing.
c
-7

-u

..

/25

Fig.1.25

Rotocraft Designed by N.I.Kamov.

Fig. 1.26

Bell X V 3 Convertiplane.

The diameter of t h e p r o p e l l e r s of t h e VTOL a i r c r a f t shown i n Fig.1.23 (from l e f t t o r i g h t ) gradually decreases down t o t h e VTOL j e t a i r c r a f t which 20

has no p r o p e l l e r a t a l l . With a reduction i n p r o p e l l e r diameter, t h e engine 0.3 +/kg f o r h e l i c o p t e r s power i n c r e a s e s p e r u n i t takeoff weight from 0.25 t o 3 4 +/kg f o r j e t a i r c r a f t ( t h e values of t h e equivalent horsepower are taken here f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ) .

/26

The c r u i s i n g speed of t h e s e a i r c r a f t continuously increases along w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n i n s t a l l e d horsepower. However, this i s not a decisive f a c t o r f o r t h e problem of a t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t w i t h a range of 800 1000 km.

T h i s defines t h e scope of VTOL and STOLtransport a i r c r a f t t o be compared and t h e f l y i n g range over which they are e f f e c t i v e .

Fig.1.27

Chance Vought - &an Hiller XGG2 VTOL A i r c r a f t with T i l t Wing.

To which of t h e s e types of a i r c r a f t w i l l belong t h e f u t u r e i n solving t h e formulated problem? Before comparing t h e h e l i c o p t e r with i t s competitors with respect t o economy, l e t us examine t h e problem of t h e f l y i n g range of t h e helicopter. I n View of i t s comparatively s h o r t range, can t h e h e l i c o p t e r e n t e r this competition a t all? Let us f i r s t examine and compare t h e best of t h e VTOL and STOL t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t t h a t have been or are being constructed: t h e t i l t - w b g WOL airc r a f t of t h e type XC-&2; t h e STOL a i r c r a f t of t h e type Breguet-941; t h e r e g u l a r 'transport a i r c r a f t of t h e type IICaribouI* HG4; t h e r o t o c r a f t with turboprop engines of t h e IlRotodyneIl type; and helicopters.

2. Means f o r Increasing t h e Flying Range of H e l i c m t e r s


The h e l i c o p t e r , h a s always been regarded as a short-range a i r c r a f t ; a figure I n order 500 km i s usually given as t h e m a x i " f o r i t s normal range. of 400 t o treat t h e h e l i c o p t e r as a competitive a i r c r a f t i n this new area of use, t h e

range should be almost doubled w h i l e r e t a i n i n g i t s lift capacity. i n c r e a s e t h e f l y i n g range?

H o w does one

L e t us t u r n t o t h e well-known formula of f l y i n g range:

/27

where
G = weight of t h e a i r c r a f t (average during f l y i n g t h e ) ; GT = weight of t h e f u e l ;

cy/cx = aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y of t h e a i r c r a f t (taken t o be constant); C, = s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption of t h e engine; 5 = a c o e f f i c i e n t t a k i n g i n t o account power l o s s e s i n t h e transmission due t o cooling, e t c . ; 7 = rotor efficiency. Equation (2.1) shows t h a t t h e range i s g r e a t e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e proportion of f u e l i n t h e all-up weight of t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e higher i t s aerodynamic eff i c i e n c y , engine econoqy, and efficiency of engine and a u x i l i a r y units.

T h i s formula holds f o r ary heavier-than-air c r a f t , including airplanes and h e l i c o p t e r s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t follows from this equation t h a t t h e f l y i n g range of various f l y i n g machines, o t h e r conditions being eq-cal, does not depend on t h e i r cruising speed.
Fig.1.28 Product of Aerodynamic Efficiency and Rotor Efficiency as a Function of Flying Speed. Can a. h e l i c o p t e r be given a range s u f f i c i e n t f o r competing with STOL aircraft?

A s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig.1.28, t h e product of aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y cy/cx and r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y 17 for a h e l i c o p t e r with a f i x e d landing gear i s lower t h a n f o r a t r a n s p o r t a i r p l a n e by almost a f a c t o r of 2. Furthermore, t h e f u e l consumption of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e a i r p l a n e s i n c e t h e engine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are i n f e r i o r a t low a l t i t u d e s and f l y i n g speeds. Thus, a h e l i c o p t e r can be given a range equal t o t h a t of a i r p l a n e s only by increasing t h e f u e l supply, i.e., t h e quantity GT/G. However, i n s o doing how does one maintain t h e u s e f u l load? T h i s can be done only by increasing t h e takeoff weight, b u t t h e h e l i c o p t e r W i l l t h e n no longer be able t o t a k e off vertically.
W h a t happens i f we p l a c e t h e s e a i r c r a f t under equal conditions, i.e., allow 200 m o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r t h e same takeoff run as anSTOL a i r c r a f t , namely 150 even l e s s ? A t a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e value of c y , w i l l t h e h e l i c o p t e r then be able a t low speed - a much g r e a t e r weight t h a n a n a i r p l a n e , accomodate to lift

more f u e l , and thus compensate f o r i t s l a c k i n aerodynamic efficiency?

3. Helicopter w i t h Takeoff R u n
A s shown i n Fig.1.29 which gives t h e curves of t h e required and available horsepower of a llCariboull-type t r a n s p o r t a i r p l a n e and of a modern helicopter, a n a i r p l a n e can be kept i n t h e air a t a speed not below 115 km/hr. A h e l i c o p t e r /28 can hover i n t h e air without moving. If t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s overloaded by 15% above Nhp t h e normal takeoff weight Go, i t can no longer hover and, l i k e t h e airplane, W i l l only be able t o f l y without dropping i f i t has some speed i n this case, a speed of 3 0 0 6 not l e s s t h a n 50 km/hr. A t a greater speed t h a n this, it w i l l gain a l t i t u d e and a t a lower speed, l o s e a l t i t u d e . The d i f ference here i n favor of t h e helicopter, ZOO6 i n comparison w i t h t h e conventional airplane, l i e s only i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e helicopter r e t a i n s f u l l c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y \ 1 I I roo0 a t a speed below i t s minimal and t h a t ' R e q u i r e d horsepower t h e r e i s no danger of separation of flow f o r ai r p 1 a n e and l o s s of c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , both of which are p o s s i b l e i n t h e airplane.

Fig. 1.29 Required and Available Power as a Function of Flying Speed.

So f a r as t h e takeoff distance i s concerned, assuming t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r takes off a t a speed of V , , , , this distance a t some average a c c e l e r a t i o n j , W i l l be

L-

jf2 b-2 : mln 2j

run

(2.2)

Thus, t h e takeoff r u n i s s h o r t e r , t h e lower t h e minimum f l y i n g speed ( c l o s e t o takeoff speed) and t h e g r e a t e r t h e acceleration. The m i n i " speed i s

where
S , = wing area; p = air density.

What values of c Y m a x are available t o a i r p l a n e s and helicopters?

For this, l e t Us c a l c u l a t e t h e value of c y t h a t a n a i r p l a n e of t h e llCariboull type should have a t t h e same weight as t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n order t o f l y without . 3 0 shows t h e values of c y , m . Figure 1 descending a t speeds less t h a n "

23

c a l c u l a t e d from t h e formula

of a h e l i c o p t e r r e f e r r e d t o t h e wing area of a n equivalent a i r p l a n e , which chara c t e r i z e s t h e l i f t capacity of a h e l i c o p t e r i n comparison w i t h t h e a i r p l a n e . The curve cy of t h e h e l i c u p t e r i n Fig.l.30 extends t o i n f i n i t y . This i s n a t u r a l s i n c e t h e h e l i c o p t e r has a r o t o r which i n essence i s a r o t a t i n g wing w i t h a power p l a n t suspended from i t and i s capable of producing l i f t a t zero forward speed of t h e e n t i r e machine. Here we see t h a t a t speeds of 50 - 60 km/hr t h e available values of c y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are several times g r e a t e r t h a n f o r a n a i r p l a n e of t h e IlCaribouIl type a t a speed of 115 km/hr, which has a highly mechanized wing. Thus, a t equal power a g r e a t e r weight can be l i f t e d by t h e h e l i c o p t e r a t low speeds t h a n by an a i r p l a n e . However, a g r e a t e r f l y i n g weight does not always mean a g r e a t e r u s e f u l load.

/29

A t equal r e l a t i v e f u e l weight o % ) , t h e o r d i n a q a i r p l a n e of (about l t h e IlCaribouIl t y p e has a range of 1000 km, i.e., twice t h a t of a helicopter t a k i n g o f f without a run.
The Breguet-941 STOL a i r c r a f t ( a t - 13% Qf t h e f l y i n g weight) has twice t h e Tange of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o r of t h e X G l 4 . 2 VTOL aircraft.

a f u e l weight 12

If, i n helicopters, t h e f u e l weight i s increased t o 20 ,- 25% of t h e gross weight, t h e n t h e range of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be doubled and r a i s e d t o 1000 km. T h i s value i s already c l o s e t o t h e normal ranges of s p e c i a l l y designed STOL a i r c r a f t . The load r a t i o of h e l i c o p t e r s taking o f f w i t h a run and a t increased f u e l supply becomes higher t h a n t h e load r a t i o of comparable a i r c r a f t and reaches 4!+- 50%. T h i s makes it p o s s i b l e ' t o obt a i n equal p r o d u c t i v i t y at almost t h e same takeoff weight of a i r p l a n e and helicopter. For example, a t r a n s p o r t h e l i c o p t e r of average l i f t capacity, j u s t as a l*Ca,riboull-type a i r p l a n e , can t r a n s p o r t a load of 3.2 t o n s over a range of 1000 Ism. It i s t r u e t h a t t h e helicopter, i n s o doing, uses 2.5 times more f u e l . However, it must be remembered t h a t t h e a i r p l a n e needs twice t h e area f o r taking Fig.l.30 Dependence of ( c y h a l l) e q on Flying Speed.

24

off and, what i s quite important, t h e h e l i c o p t e r after having consumed half i t s f u e l i s a b l e t o land v e r t i c a l l y , whereas t h e ordinary a i r p l a n e cannot do so.

It must be emphasized t h a t comparable a i r p l a n e s and h e l i c o p t e r s have p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same power supply (0.23 0.25 hp/kg). One must a l s o bear i n mind t h a t p i s t o n engines, operating on gasoline, have a lower f u e l consumption a t l o w a l t i t u d e s t h a n turboprops, s o t h a t t h e average turboprop h e l i c o p t e r operates under less advantageous conditions t h a n t h e IICaribouIl a i r c r a f t w i t h p i s t o n engines.

Thus, t h e suggestion t o use a takeoff run f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l permit doubling i t s range a t t h e same u s e f u l load.

4. Takeoff
-

Distance of H e l i c m t e r

We have already expressed t h e takeoff d i s t a n c e i n terms of takeoff speed and acceleration. The takeoff speed, p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mi"m speed a t which a h e l i c o p t e r can be supported i n t h e air a t a n overload of 15% as opposed t o @ t h e weight w i t h which i t can t a k e off without a run, i s not more t h a n Lst us now d e f i n e t h e 60 70 km/hr. p o s s i b l e degree of l i n e a r accelerat i o n , s i n c e t h e takeoff run i s inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l t o acceleration. Let us f i n d t h e p o s s i b l e i n i t i a l acceleration.

A s agreed, l e t t h e h e l i c o p t e r develop a t h r u s t amounting t o o n l y 0.85 G (takeoff weight) a t t h e takeoff power. Then, allowing f o r some angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r o t o r Fig.l.31 Forces Acting on Helicopter axis t o t h e v e r t i c a l o (here t h e during Takeoff R u n . d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e compression of t h e s t r u t s and pneumatic t i r e s of t h e nose and t a i l wheels i s accounted f o r ) and f o r t h e forward d e v i a t i o n of t h e res u l t a n t owing t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism through an we f i n d t h e i n i t i a l acceleration: angle D,n, according t o F'ig.l.31,

Here, t h e second term on t h e right-hand s i d e t a k e s i n t o account f r i c t i o n of t h e wheels a g a i n s t t h e ground, w i t h a f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f . Adopting t h e


usual notations of o f = 6.5O,
j , = 2.2 m/sec2.

D , %

loo, T

0.85, and f P N

= 0.12,

we o b t a i n

Assuming a relative s t a t i c p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t of

1.6 kg/hp f o r t h e

25

jo=g

P -N f\=2.5 ( N O f

m/sec 2

i.e.,

a value of t h e same order as f o r t h e helicopter.

O f course. t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n a t t h e moment of takeoff i s determined by t h e excess power, which i s somewhat higher f o r t h e airplane. However, i t s pr-opeller t h r u s t decreases w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n speed whereas t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s ; i n f a c t , t h e angle of p i t c h of t h e helicopter, during t h e takeoff run, may even i n c r e a s e since, during takeoff, t h e t a i l wheels are able t o l i f t off t h e ground a t a t h r u s t s u b s t a n t i a l l y 1es.s t h a n t h e takeoff weight s o t h a t t h e takeoff run i s completed.on t h e nose wheel.

Forces Acting on a Helicopter Fig.1.32 during Takeoff on Nose Wheel.

It i s obvious from Fig.1.32 t h a t t h e thrust-to-weight r a t i o a t which t h e t a i l wheels can l i f t off t h e ground (disregarding f r i c t i o n ) w i l l be

(5)
[here i t i s assumed t h a t t h e quantity
.

-1-

takeoff

where x , , , i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y t o t h e a x i s of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism a t a m a j d m a l forward d e f l e c t i o n . o f this mechanism


I (

xm;x

)
. .

can be neglected f o r unity].


, .

.~

^-

. . ... .

. _-

Fig.1.33 26

Running Takeoff of Mi-6 Helicopter.

With t h e usual r e l a t i o n s , this corresponds t o a thrust-to-weight r a t i o of 0.8 0.85. Figure 1.33 shows a h e l i c o p t e r during t h e takeoff run, a t a gross = 1.15 G. weight of G,,,

A n exact c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e takeoff run can be c a r r i e d out by t h e same & method proposed by t h e author 30 years ago f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e takeoff run of an 4 ) . autogiro (Ref .

Running t a k e o f f s performed i n p r a c t i c e have confirmed t h a t , at a 15% overload of a h e l i c o p t e r as opposed t o t h e maximal weight w5th which it can t a k e o f f 100 m i n s t i l l a i r . without a run, t h e takeoff r u n amounts t o no more t h a n 60

5. Crit-e-ri0.nf o r Es&.ima$t,ng t h e Eco~og~y of Various


Transport A i r c r a f t

In any comparison of two t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t , a t t e n t i o n i s primarily centered on t h e l i f t capacity. S t i l l , t h e speed of t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o important. Actuall y , i f a load can be t r a n s p o r t e d more quickly, t h e n more loads can be transported i n u n i t ' t i m e over a given d i s t a n c e a t a smaller l i f t capacity.
T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e well-known c r i t e r i o n of hourly p r o d u c t i v i t y G l O a d V a v t o
km/hr (Vav i s t h e average ground speed).

However, a t what c o s t i s t h e load transported?


If both a i r c r a f t have i d e n t i c a l e f f i c i e n c y and range as w e l l as takeoff & and landing p r o p e r t i e s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r f u l f i l l i n g t h e mission, which should be given preference?

To answer this question we must know which of t h e a i r c r a f t i s more economic a l . I n m i l i t a r y use, t h e advantages of any a i r c r a f t f o r solving t r a n s p o r t problems, which sometimes a r i s e a t an appreciable d i s t a n c e from t h e supply bases, are determined p r i m a r i l y by c o s t d a t a . Ekpenditures f o r construction of t h e machine i t s e l f , incurred i n t h e p a s t , are no longer of s i g n i f i c a n c e and have no e f f e c t on f u l f i l l i n g t h e immediate t a s k . Under such conditions, t h e economy of a n a i r c r a f t i s determined mainly by t h e amount of f u e l consumed. Here, t h e t r a n s p o r t of f u e l c o n s t i t u t e s a bottleneck t h a t i s d e c i s i v e f o r t h e a b i l i t y t o solve t h e s t a t e d problems. The c r i t e r i o n of economy under such conditions i s conveniently obtained by r e f e r r i n g t h e hourly p r o d u c t i v i t y t o t h e weight of t h e f u e l consumed during t h a t time G T h r :
G V L e.s-. . L
'T

hr

Since t h e f u e l conswrption p e r kilometer i s

it follows t h a t

The quantity Leea has t h e dimension of length, s o t h a t we can c a l l it t h e equivalent s p e c i f i c range of t h e a i r c r a f t . It r e p r e s e n t s t h e d i s t a n c e over which a given a i r c r a f t can f l y i n excess of t h e design range i f the e n t i r e transported load i s replaced by f u e l . S t i l l another meaning can be given t o this quantity. It can be regarded as t h e d i s t a n c e over which a n a i r c r a f t can c a r r y one t o n of cargo after having consumed one t o n of f u e l . It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e quantity Lees depends on t h e d i s t a n c e of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n j u s t as p r o d u c t i v i t y depends on i t . The f a r t h e r t h e machine flie's, t h e more f u e l it needs and t h e smaller t h e cargo it can t a k e a t a given f l y i n g weight (maximal).

On t h e o t h e r hand, L e a s i s t h e work expressed i n ton-miles which a given a i r c r a f t can perform, having consumed one t o n of f u e l .
The i n v e r s e quantity of L e a 8

, <.e.,

Le .6

,i s

f u e l consumption i n tons
'Oo0
Le.s
-

required f o r performing t r a n s p o r t a t i o n work of 1 ton-mile o r

kg/ton-mile

W e can a l s o use o t h e r c r i t e r i a t h a t estimate econoqy, i.e., t h e cost of t r a n s p o r t i n g one ton-mile i n rubles. I n t h e s e c r i t e r i a , we can t a k e i n t o account t h e c o s t of t h e a i r c r a f t ( t o some extent, this i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e empty weight of t h e a i r c r a f t ) , t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e components and power system, c o s t of operation and repair, e t c .
I n this problem, t h e m i l i t a r y t r a n s p o r t c r i t e r i o n Le.6 o r

' 0 0 0
'e. 6

c, is

most important s i n c e it t a k e s i n t o account not only econow but a l s o t h e r e a l and ponderable requirement of supplying f u e l f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n equipment under military conditions. Therefore, we can disregard many o t h e r c r i t e r i a but not this one.

W e supplemented t h e values of L e a s and C, f o r comparable a i r c r a f t by & d a t a on j e t VTOL a i r c r a f t which, f o r hovering, use s p e c i a l l y i n s t a l l e d l i f t i n g j e t engines o r which t a k e o f f by means of f a n s d r i v e n by t h e main engines. The f u e l consumption of such a i r c r a f t , w h i l e hovering, c o n s t i t u t e s such a l a r g e percentage of t h e takeoff weight t h a t it m u s t be taken i n t o account when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e value of C L ; therefore, t h e corresponding formula t a k e s t h e form

where
cLh. f

CLhOV

'Oo0 GI 0 a d

FT

i s t h e f u e l consumption i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ;

= 1000

th0VCRhOV

i s t h e f u e l consumption w h i l e hovering.

Gload

For an a i r c r a f t taking o f f by means of Wing f a n s r o t a t e d by t u r b i n e s mounted t o t h e i r periphery, we have used d a t a similar t o those published f o r t h e experimental Ryan X-16 a i r p l a n e constructed i n t h e USA.
I n t h e calculations, we disregarded t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e

28

l i f t i n g engines impairs t h e aerodynamic efficiency of a VTOL a i r c r a f t . It was assumed t h a t , at ranges g r e a t e r t h a n 1000 km, VTOL a i r c r a f t of t h e i n d i c a t e d two types with a s u s t a i n e r t u r b o j e t Will f l y a t t h e design a l t i t u d e a t m u m aerodynamic efficiency, whereas a t a reduction i n f w n g range from 1000 t o 50 km t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c e i l i n g decreases accordingly and any drop i n aerodynamic e f f i ciency l e a d s t o some i n c r e a s e i n f u e l consumption. The hovering time t h o v w as t a k e n as 6 min ( 3 min i n takeoff and 3 min i n landing).

Table 1.3 gives our calculated d a t a f o r a i r c r a f t of d i f f e r e n t f l y i n g ranges and d i f f e r e n t forms of t a k e o f f . TABLE 1.3
Type' o f Tak eo f f Characteristici With S h o r t Run
L , <ZOO m
-

Vertical

Range L,. k m F l y i n g a1 ti t u 3

L 500 5U0-2000

~. ~.

1000 500-2u00

H,m

Type o f aircraft

Y Y

I V .

a
.4 4

w m

I 0 .

2
0

a 0
~-

I
T a k e o f f run
m

0
0.9

80

150
1.4

210

850

950

c,,

kg/t.km

V c r s km/hr

0.8 250

460

1.3 280

0.9 240

280

0.5 400

0.3 600

0.5 0.13 0.4 800 6Q 30

To compare t h e economy of t r a n s p o r t conveyances, t h e values of C L a r e given f o r t h e Soviet t r u c k ZIL-151 where it i s assumed t h a t t h e road between two & p o i n t s i s longer by a f a c t o r of 1.5 t h a n t h e a i r route. Figure 1.34. shows t h e values of C, as a f u n c t i o n of flying range, f o r various VTOL a i r c r a f t . The value of t h e f l y i n g range L i n c a l c u l a t i n g C, was determined with consideration of a decrease i n f u e l consumption p e r kilometer as t h e a i r c r a f t became l i g h t e r due t o d e p l e t i o n of t h e f u e l . A s s m i n g a l i n e a r dependence between consumption p e r kilometer and t h e weight of t h e a i r c r a f t , we must c o r r e c t t h e value f o r t h e range, calculated from t h e above formulas where t h e per-kilometer consumption i s accepted t o be constant and corresponding t o t h e takeoff weight, by t h e quantity

29

i i

where

G, =

GT i s t h e r a t i o of G

f u e l weight t o takeoff weight of t h e a i r c r a f t .

For VTOL a i r c r a f t , a i r c r a f t w i t h a l a r g e f u e l consumption f o r hovering, t h e reduction i n f l y i n g weight due t o t h e expenditure of f u e l f o r hovering and i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t was taken i n t o account. Figure 1.35 s h o w t h e curve of t h e c o r r e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s K L as a f u n c t i o n of t h e values of E , .
C ,
kg/ton-kn
~~

Fig.l.34

Dependence of C L on Flying Range L.

For a i r c r a f t w i t h takeoff run, t h e values of C L a t d i f f e r e n t f l y i n g ranges The diagram a l s o shows how t h e economy of t r a n s p o r t are given i n Fig.1.36. means can be increased, a t a given range, by using a takeoff run. The longer t h e t a k e o f f , t h e l a r g e r t h e take%. off weight of t h e a i r c r a f t and hence t h e 1.J I g r e a t e r t h e weight of transported cargo.
L2

Such are t h e results of i n v e s t i g a t i n g f u e l consumption f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g one ton-mile w i t h various types of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n means.

1.1

A s regards t h e c o s t of operating a i r p l a n e s and helicopters, which naturall y i s determined not only by t h e c o s t of 10 0 0.1 112 a3 a4 E, f u e l but a l s o by t h e service l i f e and i n i t i a l c o s t of t h e machine, we must bear Fig.1.35 Dependence-of Coefficient i n mind t h a t t h e g r e a t e r power/weight & r a t i o of t h e VTOL a i r c r a f t compared t o KL on G,. t h a t of h e l i c o p t e r s as w e l l as t h e presence of transmissions i n some types more o r less balances this cost. A s f o r s a f e t y i n t h e case of engine f a i l u r e

30

during takeoff o r landing, a l l advantages a r e here on t h e s i d e of helicopters s i n c e t h e p r o p e l l e r s on a n a i r c r a f t w i t h a pivoted Wing are not capable of autor o t a t i o n , and engine f a i l u r e ( d e p l e t i o n of f u e l ) during landing of a n a i r c r a f t of t h e type Breguet-941 may l e a d t o flow separation and a n uncontrollable descent because t h e Wing i s no longer washed by t h e p r o p e l l e r s . Furthermore, t h e r e W i l l always be t h e d i f f i c u l t y of providing c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y a t low speeds i n t h e s e machines.
/ ton-km

9 -

'il 'I
t

VTOL t u r b o l e t aircraft,

'I

"'

1
with fans
- --

Range 2000-3000k n aircraft

Cross-Country Truck

IOG

zoo

Ltght transport propel 1 er . aircraft I Truck on highwi

urboprop r unspo r t rrcraft

300

400

1, m

Fig.1.36

Dependence of C, on Takeoff Run f o r Various Flying Ranges.

A f u r t h e r reduction i n weight and f u e l consumption of turboprop engines under development a t present W i l l lead t o a n i n c r e a s e i n load f a c t o r of helicopters. The s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n s e r v i c e l i f e of r o t o r blades, reduction gears, and transmissions obtained i n modern prototypes W i l l equalize t h e amortiz a t i o n c o s t of a i r p l a n e s and helicopters, a f t e r which t h e h e l i c o p t e r will become a f u l l and equal m e m b e r of t h e a i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system i n i t s most massive area.

6. P o s s i b i l i t i e s of Increase i n M a x i "

F l y i n g Sp eed

If t h e f l y i n g speed of VTOL and STOL a i r c r a f t i s considered t o be an irnp o r t a n t f l y i n g and t a c t i c a l requirement, then t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of r o t o c r a f t are f a r from exhausted With respect t o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n speed.

If we equate t h e power required f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and t h e net power of t h e engine, we can o b t a i n t h e r e l a t i o n between maximum speed and power/weight r a t i o of t h e a i r c r a f t :

(2.10)

where

N = engine power; G = gross weight of t h e a i r c r a f t .

It follows from eq.(2.10) that t h e maximum speed i s d i r e c t l y proportional t o t h e power/weight r a t i o N/G of t h e a i r c r a f t


Figure 1.37 gives t h e curves of t h e required power/weight r a t i o as a funct i o n of f l y i n g speed f o r various a i r c r a f t . The curves f o r heavy r o t o c r a f t show that, t o i n c r e a s e t h e f l y i n g speed above 300 320 km/hr, it i s necessary t o s q p l e m e n t t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r w i t h a second h i g h - l i f t device - a wing; t o reach speeds above 370 km/hr a l s o p r o p e l l e r s are needed, which m e a n s changing over t o a r o t o c r a f t . Thus, by formulating t h e problem of achieving t h e highest speed p o s s i b l e a t any p r i c e , it becomes p o s s i b l e t o decide what VTOL a i r c r a f t configuration t o use f o r d i f f e r e n t d u m f l y i n g speeds. However, i t must be remembered t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n from h e l i c o p t e r t o r o t o c r a f t involves a loss i n l i f t capacity, an i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o s t of construction, e t c . Even with a power/weight r a t i o of 0.45 hp/kg, which can p r e s e n t l y be r e a l i z e d on r o t o c r a f t , t h e t r a n s i t i o n from h e l i c o p t e r t o r o t o c r a f t w i l l not produce a g a i n i n speed by more than 30 4 0 lan/hr.

0 . 5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

Fig.1.37

Powerheight Ratio of A i r c r a f t as a Function of Flying Speed.

Finally, t h e graph of t h e required power/weight r a t i o c l e a r l y shows t h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e power/weight r a t i o of VTOL a i r c r a f t and of r o t o c r a f t . A t equalpower/weight r a t i o , t h e r o t o c r a f t is somewhat i n f e r i o r i n speed t o t h e propeller-driven VTOL a i r p l a n e w i t h a s h o r t range.

32

Section 3 . Basic P r i n c ip l e s of Design

1 . S e l e c t i o n of Fn,qine Horser,ower- and Rotor %an

I n most cases, t h e h e l i c o p t e r designer i s strpplied with t h e d e s i r e d l i f t capacity. KnaJing t h e required speed, he estimates t h e necessary power/weight r a t i o . After assigning t h e c u r r e n t percentage of t h e u s e f u l load r a t i o , he determines t h e order of magnitude of t h e f l y i n g weight and hence t h e magnitude of t h e i n s t a l l e d power. Having s e l e c t e d t h e number of engines i n View of t h e end use of t h e h e l i c o p t e r (one engine f o r a l i g h t military machine, a t least two engines f o r a passenger c r a f t , etc.), he can s e l e c t t h e most suitable engines among e x i s t i n g o r scheduled types.
Usually, i t W i l l happen that t h e power of t h e p o s s i b l e combinations of engines does not match t h e d e s i r e d power. T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s correcting t h e parameters of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n question, after s e l e c t i n g t h e optimum combination of e x i s t i n g engines. After this, t h e main problem f a c i n g t h e designer i s t o s e l e c t t h e r o t o r span f o r t h e s p e c i f i c power p l a n t . H o w does one s e l e c t d i s k loading?

It i s known from s t a t i s t i c s t h a t d i s k loading r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e s with i k creasing f l y i n g weight and varies w i t h i n 12 - 50 kg/m2 as t h e weight increases from t h e l i g h t e s t t o t h e heaviest helicopter.
Disk loading, as a f u n c t i o n of weight, v a r i e s even more t h a n wing load& i n g of an airplane. T h i s i s of importance s i n c e a n i n c r e a s e i n wing loading of an a i r p l a n e can be compensated by a n increase i n l e n g t h of takeoff run whereas, f o r helicopters, t h e takeoff r u n must always remain zero. The weight of t h e r o t o r i n c r e a s e s approximately i n proportion t o t h e cube of i t s span. However, a t equal power t h e l i f t capacity of t h e helicopter as a whole i n c r e a s e s i n proportion t o t h e 2/3 power w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n span. I n addition, such f l i g h t d a t a as c e i l i n g , rate of climb, range, rate of descent i n a u t o r o t a t i o n must be improved when t h e span i s increased and hence d i s k loading i s decreased.

It i s impossible t o c a l c u l a t e t h e parameters of a n optimal design s i n c e t h e r e are t o o many contradictory considerations t h a t t h e designer must weigh. The answer t o this problem should a l s o include a search i n t o t h e p a s t , an analysis of t h e development of h e l i c o p t e r s with respect t o s i z e .
H o w i s t h e next ( l a r g e r ) h e l i c o p t e r t o be developed?

It i s obvious t h a t t h e prime requisite i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i n s t a l l e d power. However, t o what extent? For example, i f we r e t a i n t h e power/weight r a t i o ( f o r considerations of econow) and then, i f necessary, i n c r e a s e t h e r o t o r s p a n ' s 0 that t h e former disk loading remains, o r else i f we i n c r e a s e t h e power/weight r a t i o and t h e n have t h e opportunity t o i n c r e a s e d i s k loading provided khat takeo f f i s v e r t i c a l , Will we a c t u a l l y o b t a i n a comparatively smaller r o t o r span?
The best s o l u t i o n i s obtained with t h e v a r i a n t having t h e lowest construction

33

weight, i .e., providing a higher proportion of u s e f u l load.

L e t us f i n d t h e v a r i a t i o n i n load r a t i o of a h e l i c o p t e r when i t s s i z e i s increased f o r d i f f e r e n t power loading and d i s k loading. We will examine t h e case i n which a new l a r g e r h e l i c o p t e r i s developed according t o t h e same scheme as above.
Taking t h e s t a t i c t h r u s t (without consideration of t h e ground e f f e c t ) t o be

equal t o t h e weight, Joukowskits formula w i l l f u r n i s h

where

a c o e f f i c i e n t smaller than u n i t y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e mechanical l o s s e s

of power i n t h e transmission and those due t o cooling and equalizat i o n of t h e torque; r\ = r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y representing t h e r a t i o of t h e u s e f u l power needed f o r supporting t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e air during hovering t o t h e spent power

W e w i l l write t h e expression f o r takeoff weight of a h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e form

where
G u s , = u s e f u l load of t h e helicopter; G , t = weight of t h e n o n l i f t i n g elements of t h e helicopter; G = takeoff weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; kt, = a n empirical c o e f f i c i e n t representing t h e r a t i o of engine weight and transmission t o engine power; Gt.s = r e l a t i v e weight of l i f t i n g system ( r o t o r with hub and automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism) with respect t o h e l i c o p t e r weight

Change i n load f a c t o r on i n s r e a s e i n r o t o r span. termine t h e load f a c t o r

W e will attempt t o de-

fi

of G

a heavier h e l i c o p t e r which d i f f e r s from t h e

o r i g i n a l by t h e r o t o r span:

eq.(3.1),

Assuming t h a t , i n t h i s case, t h e power/weight r a t i o N/G remains constant, a t a constant value of 51, Will y i e l d

G3I2 =const N D

or

Hence t h e d i s k loading, i.e.,

t h e quantity

a l s o should remain constant. On i n c r e a s i n g t h e r o t o r span, i f t h e s i z e of t h e blades changes s i m i l a r l y w h i l e t h e i r number remains unchanged, t h e weight of t h e l i f t i n g system increases i n proportion t o t h e cube of t h e r a t i o of t h e r o t o r spans:

Consequentl y ,

Here t h e s u b s c r i p t s 1 and 2 p e r t a i n , respectively, t o t h e o r i g i n a l helicopter and t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r under study (D, > D1).
However, i f t h e disk loading p i s increased, flow s e p a r a t i o n a t maximum speed can be avoided only by i n c r e a s i n g t h e loading (mainly by i n c r e a s i n g t h e number of blades s i n c e a r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n chord i s l e s s advantageous and causes a g r e a t e r increase i n weight because of t h e need f o r l a r g e r balancers t o eliminate f l u t t e r ) .

In this case, when r e t a i n i n g t h e span and t h e t i p speed of t h e blades, t h e weight of t h e l i f t i n g system will i n c r e a s e p r o p o r t i o n a l l y t o p, i.e.,

or

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(3.3),

we o b t a i n

The c o e f f i c i e n t k,, mission:

i s t h e sum of t h e relative weights of engine and trans-

35

The first addend remains unchanged (it c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e weight charac/ & t e r i s t i c of a modern engine) and t h e second i n c r e a s e s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y t o t h e increase i n rotor span. Actually, i f we assume t h a t t h e weight of t h e transmission is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e magnitude of i t s transmitted torque Mt, t h e n we o b t a i n

.
I

Keeping t h e t i p speed constant (wR = const), we have


-_-.
"2 0 2

Dl

Hence,

A t constant d i s k loading it follows from eq.(3.4)

that

where

m=Gz/G,.
Then, considering a l s o t h a t

and

we can transform eq.(3.9)

into

where

Assuming f o r t h e o r i g i n a l version: G t ,
= 0.18;

= 0.25;

Geng

= 0.2;

Gtr

= 0.4;

Gt. 6

N
G

= 0.28 and substitubing t h e s e i n t o eq.(3.15),

we o b t a i n ( a t

G2 = G I )

36

( + ) ,

=0.402;

Guse -0.694-0.292.GHence i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e load r a t i o of a l a r g e r helicopter decreases monotonically w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n m (Fig.l,3?), The r a t i o of t h e u s e f u l load of h e l i c o p t e r s can be represented as

follows from eqs.(3.15) and (3.17) t h a t it i s impossi l e t o construc, & a l a r g e r h e l i c o p t e r w h i l e maintaining t h e same d i s k loading and t h e same power t o weight r a t i o as those of t h e o r i g i n a l helicopter, w i t h a l a r g e r ( o r even t h e same as t h e previous) c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e load r a t i o , although t h e absolute value of t h e u s e f u l load i n c r e a s e s a t first (Eg.1.40).
T I-

p = consl

9 4

D=consl

Dependence of Load Ratio on Fig.1.38 Scale m of Weight Increase when p = const.

Dependence of Load Ratio on Fig.1.39 Scale m of Weight Increase when D = const.

Change i n l o a d r a t i o on i n c r e a s e i n power/weight r a t i o without change i n r o t o r man. Let us next e x d n e t h e case where t h e r o t o r span remains unchanged w h i l e f l y i n g weight and engine power increase, i.e., t h e power/weight r a t i o of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and d i s k loading increase.

It follows from eq.(S.l) t h a t t h e power/weight r a t i o of a h e l i c o p t e r should i n this case i n c r e a s e according t o t h e l a w

37

-i

.. .

. . . .

. . .. .

-. . . . ..

.. ...

...... . . ...

. .

... ..

Equation (3.8) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e relative weight of t h e l i f t i n g system remains constant. Keeping t h e r a t i o of engine weight t o engine power zonstant, t h e relative weight of t h e engine i n c r e a s e s i n proportion t o f i

The r e l a t i v e weight of t h e transmission a l s o changes

Then t h e expression f o r t h e load r a t i o c o e f f i c i e n t will t a k e t h e form

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e numerical values, we have

G use

~0.57-(2.17

VG.

The r a t i o of u s e f u l load t o h e l i c o p t e r weight v a r i e s i n t h e same manner as i n t h e previous case (see Fig.1.39), i.e., decreases monotonically.

A s we see (fig.l.l+O), 6, s e,
Guse2

upon a n i n c r e a s e i n power at constant span, t h e usef u l load i n c r e a s e s more r a p i d l y t h a n upon a n i n c r e a s e i n span a t constant power/weight r a t i o . Thus, it i s obvious t h a t t h e d i s k loading depends on t h e weight c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of A 2 s p e c i f i c engines a v a i l a b l e t o t h e designer f o r solving t h e formulated problem, namely t o l i f t a prescribed u s e f u l load. It i s obvious t h a t t h e l i g h t e r t h e engine i n comparison with a given prototype, t h e g r e a t e r will be t h e optimum disk loading and t h e smaller w i l l be t h e r o t o r span. T h i s i s t h e reason f o r t h e small loads p e r square meter of t h e first a i r p l a n e s and helicopters. These machines with t h e i r t h e n lowpower and high-weight engines with l a r g e loadi n g were generally not airworthy.

Fig.l.40 Ratio of Useful Load Weights as a Function of Flying Weight Ratio.

Thus, t h e designer o r researcher who wishes t o p r o j e c t i n t o t h e f u t u r e should adopt some r u l e s f o r decreasing t h e u n i t weight of engines, r o t o r s , and n o n l i f t i n g s t r u c t u r a l elements (by using new materials and i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e design stresses)

38

a s i d e from t h e p o s s i b l e discovery of new engine operating p r i n c i p l e s ; only t h e n w i l l he be able t o p r e d i c t t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of developing l a r g e r o r more economic (load r a t i o , f l y i n g range) a i r c r a f t .

It would be natural t o expect a pronounced i n c r e a s e i n load r a t i o by ret u r n i n g t o small h e l i c o p t e r s and using t h e l e v e l of engine and r o t o r unit weights achieved i n developing t h e heavy h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e 1960s.
Actually, a comparison of recent h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h turboprops of t h e same weight category as t h e M i 4 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s showed t h a t t h e i r load r a t i o almost doubled.
2. Analysis of Muztirotor Configurations

Sooner o r later, t h e designer i s confronted w i t h t h e problem of t h e expediency of f u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g t h e r o t o r span and t h e need t o change t o a twin- o r m u l t i r o t o r configuration. The l o t production of s t i l l another blade s i z e r e q u i r e s very l a r g e c a p i t a l investment f o r building new s t e e l mills, presses, and o t h e r expensive equipment required f o r f i n i s h - t r e a t i n g of s p a r s and blade assembly. Therefore, t h e development of new blades i s t o some extent a Federal problem. A t t h e same t h e , termination of t h e production of any one type of series-produced blade i s impossible, s i n c e t h e e x i s t i n g inventory of h e l i c o p t e r s i s a steady consumer of blades because t h e blade l i f e , as a rule, i s considerably s h o r t e r than t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of h e l i c o p t e r s . Consequently, when i n i t i a t i n g a new blade design new production f a c i l i t i e s must be created t o supplement those already a v a i l a b l e . Therefore, a f t e r having developed t h e l a r g e s t series-produced r o t o r , it i s l o g i c a l t o a t t a c k t h e problem of t h e opthum multiple t o be used. T h i s renders t h e problem of configuration s p e c i f i c : it becomes necessary t o double o r t r i p l e a l s o nonrotor units, i . e . , r o t o r s together w i t h reduction gears and engines. & . / Actually, t h e number of combinations i s not excessive : twin-rotor ( side-bys i d e and fore-and-aft configurations) and three-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s . The cumbersome four-rotor configuration need not be discussed here s i n c e t h e above conrequired l i f t capacity of 4.0-50 t o n s . f i g u r a t i o n s are able t o provide t h e Another problem t o be discussed i s t h a t of comparing single-rotor helicopters, designed f o r similar missions, w i t h t h e s e configurations. Fore-and-aft . _c -o _n f i m r a t i o n . Since t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s of t h e f r o n t and rear r o t o r s are i d e n t i c a l , t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e system w i l l d i f f e r only by t h e quantity of t h e average v e l o c i t y of mutual induction
va*=1 2
XV,,

( 3 -22)

where v1 = induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e r o t o r plane; N. = c o e f f i c i e n t of induction. Then, t h e a d d i t i o n a l induced power of t h e system o r of t h e rear r o t o r i s

39
r

AN, =- zv,G. If both r o t o r s l i e i n t h e same horizontal plane and do not overlap, t h e n


u ='2; a t

1 2

( Fig . 1.&l) we already have n = 1.35. R However, we should consider t h a t t.he in&iced v e l o c i t i e s are unevenly dist r i b u t e d over t h e d i s k s o t h a t t h e average vel o c i t i e s are l a r g e r , corresponding t o another aspect r a t i o , i.e., t o a smaller span or, what comes t o t h e same, t o a l a r g e r load p on t h e supporting surface. Therefore, we will take t h e expression f o r t h e average v e l o c i t y of m u t u a l i n duction, r e f e r r e d t o t h e e n t i r e c r a f t , as
4P o,,= 0 . 7 5 ~ =0.75 ~ VA

a = 0.2

(3.24.)

Fig J . 4 1 For Determining Rotor Overlap.

Then t h e rate of climb of a h e l i c o p t e r of a fore-and-aft configuration can be expressed by t h e r a t e of climb of a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r

where

Vi V,

configuration) h e l i c o p t e r ; rate of climb of a single-rotor helicopter; A = r e l a t i v e a i r density.


=

= rate of climb of a tandem (fore-and-aft

h e l i c o p t e r with blades of mixed design h a s a v e r t i c a l of 3.6 m/sec, t h e v e r t i c a l speed of t h e tandem-rotor h e l i c o p t e r (Fig.l.42) with two such power p l a n t s decreases by t h e quantity Thus, whereas t h e

Mi-4

rate of climb, a t a f l y i n g speed of 100 km/hr,

AVt = V , - V t
! I

3.21 =--=2.25
Y

28

m/sec,

i.e.,

t h e rate of climb of t h e tandern-rotor h e l i c o p t e r i s 1.35 m/sec.

Consequently, t h e f l y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e fore-and-aft machine subs t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r from those of t h e o r i g i n a l single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r from which t h e power p l a n t s w e r e taken. The r a t e of climb i s determined by t h e transverse span of t h e helicopter,

&

i t s engine power, and t h e takeoff weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r prescribed by t h e designer. It can be s t a t e d t h a t , i f these parameters are given, t h e m a x i " p o s s i b l e rate of climb W i l l be determined regardless of t h e configuration of t h e planned helicopter and t h e type of i t s power p l a n t .
I n a d d i t i o n t o power expended f o r l i f t i n g weight, t h e r e are a l s o power

40

expenditures f o r mechanical, p r o f i l e , and induced drag. Thus, i f t h e takeoff weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r of a fore-and-aft configuration i s twice t h e weight of a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r , t h e magnitude of rate of climb can be maintained only by i n c r e a s i n g t h e power of t h e tandem-rotor h e l i c o p t e r t o more than t h e double power, by a n amount of

AN=G,

3P -. 75VA

If we only double t h e power of t h e tandem-rotor helicopter, i t s rate of climb w i l l decrease, as i n d i c a t e d above. Such a doubling would be e s p e c i a l l y unsuitable f o r heavy h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h l a r g e d i s k loading; thus, a t values of p = 40 kg/m2 and V = 40 m/sec t h e l o s s of r a t e of climb bV; a t a n a l t i t u d e of H = 3000 m, i n comparison w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l single-rotor helicopter, w i l l be 4 m/sec, i.e., such a h e l i c o p t e r w i l l not be able t o f l y i f V , <: 4.5 - 5.0 m/sec.

Fig.l.42

Yak-&

Helicopter.

C o q a r a t i v e d a t a of two Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s Mi-4 and Yak-& of d i f f e r e n t configurations but having t h e same engines and supporting systems ( t h e s e are doubled on t h e Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r ) show t h a t t h e fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r has a v e r t i c a l ground speed 2.6 m/sec lower t h a n t h a t of t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r 2000 m, t h e l o s s i n v e r t i c a l speed reaches and t h a t , a t a l t i t u d e s of 1000 3 - 3.5 m/sec. The s e r v i c e c e i l i n g a l s o drops by a f a c t o r of 2 f o r t h e foreand-aft helicopter.

Figure 1.43 shows t h e change i n torque d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h respect t o t h e r o t o r shafts, measured i n f l i g h t on one of t h e fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s . A t p = 0 . 1 - 0.25, t h e rear r o t o r consumes about double t h e power of t h e f r o n t rotor. T h i s nonuniformity i n loading of t h e rear and f r o n t reduction gears and r o t o r s s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduces t h e l i f e t i m e of t h e rear r o t o r p a r t s or else necess i t a t e s development of a more powerful and heavy reduction gear. It i s h436ss i b l e t o use t h e main reduction gear of t h e o r i g i n a l single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r as t h e rear reduction gear of t h e tandem h e l i c o p t e r . The l a r g e induced'losses due t o mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e r o t o r s i n foreand-aft helicopters, which amount t o 5 2 0 25% of t h e power at c r u i s i n g speed, &

kl

I I

g r e a t l y impair i t s e f f i c i e n c y i n comparison with t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r i n which t h e power expenditure f o r d r i v i n g t h e rear r o t o r i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s negligible. Side-by-side configuration. T h i s configuration i s another s o l u t i o n t o t h e o l d problem of how t o b u i l d a I1bridgel1connecting. t h e r o t o r s . H o w can one def i n e $he-difference between such foreand-af t and side- by- s i d e 11bridges"? From t h e viewpoint of mutual i n t e r ference during hovering, t h e r e are no fundamental d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e operation of t h e r o t o r s of e i t h e r type of helicopter configuration. However, t h e l o s s e s from p r o p e l l e r wash over t h e Wing i n a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r may be g r e a t e r t h a n from wash over t h e fuselage i n a fore-and-aft helicopter. Theref o r e , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of v e r t i c a l takeoff are poorer f o r t h e side-by-side configuration w i t h a wing. Neverthel e s s , i n forward f l i g h t t h e rate of climb of t h e side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r increases by a n amount of

Fig.l.43 Change i n Torque D i s t r i b u t i o n with Respect t o Rotor Shafts as a Function of t h e i r Operation. t h e load r a t i o of a side-by-side following r e l a t i o n exists:

i n comparison w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l singler o t o r helicopter, due t o a decrease of induced drag ( t h e IIspanll of t h e side-bys i d e h e l i c o p t e r being twice t h a t of t h e o r i g i n a l single-rotor machine).

It can be demonstrated t h a t , between h e l i c o p t e r and a single-rotor helicopter, t h e

where
I r e ar

Nrear

= a c o e f f i c i e n t taking i n t o account power expenditures

I T

AT =T,

50

Gw

a t t h e rear r o t o r i n a single-rotor helicopter taken equal t o 0.09; = a c o e f f i c i e n t taking i n t o account t h r u s t l o s s e s due t o wash over t h e wing, taken equal t o 0.07; = a c o e f f i c i e n t taking i n t o account t h e v a r i a t i o n i n weight on changing from a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r t o a two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration.

Let us assume t h a t t h e wing weight i s 12%of t h e weight of t h e single-rotor

--.._ ._

..- . . . .-

. .... ... ..- .

--

..... - .. .

...

... . ..

.. ...

. .

h e l i c o p t e r and t h a t of t h e rear transmission with r o t o r , 10%. The above formu$ shows t h a t , i n a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r constructed from two single-rotor helicopters, i t i s impossible t o achieve t h e load r a t i o of t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r .
If a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r i s designed from scratch, it might r e s u l t & i n a much b e t t e r construction s i n c e t h e designer of a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r will not use t h e same load p e r square meter as t h e designer of a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r had been using. I n f a c t , this f a c t o r dl1 be made g r e a t e r and t h e h e l i c o p t e r will become more compact. On t h e o t h e r hand, when designing a foreand-aft h e l i c o p t e r from s c r a t c h i t i s n a t u r a l t o s e l e c t a smaller load p e r area and a higher power/weight r a t i o t h a n i s usually done.

It must be borne i n mind t h a t , i n designing a side-by-side helicopter, t h e r e must be means available f o r ltcontrollingll t h e frequency of n a t u r a l o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e Wing With power p l a n t s and r o t o r s , both i n t h e v e r t i c a l and horiz o n t a l plane, s i n c e this configuration has a multitude of p o s s i b l e v i b r a t i o n modes whose frequencies may e n t e r i n t o resonance w i t h t h e forced frequencies induced by t h e r o t o r . Furthermore, i n t h e case of high-power and t h u s heavy engines mounted t o t h e wing t i p s , t h e side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r almost c e r t a i n l y Will have a v i b r a t i o n mode of a frequency close t o o r even smaller t h a n t h e r o t o r rpm, a t which t h e r o t o r s w i l l v i b r a t e on h o r i z o n t a l displacement. T h i s may s e t up o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e Ifground resonancell type not only on t h e ground but a l s o i n t h e a i r . Therefore, t h e designer who has decided t o design a .sideby-side h e l i c o p t e r i s faced w i t h t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k of making t h e Wing as small as p o s s i b l e i n area, l i g h t i n weight, and s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g i d i n bending and torsion.
However, d e s p i t e c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s i n designing side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r s and shortcomings of fore-and-aft configurations, designers w i l l have t o r e s o r t t o them as a means of increasing l i f t capacity. T h i s becomes obvious when cons i d e r i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n developing r o t o r s and reduction gears of superheavy single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s .

A . n a n a l y s i s shows t h a t , i n changing over t o S e l e c t i o n of-configuration. side-by-side o r fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s with doubling of t h e power p l a n t s , i t i s impossible t o double t h e u s e f u l load l i f t e d by t h e single-rotor helicopter. If this could be achieved a t a l l , i t would be a t t h e p r i c e of a n appreciable loss i n such f l y i n g and t a c t i c a l d a t a as takeoff and landing p r o p e r t i e s , r a t e of climb, dynamic c e i l i n g , e t c . Thus, t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e single-rotor t o t h e m u l t i r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r must be done over an increase i n power/weight r a t i o .
However, t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e configuration can be l a r g e l y influenced by f a c t o r s such as end use of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t a c t i c a l , t e c h n i c a l , o r o p e r a t i o n a l requirements. The designer o f t e n p r e f e r s t o adhere t o t h e configuration f o r which he has more d a t a and experience, i f o t h e r conditions permit selectimg several approximately equivalent configurations. I n some cases, t h e designer i s forced t o give preference t o a previously used configuration even when another configuration might o f f e r some advantages.

Le t us give a n example t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t .

The payload of a h e l i c o p t e r

43

with standard range amounts t o about 20% of f l y i n g weight. Depending on t h e h e l i c o p t e r design, this weight may vary by 5% t o e i t h e r s i d e . T h i s means that, a t i d e n t i c a l takeoff weight, a good h e l i c o p t e r w i l l l i f t a payload weighing 25% of t h e machine i t s e l f , whereas a poorly designed h e l i c o p t e r w i l l l i f t only 15% of i t s weight. Thus, t h e second h e l i c o p t e r w i l l be qutte i n f e r i o r with respect t o l i f t capacity. T h i s should be taken i n t o account, on t h e one hand, i n solving t h e problem of s e l e c t i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r configuration and, on t h e o t h e r hand, i n estimating t h e r a t i o n a l i t y of some p a r t i c u l a r configuration on t h e basis of a comparative a n a l y s i s of d a t a of e x i s t i n g designs.

.... ....

..

C H A P T E R I1

ROTOR A E R O D Y N A M I C S
Section 1 . Bxel-ent of Rotor. T.heoq and Methods of Fxperimenta l -Det erminatian o f i t s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s The i d e a of using a r o t o r i n p l a c e of a Wing as a l i f t i n g system was born i n 1923. The Spanish engineer Juan de l a Cierva, a f t e r t h e a i r p l a n e of his design had s t a l l e d and crashed, decided t o develop a n a u t o r o t a t i n g s u s t a i n i n g system whose wing-blade combination would not l o s e speed at a low o r even zero forward speed of t h e apparatus.

A n experiment c a r r i e d out by him i n 1924 i n t h e laboratory of QuadroVentos i n Madrid, which showed t h e unlikely high values of t h e aerodynamic e f f i ciency of an a u t o r o t a t i n g r o t o r as a l i f t i n g system, induced a t h e o r e t i c a l inv e s t i g a t i o n of t h e aerodynamics of a u t o r o t a t i n g r o t o r s , c a r r i e d out i n England by Glauert i n 1926 and l a t e r developed i n 1928 by Lock f o r t h e case of hinged blades.
Thus, experiment generates theory and t h e endeavor t o e x t r a p o l a t e t h e results of theory t o p r a c t i c e g i v e s rise t o new experiments which more thoroughly r e v e a l t h e p h y s i c a l nature of various phenomena, whi.ch i n t u r n l e a d s t o a new c l o s e examination and development of theory. Only i n t h e u n i t y of theory and p r a c t i c e i s i t p o s s i b l e t o describe t h e development of r o t o r aerodynamics up t o t h e present state of t h e a r t . Thus, i n 1928 t h e Glauert-Lock theory w a s f i r s t published. A s i s known, i n this theory t h e magnitudes of t h r u s t T, longitudinal f o r c e H, and torque M, are determined as a function of t h e kinematic parameter
p=
-

Vcos a wR

of t h e angle of r o t o r blade s e t t i n g cp, and of t h e flow c o e f f i c i e n t


)--.

.-

V s i____ na-u

WR

which r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r flowing through t h e d i s k Consequently, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e moments t o t h e t i p speed w R (Fig.2.1). and f o r c e s can be expressed as

According t o t h e momentum theorem (see Sect.3), we have Y

= T = 2en/i2vv.

(1.2)

4.5

After determining from this t h e induced v e l o c i t y v

and s u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o t h e formula f o r A ,

we obtain t h e expression f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e c r a f t :

For c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an autogiro, Lock proposed deriving t h e unknown value of t h e quantity h from t h e conditions of autor o t a t ion. i.e., equating t h e exp r e s s i o n - f o r torque on t h e r o t o r s h a f t t o zero:

M,= f (cp, I., p)=O.

(1.5)

Fig.2.1 Velocity Components of Air Flowing through t h e Rotor Disk.

Since t h e angle of blade sett i n g cp and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e regime p were prescribed q u a n t i t i e s , t h e value of h was determined from t h e quadratic equation (2.47) representing eq.(1.5) i n a developed form. For a given value of t h e v e l o c i t y of rotationwR, f l y i n g speed V, angle of s e t t i n g cp, and known h , t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e angle of a t t a c k of t h e autogiro CY a t which steady a u t o r o t a t i o n occurred was found from eq.(l.k). I n this case, t h e equation (see Sect .2)

yielded t h e value of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t w h i l e t h e corresponding equation &!L, furnished t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e s o t h a t t h e p o l a r of a freely a u t o r o t a t i n g r o t o r could be determined as a f u n c t i o n of t h e angle of a t t a c k . T h i s p o l a r , l i k e t h e p o l a r of a Wing, could be used i n t h e aerodynamic

46

c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e autogiro. 1 1 ) khin ( R e f .

Such a method w a s published i n 1931 by 1.P.Bratu-

I n 1934, t h e author* (Ref.4), i n his study of overspeed of t h e autogiro r o t o r during t h e takeoff run, determined t h e unknown values of t h r u s t and torque from eqs.(l.4), (1.51, and (1.6) and prescribed values f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k CY, angle of blade s e t t i n g cp, and i n i t i a l p e r i p h e r a l v e l o c i t y and f l y i n g speed, i.e., t h e parameter p,, which made it p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e aerodynamic chara c t e r i s t i c s f o r cases of unsteady motion. The following method of determining t h e flow c o e f f i c i e n t h was proposed: S u b s t i t u t i n g expression (1.6) i n t o eq.( 1.4.) Will y i e l d a polynomial of t h e f o u r t h power i n both h and p ; thus, i t i s d i f f i c u l t i n p r a c t i c a l work t o determine h a t known p, o r vice versa, s i n c e each time it would be necessary t o solve a fourth-degree equation. A study of t h e dependence of h on p a t given values of CY and cp shows t h a t , w i t h t h e exception of a small segment of negative h near p = 0, t h e curve h = f ( p ) r e p r e s e n t s a s t r a i g h t l i n e w i t h a high degree of accuracy. The equation of t h e family of t h e s e s t r a i g h t l i n e s a t d i f f e r e n t values of CY and cp has t h e form

Equation (1.7) y i e l d s t h e dependence of h on p , CY, cp, and 0 ; i t s use, together w i t h t h e above formulas, permits c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t h r u s t and torque coeff i c i e n t s . It i s t h u s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e autogiro r o t o r f o r any unsteady operating conditions when t h e torque created on t h e r o t o r by t h e a i r flow produces spinning o r braking of t h e blades, dependi n g on t h e angle of a t t a c k and t h e value of p .
T h i s s t i l l l e f t t h e n e c e s s i t y of finding a method of applying t h i s theory (developed by Glauert and Lock f o r an autogiro) t o c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a helicopter, i.e., t o t h e i r determination under forced r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r by a n engine. Such a method w a s proposed by t h e author i n 194.5, i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h V.N.Yaroshenko ( R e f .9).

To determine t h e torque necessary f o r f l i g h t under given conditions i t i s l o g i c a l t o use t h e above system of equations. Here, it was convenient t o pres c r i b e t h e value of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t t, s i n c e t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i s e a s i l y determined i f it i s approximately assumed t h a t t h e t h r u s t , under steady horiz o n t a l f l y i n g conditions, i s equal t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight. Using prescribed values of t h e rpm and determining t from t h e expression

Here and elsewhere i n Section 1 , t h e author i s M.L.Milf

.
4.7

t h e quantity A can be found from eq.(1.6), t h e torque from eq.(2.47) and t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e helicoptercy which corresponds t o t h e s e conditions, from eqO(U) Even before t h e present s t a g e of h e l i c o p t e r development, p r a c t i c a l autog i r o engineering required t h e s o l u t i o n of c e r t a i n s t a b i l i t y problems; designers i n various c o u n t r i e s attacked t h e problem of determining t h e d q i n g produced by t h e hinged r o t o r during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e c r a f t . Analyses of f l i g h t accidents with autogiros showed t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r studying t h e flapping motion of blades , & g and f o r f i n d i n g methods of r e t a i n i n g a u t o r o t a t i o n during aerobatic maneuvers of t h e c r a f t . T h i s l e d t o t h e theory of a r o t o r f o r h i n g e d b l a d e attachment with c u r v i l i n e a r motion, which t h e author developed i n 1939 and which r e p r e s e n t s a more general case t h a n t h e Glauert-Lock theory e s t a b l i s h e d f o r steady r e c t i l i n e a r motion. Finally, i n 194.0 A.N.Mikhaylov worked out a method of equivalent r o t o r s , which simplifies t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e Lock theory t o a r o t o r equipped with an automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism ( R e f .15). The a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e methods t o t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of Soviet autogiros between 1931 and 1940 and of t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s i n 1947-1952 showed highly s a t i s f a c t o r y agreement between design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f l i g h t t e s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Since t h e s e first autogiros and h e l i c o p t e r s f l e w a t relat i v e l y low speeds and t h u s a t small values of p, t h e inaccuracies of t h e theory due t o t h e assumption of smallness of this parameter, made by Glauert and Lock, were nonessential. However, more complex problems w e r e s t i l l t o come: t h e development of more powerful and faster helicopters, which implied constant improvement of t h e theory. The Glauert-Lock theory, as i s known, makes a number of assumptions (including uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of induced v e l o c i t i e s ) s o as t o permit i n t e g r a t i n g t h e equations i n a f i n i t e form. Thus, t h e c y of t h e s e c t i o n was expressed as a l i n e a r function of t h e angle of a t t a c k c y = a mcy, w h i l e c X pwas taken as some average quantity independent of t h e angle of a t t a c k . The f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e p r o f i l e , i.e., on t h e s e c t i o n of t h e d i s k where i n forward f l i g h t - t h e air flows around t h e blade from t h e t r a i l i n g edge (this region i s small a t small values of p,) were i n a c c u r a t e l y determined. The r a d i a l component of t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y i n t h e blade d i r e c t i o n was a l s o disregarded. The blade i t s e l f was assumed t o be r e c t i l i n e a r , f l a t ( n o t twisted), and of constant chord.

During t h e period of 1932-1943, many researchers Whittle and Bailey i n t h e USA, Hohenemzer and Zissing i n Germany, and o t h e r s - f u r t h e r refined this theory i n t h a t methods were found f o r i n t e g r a t i n g equations i n a f i n i t e form w h i l e doing away w i t h many previously accepted assumptions. The concept of t h e e f f e c t i v e radius of a blade, smaller t h a n t h e actual, was introduced f o r talcing account of t i p l o s s e s . The c o e f f i c i e n t s c y and c, represented more complex functions of t h e angle of attack, e t c . The most important improvement of t h e c l a s s i c a l theory during t h e postwar

years was t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of flapping motion and aerodynamic f o r c e s . T h i s permitted t h e d i r e c t use of t h e
experimental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r o f i l e s , taken f o r t h e necessary value of t h e

48

Reynolds numbers and Mach number, i n determining c y and c, of t h e s e c t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of t h e angle of a t t a c k and thus t o t a k e i n t o account a l s o t h e e f f e c t of c o n p r e s s i b i l i t y

Later, i t became p o s s i b l e t o introduce i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s not o n l y t h e i n i t i a l geometric shape of t h e blade b u t a l s o i t s deformations due t o bending i n t h e plane of thrust and i n plane of r o t a t i o n and, w h a t i s e s p e c i a l l y important, due t o t o r s i o n . However, t h e use of such a cumbersome method f o r p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s became p o s s i b l e only after appearance of e l e c t r o n i c computers. Thus, t h e modern method of r o t o r calculation, as presented i n this book on t h e basis of s t u d i e s and M.N.Tishchenko, was a step-by-step process. made by A.S.Braverman However, even after a l l t h e s e refinements t h e r e s t i l l remained t h e r a t h e r rough assumption of a uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of induced veS e c t i o n where measuremenrs l o c i t i e s over t h e r o t o r disk, w e r e made which not only l e d t o an inaccu2' racy i n determining induced power l o s s e s but a l s o t o e r r o r s i n determining t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k of i n d i v i d u a l blade sect i o n s and hence t o e r r o r s i n t h e p r o f i l e power, t h r u s t , and longit u d i n a l force.

Thus, f urt'her refinement of t h e theory could be expected from t h e development of t h e vortex theory which i s t h e only one capable of determining t h e d i s t r i bution of induced v e l o c i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on each given blade element. However, development of such a theory required g r e a t e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p h y s i c a l aspects of t h e phenomenon. Here again it w a s necessary t o r e s o r t t o experiment.

Fig.2.2

Induced Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Hovering.

m e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s of flow around a r o t o r i n a Wind t u n n e l followed by removal of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , c a r r i e d out i n 1946 by t h e author t o g e t h e r w i t h M.K.Speranskiy, c l e a r l y showed that t h e vortex system known from a p r o p e l l e r operating under conditions of axial c i r c u l a t i o n flow and repres e n t i n g [ f o r t h e case of c i r c u l a t i o n constant along t h e blade ( I ' = const)] a c e n t r a l vortex With blade-tip v o r t i c e s shed by t h e blades, i s transfo&ed at s m a l l values of p - i n t o a system similar t o t h e rectangular vortex system c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r a hng. In turn, t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n obtained from e q e r i m e n t (Figs.2.2, 2.3, and 2.4) f u l l y confirmed t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of an

49

Trapezoidal blade

,u-az

01=--50

+=-a04

Fig.2.3

Induced Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Forward Flight (p = 0.2).

approximate r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , praposed by Kusner and Glauert, i n t h e form of a funnel during t h e hovering phase (Fig.2.5) and i n t h e form of a cylinder truncated by a n i n c l i n e d plane during forward f l i g h t This configuration could be used f o r r e f i n i n g t h e Glauert-Lock (Fig.2.6). theory without r e s o r t i n g t o t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y . These experimental f a c t s gave r i s e t o a sequence of t h e o r e t i c a l works, which were based both on t h e approximate vortex p a t t e r n of rectangular v o r t i c e s suitable f o r describing conditions a t medium and high f l y i n g speeds and on various more general t h e o r i e s which examine a system of v o r t i c e s t r a i l i n g from each element of t h e blade.

It i s necessary t o say t h a t even before appearance of t h e s e experimental data, G .I .Maykopar examined t h e vortex theory of r o t o r s , having proposed t h a t t h e vortex c y l i n d e r slopes i n direct i o n of f l i g h t , which t h e n served as i n c e n t i v e for a series of more or less accurate s t u d i e s i n this area.
Fig.2.4. Three-Dimensional Model of Induced Velocity F i e l d of a Rotor.

.S.Vil*dgrube Subsequently, L was successful i n developing t h e vortex theory i n t h e USSR, follaved l a t e r by V.E.Baskin.

In a l l t h e s e t h e o r i e s f o r determining t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade & s e c t i o n it was necessary t o d e f i n e not only t h e known kinematic parameters cy, p, 6 , and cp but a l s o t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e induced v e l o c i t y v as a result of t h e a c t i o n a t a given p o i n t of a l l v o r t i c e s i n t h e region surrounding t h e r o t o r . The induced v e l o c i t i e s are found by t h e Biot-Savart formula as a f u n c t i o n of t h e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e blade section:
1 r= c,bU. 2

Hence it i s c l e a r t h a t , s i n c e t h e induced v e l o c i t y determining t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of c i r c u l a t i o n and s i n c e t h e l a t t e r , i n t u r n , can be determined i n terms of cy which i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e angle of atta.ck of t h e s e c t i o n i n which t h e induced v e l o c i t y e n t e r s , a l l t h e s e problems reduce t o quite complex equations and can be solved only by approximation methods and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , by methods of successive approximations.. Generally, first t h e magnitude of c y i s determined under t h e assumption of constancy i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of induced v e l o c i t i e s over t h e disk, a f t e r which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s repeated during which process t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s determined from t h e vortex theory. The i n t e g r a l value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h r u s t i s t h e n compared with t h e assigned value, and l e a d s t o c a l c u l a t i o n of successive approximations.

v c o s ol

P l a n e o f rotation

Fig.2.5 Induced Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n according t o t h e Law of t h e Triangle

Fig .2.6

Linear Induced Velocity Distribution.

Without here examining t h e essence of various vortex t h e o r i e s which, spec i f i c a l l y , d i f f e r by t h e assumption of f i n i t e n e s s o r i n f i n i t e n e s s of t h e number of blades, o r t h e p r i n c i p l e s of methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t y (see Chapt.11, Sect.5), we W i l l estimate t h e i r general s i g n i f i c a n c e and r o l e i n t h e refinement of c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e f l y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e single-rotor helicopter. Let us examine t h e m a x i " value of t h e a i r i n determining t h e induced power, assuming a uniform and funnel-shaped induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . After this, we W i l l compare t h e induced r o t o r power under t h e condition of constancy of t h r u s t f o r t h e case of a uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e d i s k and c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e funnel. The funnel-shaped induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s represented by t h e l a w

51

of t h e t r i a n g l e ( Fig. 2 . 5 ):

v,=kr,
where v, i s t h e induced v e l o c i t y at a r a d i u s r of t h e blade. According t o t h e momentum theorem, t h e elementary t h r u s t i s

dT=e2nr2v?.
I n t e g r a t i n g from 0 t o R, we o b t a i n

T=
where vt i s t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e bl&de t i p s e c t i o n . For t h e case of uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e t h r u s t i s

T , =~ 2 n p v 2 .
Equating TI and T, we o b t a i n

enR2v:= 2nR2gv2,
whence

vt =v p .
Cons e w e n t ly

The induced power i s determined from t h e following formulas: dN,,, =dTv =4nev;rdr;

S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h e last formula t h e value of v, = k r , we obtain t h e exp r e s s i o n f o r power i n t h e case of an induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n according t o . t h e l a w of t h e t r i a n g l e :


Nind

.=trL

R2e2312V3= 2.26nR2QV3.

This power i s g r e a t e r by a f a c t o r of 1.13 t h a n t h e power Nind f o r t h e case of uniform v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , s i n c e

52

Thus, t h e funnel-shaped induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c r e a s e s t h e induced l o s s e s by about 13%. Consequently, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y amounts t o about 10%. T h i s i s a high value so t h a t , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t h r u s t and power of a r o t o r i n a hovering regime, it i s l o g i c a l t o use methods of t h e momentum o r vortex theory which permit taking i n t o account t h e a d d i t i o n a l power l o s s due t o nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e disk. I n an approximate c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e induced l o s s e s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e formula N ; = TU, can be increased by about 13%. I n hovering, t h e expended power i s t h e sum of induced power and p r o f i l e power, where t h e former amounts t o 75% of t h e t o t a l required power. A t c r u i s i n g 30%and a t maximum speed, about 10%. Thus, speed, t h e induced power i s only 20 a t high f l y i n g speeds t h e ma.ximum refinement i n t h e required power, as a r e s u l t of taking t h e nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t o consideration, can be not more t h a n 1 2 % i n power and not more t h a n 1% i n f l y i n g speed.

Lu

Of course, using (analogous t o t h e e f f e c t i v e aspect r a t i o of an a i r p l a n e ) a n e f f e c t i v e r o t o r r a d i u s somewhat smaller t h a n t h e a c t u a l radius, it becomes p o s s i b l e t o introduce an experimental c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n which had been based on t h e theory of constant induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s c o r r e c t i o n may be p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n determining t h e rate of climb and c e i l i n g f o r heavily loaded r o t o r s .

Thus, it i s obvious t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l i g h t data, t h e r e i s no need f o r much more complex c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s based on t h e vortex theory. Refinement of t h e s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k given by t h e vortex theory becomes necessary only i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e stresses set up i n t h e blade, e s p e c i a l l y a t low speeds where t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s inducing blade v i b r a t i o n s i n second and higher harmonics a c t u a l l y are t h e result of t h e blade encountering t h e vortex f i e l d . According t o t h e t h e o r i e s s t i p u l a t i n g v = const, t h e s e stresses f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes - are equal t o zero.

It must be assumed t h a t f u r t h e r refinement of t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d may be of importance i n determining t h e boundary conditions a t which flow separation begins. However, f o r this purpose i t s u f f i c e s t o r e f i n e only t h e p a t t e r n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e form of l o n g i t u d i n a l p i t c h , which l e a d s t o a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e flapping motion ( b l ) and t o some r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e angles of a t t a c k .
A t t h e same time, t h e concept of induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e form and e s p e c i a l l y t h e assumption of i t s buildup from f r o n t of a funnel (Fig.2.5) t o rear (fig.2.6) result i n s u b s t a n t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e flapping motion (spec i f i c a l l y i n bl) and i n t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e s, which has been taken i n t o account by various authors.

53

1 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Rotor Theories

It i s obvious from this account t h a t only two of t h e t h e o r i e s of a real r o t o r d i f f e r fundamentally. Both are based on a study of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade element. Such an approach t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r was first used by N.Ye.Zhukovskiy (Ref.1) as long ago as i n his i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on t h e e f f e c t of wind on t h e t h r u s t of a h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r .
I n t h e first of t h e s e t h e o r i e s , t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e d i s k i s prescribed, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade elements. Its average value can be determined from t h e momentum theorem. I n t h e second theory, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s of each blade element are a function of f o r c e s a c t i n g on a l l b l a d e s , which i n t u r n are a f u n c t i o n of t h e s e induced v e l o c i t i e s and are usually determined by means of t h e Biot-Savart formula.

Let us c a l l t h e first t h e c l a s s i c a l theory which encompasses t h e GlauertI m k theory and i t s subsequent development, w h i l e t h e second w i l l be designated as t h e vortex theory.
The c l a s s i c a l theory i s conceivable w i t h i n t e g r a t i o n i n f i n i t e form, w h i l e t h e vortex theory proposes only numerical s o l u t i o n methods.

It i s a l s o of use t o study t h e momentum theory of an i d e a l r o t o r , which can be used i n developing energy methods f o r aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n and i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e results of an experimental determination of t h e aerodynamic r o t o r characteristics.
Although t h e development of t h e c l a s s i c a l theory i n i t s numerical methods i s nearing completion due t o t h e use of computers, t h e vortex theory s t i l l

p r e s e n t s various problems. Thus, i n most vortex t h e o r i e s , when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c i r c u l a t i o n flow, t h e quantity c y i s taken as a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of t h e angle of a t t a c k s i n c e it can be refined. For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e vortex system i s considered t o be two- or three-dimensional but l i n e a r . T h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n can be compensated later.

fi

Thus, t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y , having i n h e r i t e d all refinements introduced during t h e development of t h e numerical c a l c u l a t i o n methods of t h e c l a s s i c a l theory, i s p r e s e n t l y becoming t h e most accurate theory. I n i t s development, t h e r e i s no need t o use t h e assumption of steady flow around t h e blade s e c t i o n s and t h e s e c t i o n p o l a r can be r e f i n e d by using experimental d a t a as t o t h e influence of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s on phenomena i n t h e boundary layer. Proceeding from this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , l e t us give a f u r t h e r account of t h e r o t o r theory.

2. Development of Experimental Methods


Ekperimental methods f o r determining t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

are being developed simultaneously w i t h t h e described development t r e n d s of t h e

theory.

After t h e first experiments i n M a d r i d i n t h e 1930s, researchers i n many countries began experimenting w i t h r o t o r s i n Wind tunnels. Experiments based on procedures by V.G.Petrunin a t TsAGI w e r e c a r r i e d out (1931-1936) on models of a u t o r o t a t i n g r o t o r s of 1.2 m diameter, i n which t h e three components of f o r c e and torque were measured and t h e blade flapping recorded.
The experimental technique was g r e a t l y improved. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t became p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e fuselage p o l a r i n t h e presence of an operating r o t o r . Measurement of flapping a t t h e hub of an a u t o r o t a t i n g r o t o r , t u r n i n g i n t h e t u n n e l air stream about t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r [which permitted estim a t i n g t h e rotor damping i n roll (see Sect.2)l was t h e most n o t e w o r t b achievement by V.G.Petrunin i n t h e s e experiments. However, it soon became c l e a r t h a t small Reynolds numbers i n t h e case of flow around t h e blade s e c t i o n l e d t o such extensive d i s t o r t i o n s of t h e p r o f i l e p o l a r on t h e model, i n comparison w i t h a f u l l - s c a l e c r a f t , t h a t it was imposs i b l e t o use t h e s e results d i r e c t l y . I n 194.4, t h e author t o g e t h e r w i t h 1.F.Morozov a t TsAGI set up experiments on a r o t o r of D = 2.5 m, which no longer concerned only t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime b u t a l s o included t h e h e l i c o p t e r regimes. The t e s t i n g f a c i l i t y f o r t h e r o t o r model of 2.5 m diameter i s shown i n Tests on this model w e r e first made i n t h e coordinates 6 , m, = f(y) Fig.2.7. f o r p = const and t = const (see l?ig.2.8), where 6 =
2 . The t Y

tests, conducted

for three types of blades of d i f f e r e n t shape and twist, made it p o s s i b l e t o judge t h e propulsive p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r o t o r s . However, t h e main thought behind t h e s e experiments l a y i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of estimating t h e degree of p e r f e c t i o n of t h e theory i n comparison w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n s .

Fig.2.7

Testing F a c i l i t y for Rotor Models.

55

II I

I11111111

I 11111 1 I 1111111 I1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1

I ,

,,.,,

...... - ....... . -

. .... ......._

.-.-..

Whereas o w first h e l i c o p t e r s were calculated w i t h reasonable accuracy by t h e c l a s s i c a l theory presented i n Section 2, t h e Mi-6 h e l i c o p t e r with 11,000-hp turboprop engines had already passed i n t o a region of . f l y i n g speeds and hence of values of IJ. (more t h a n 0.4.) and Mach numbers where t h e Glauert-lock theory yielded appreciable e r r o r s . I n p r e p a r a t i o n of this, a f u l l - s c a l e h e l i c o p t e r t e s t stand was constructed at t h e TsAGI on which t h e author, together w i t h M.K. Speranskiy, determined t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l4.5-m r o t o r s i n a l a r g e wind , & tunnel. The next problem was t h a t of converting t h e experimental d a t a obt a i n e d f o r a s p e c i f i c r o t o r t o another load f a c t o r and t o o t h e r Mach numbers. These c a l c u l a t i o n s are presented i n Section 6.

Because of t h e need t o r e f i n e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l methods of c a l c u l a t i n g aerodynamic loads on a blade element, a series of experiments were c a r r i e d out i n recent years, whose r e s u l t s y i e l d a more d e t a i l e d explanation of t h e c i r c u l a t i o n f l a w p a t t e r n around t h e blade p r o f i l e under a c t u a l r o t o r operating conditions. I n this respect, i n t e r e s t i n g d a t a can be obtained by measuring t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e blade chord i n f l i g h t . By 0 t-01; u t = O l Z S -Trapezoidal blade i n t e g r a t i n g t h e p e r t a i n i n g pressure ---t=ol; 4 - t =D.l.?5 -Rectangular blade d i s t r i b u t i o n diagrams, it i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e a c t u a l i l ? - f l i g h t aerodynamic loads a c t i n g on t h e p r o f i l e Fig.2.8 Aerodynamic Rotor Characand varying r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r azit e r i s t i c s (Model Test). muth. I n making such experiments on models, V.E. Baskin and A. S. D fgachenko found t h a t , as t h e blade passes i n t o t h e region of vortex t r a i l i n g from-the t i p of t h e advancing blade, t h e r e i s a marked jump i n blade loading.

No doubt, t h e f u r t h e r development i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering toward an increase of f l y i n g speeds w i l l require new experiments and t h e development of t e s t stands for experimental determination of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t even larger values of IJ. w h i l e retaining similar5ty of Mach and Reynolds numbers.
S e c t i o n 2. C l a s s i c a l z h e o r y of a Rotor with Hinged Blade Attachment : General Case; Curvilinear Motion The r o t o r theory f o r r e c t i l i n e a r motion of a h e l i c o p t e r o r autogiro was developed by Glauert and Lock and has been described a t numerous occasions [see ( ~ e f . 3 6 , 37, 2, 1 1 , 23)l. The theory presented below i s a f u r t h e r development of t h e Glauert-Lock theory, f o r t h e more general case where t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion s o t h a t t h e r o t o r a x i s d e s c r i b e s a r o t a r y motion i n space. Such motion t a k e s p l a c e during steady c u r v i l i n e a r f l i g h t of t h e c r a f t , f o r example, during t u r n i n g and a l s o during v i b r a t i o n s relative t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l o r

56

t r a n s v e r s e a x i s caused by p i l o t i n g or external f a c t o r s . Rotor Theory i n Curvilinear Motion Here, a l l t h e a s s q t i o n s made by Lock a r e accepted i n t h e general theory, namely: The induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e absence of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r a x i s i s considered as uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e r o t o r disk; t h e change i n t h e l a w of i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e d i s k p e r t a i n s only t o t h e superposed e f f e c t of rot a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e c r a f t , i.e., t h e i n i t i a l p a t t e r n remains t h e same a s f o r Lock's p a t t e r n . Likewise, we adopt t h e assumptions of l i n e a r i t y cy = f ( a ) and t h e admissib i l i t y of r e p l a c i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c, by some average q u a n t i t y c X P a v which i s i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l blade s e c t i o n s . W e will take i n t o account blade t i p l o s s e s , i.e., consider t h a t no l i f t i s developed at some t i p p o r t i o n of t h e blade and t h a t t h e drag forces, j u s t a s t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s , a c t on t h e e n t i r e r a d i u s . The method of obtaining t h e express i o n s f o r f o r c e s and moments here i s analogous t o t h e k c k method, so t h a t we Will not repeat t h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e fundamental equations here and only discuss expressions that d i f f e r i n t h e case of c u r v i l i n e a r motion.
A s p e c i a l r o l e i s played here by t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s of i n e r t i a a r i s i n g upon r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . These f o r c e s w i l l be discussed i n most d e t a i l .

The r e s u l t s t o be presented here contain t h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s of t h e Glauert-Lock theory f o r r e c t i l i n e a r motion and, furthermore, permit answering t h e following questions : a) What i s t h e f l a p p i n g motion o f t h e blades i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion of the entire craft? b ) How does t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aerodynamic r e s u l t a n t change i n t h e case of r o t a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e c r a f t i n some d i r e c t i o n ( f o r example, t o t h e l e f t or t o t h e r i g h t ) and i s t h e r e a tendency t o a c c e l e r a t e or d e c e l e r a t e this r o t a t i o n ? c ) What p e c u l i a r i t i e s does t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime of a r o t o r e x h i b i t & i n t h e presence of r o t a t i o n ? Along with an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e s e problems we Will a l s o discuss t h e eff e c t of t h e configuration of t h e hub, p r o f i l e , and blade c e n t e r i n g on t h e behavior of t h e r o t o r from t h e Viewpoint of s t a b i l i t y and s a f e t y of t h e c r a f t . The obtained r e s u l t s are comon f o r any r o t o r w i t h hinged blade attachment, be i t t h e r o t o r of an a u t o g i r o o r of a h e l i c o p t e r .

I n a d d i t i o n t o answering t h e above questions which a r e of independent int e r e s t , t h e results of t h e a n a l y s i s y i e l d some necessary d a t a f o r studying t h e c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y and dynamic s t a b i l i t y of t h e mentioned c r a f t .
1 . Coo+nate S y s t e m and PhysLc-al Schgme of t h e Phenomenon
The phenomenon i s examined i n a coordinate system f i x e d

Coordinate system.

57

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c r a f t (Fig.2.9). This i s a right-handed system ( f o r r i g h t hand r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ) i n which t h e z-axis i s d i r e c t e d along t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r and t h e x-axis backward w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e c r a f t . The angular p o s i t i o n of t h e blade 4 i s reckoned from t h e x-axis. Ph..sical scheme o f - t h e phenomenon. We w i l l study a r o t o r r o t a t i n g i n space t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c r a f t a t a constant angular v e l o c i t y and, i n s o doing, maint a i n i n g a constant angle of a t t a c k w i t h t h e f l i g h t path. Such r o t a t i o n occurs, f o r example, i n turning.

Fig.2.9

Coordinate S y s t e m .

Fig.2.10

Velocity Diagram of Rotor i n Turning.

W e are i n t e r e s t e d here i n t h e manner i n which t h e radius of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t i s t o be taken i n t o consideration.


For this, l e t us examine a helicopter executing a t u r n of radius p a t a l a r g e angle of bank Y b , c l o s e t o 90 The v e l o c i t y diagram i n t h e plane of symmetry of t h e c r a f t , i n this case close t o t h e t u r n i n g plane, i s shown i n Fig.2.10. The relative flow v e l o c i t y a t a d i s t a n c e r from t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r can be divided i n t o two components: v e l o c i t y Rp d i r e c t e d along t h e tangent t o t h e p a t h of t h e center of t h e r o t o r hub (we will c a l l this t h e turning speed) and velocity S d r d i r e c t e d perpendicular t o t h e r o t o r plane. The distance from t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r hub t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r will be neglected f o r t h e radius of curvature of t h e path.

If we now t r a n s f e r t h e c e n t e r of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t t o t h e center ,of /60 t h e r o t o r hub, i t should become possible, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e indicated velocit i e s , t o a l s o allow f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blades.

A s i s known, i n t h e case of a steady t u r n without s i d e s l i p , t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e and t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y l i e s i n t h e plane of symmetry of t h e c r a f t . Thus, these forces, p r o p o r t i o n a l t o $p, can be regarded as an increase i n blade weight. Obviously, this i n c r e a s e i s t h e overload n. The expression f o r t h e coning angle a, contains a term taking t h e blade weight i n t o account:

where S h e hi s t h e s t a t i c moment of t h e blade weight relative t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge.

For turning, we t h u s have


ot--

Sh.hn

'h.h w2t

(2.2)

wt = wfi

It i s known t h a t , i n turning, t h e revolutions of t h e r o t o r increase. If which roughly t a k e s p l a c e during autorotation, then, s u b s t i t u t i n g w t i n t o eq.(2.2), we o b t a i n
Aa,, .=

(2.3)

%.e., during steady c u r v i l i n e a r motion of t h e r o t o r without s i d e s l i p , t h e decrease i n coning angle due t o t h e weight of t h e blades remains constant regardless of t h e overload.

I n t h e usual case, Aa, i s not more t h a n 0.3'; this quantity can be e i t h e r neglected o r taken i n t o account, regardless of how this i s done i n the theory f o r r e c t i l i n e a r motion. Therefore, we W i l l here discuss the following scheme: The r o t o r moves a t a constant angle of a t t a c k and executes a r o t a r y motion relat i v e t o t h e axis going through i t s center.
2. I n.e~r t i a . For-nes~-Acting on t h e Blade

A t c u r v i l i n e a r motion of t h e helicopter, t h e r o t o r blade executes f o u r r o t a r y motions i n space. F i r s t , it r o t a t e s about t h e hub a x i s Ox w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y c u ; secondly, i t r o t a t e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e &s 08 i n space w i t h a v e l o c i t y s1 having t h e components R, and f l y ; f i n a l l y , i t vibrates relative t o t h e axes of t h e flapping and drag hinges malung a n angle p = f ( $ ) w i t h t h e plane perpendicular t o t h e hub
a x i s and a n angle

= f($) relative t o

i t s own mean p o s i t i o n .

Below, we will neglect t h e blade motion for t h e drag hinge, i n v i e w of i t s relative smallness. Let us examine t h e elementary i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade during

59

Ill Ill1 I1 I1

r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .

The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e C

i s perpendicular t o t h e r o t o r &s

and d i r e c t e d along t h e radius.

The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s generated during r o t a t i o n w i t h angular v e l o c i t i e s

R, and R ,W i l l be
dCpX=mQ: i sin 9 d r , dCsy=mQircosJIdr.

/61

These f o r c e s a l s o l i e i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and, accordingly, are perpendicular t o t h e vectors R x and Q,. The i n e r t i a f o r c e of flapping, perpendicular t o t h e blade, i s
dJ=md28 r d r . dt2
u ) ,

(2.6)

The C o r i o l i s i n e r t i a f o r c e s K produced by t h e r o t a t i o n s pendicular t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , are


dKy= dKp,=
- 2mQ,wr

R , , and

Sa,,

per-

cos 9 d r ;

- 2mQpr sin 9 d r .

The Coriolis i n e r t i a f o r c e s generated during blade flapping, i.e., r o t a t i o n with an angular v e l o c i t y Sa, are as follows:

during

conponent i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n
d K p x = 2 m Q , -r de
dt

dr; rdr;

dKpe = -2mQyY

de dt

component perpendicular t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n


dK'ppx=

- 2mQ$

d B -r sin 9 d r ;

dt

(2.9)
dKip, = - 2mQ,p- de r cos 9 d r .
dt

The Coriolis i n e r t i a f o r c e s due t o flapping and r o t a t i o n a t angular velocity


dKp,= - 2mop d B r dr
df

(2.10)

lie i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and are perpendicular t o t h e blade.

60

2
Wi

any forces dKbn [eq.(2.9)] of a higher order of smallness can be neglected f o r t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of flapping or f o r t h e f o r c e s dKnand s i n c e a l s o a l l c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s produced by rota-

I n a d d i t i o n t o i n e r t i a forces, aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t on t h e blade element.


With t h e aim of obta.ining a c l e a r e r View over t h e e f f e c t of i n e r t i a f o r c e s and t o check whether t h e general equations derived below c o r r e c t l y describe t h e phenomenon, we Will first simplify t h e problem. W e W i l l completely disregard a l l aerodynamic e f f e c t s and study t h e motion of blades hinged t o t h e hub and r o t a t i n g by i n e r t i a i n a vacuum w h i l e t h e i r a x i s of r o t a t i o n i s turning. Motion of hinged rods r o t a t i n g by i n e r t i a durin,--hub r o t a t i o n . kt us examine t h e general case of a hub whose h o r i z o n t a l (flapping) hinges are a t some d i s t a n c e 1, from t h e a x i s of rotation. Let t h e r o t o r r o t a t e about t h e z - a x i s a t a n angular v e l o c i t y w (Fig.2.12).

xov---l
Q T & ,. ,

_r-Lh.h

L ! L m -

i\
Fig.2.12 For Determining t h e Flapping Motion of t h e Rotor.

The a x i s of r o t a t i o n z t u r n s backward a t a constant angular v e l o c i t y ny and, a t some i n s t a n t of time, i s d e f l e c t e d through t h e angle 6 from t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n eo. Taking, as reference plane, t h e plane perpendicular t o t h e z-axis and assuming smallness of t h e angle 6 , eqs.(2.4), (2.6), and (2.7) can be used f o r deriving t h e expressions f o r t h e moments of t h e acting f o r c e s relative t o t h e a x i s of t h e flapping hinge.

61

. .

. . . . . .

- . ..

.. ...... .

The moment of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of flapping (with t h e p o s i t i v e moment tending t o raise t h e blade upward) reads

=-"( f
d fz
'h.h

'h.h
mr2dr-2

Since, f o r modern helicopters, t h e r a t i o h . R h usually i s not more t h a n 0.02, we can assume t h a t

/63

mr2 d r = [ mr2 d r =
'h.h R

'h.h

mr d r = mr d r =Sh.k,
0

and s i n c e t h e i n t e g r a l containing
dt2

can be disregarded, we have

M - - *(Ih,h -2Sh;h1h,b).
J -

Having designated

The moment of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i s

Here, we assume t h e angle @ t o be small and cbnsider t h a t t h e vector of angular v e l o c i t y w ?s d i r e c t e d along t h e a x k of r o t a t i o n z.


The moment of t h e Coriolis i n e r t i a f o r c e s i s

MKe= -2

1
0

m&yosin+r(r-lh,h)dr= -22/h,hQy~(1 --)sin+.

(2.16)

Equating t h e sum of a l l moments t o zero, we o b t a i n t h e equation of blade motion:

I , , =( 1- 2 0 ) f
62

d28

w28 (1 - E ) =

- 2lh.hQyo(1 - -)sin

+.

After dividing by (1 obtain

- c ) , neglecting
d28 d1)2

c2,

and s e t t i n g cu =
+)sing.

s,

we finally (2.17)

-+

p ( l +E)=

-2

QY -(1
W

Let us f i n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of this equation. and s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h e equation, we o b t a i n


2QY p= --(l+E)sing.
E O

S e t t i n g p = N s i n (I

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of this equation w i l l be

p= A COS VI

E++

B sin v / 1 + E g - -(I E O
=

29,

+E)

sin 9.

(2.l-8) we then

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e i n i t i a l values of $ determine t h e values of A and B:


A=2QY
EW

2; $ =
2
n

0;

9 8= 0 ,
d4

/64.

(1 COS

B=-(I+z)sinvl+z-.
E O

2QY

l/w T ,I
-n:
2

I
$1

(2.19)

S q b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o eq.(2.18)

and assm-kng

= $

n (here, -2

$1 i s t h e angle reckoned from t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e blade a t t h e i n i t i a l moment, when t = 0 ) , we o b t a i n

f3 =-

2QY
E O

(COS

l/iqzqll- cos qll)( 1 -1e ) .

(2.20)

From this, i t i s easy t o o b t a i n a l s o t h e s o l u t i o n of $ f o r t h e case of hinges i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e m t o r axis ( t h . = c = 0 ) .


W e w i l l evaluate t h e indeterminate form by t h e LtHospital r u l e :
~ Q Y
O

BE=0 = -

I im
E O

d at (cos

/iTq,d

cos

_ -

QY
O

sin+,.

(E) da

Since t h e r o t a t i o n i s assumed t o be uniform, then, having introduced

JI1

=cut, we f i n d
E=&
and, s u b s t i t u t i n g
y

QY t=-(),,
w

(2.21)

Jrl

we o b t a i n f i n a l l y

63

I I Ill1 I l l l Il I1 I

I I1 I1

p =QY
0

cos (I, =6 cos (I,.

(2.22)

T h i s r e s u l t can be obtained a l s o by d i r e c t s o l u t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (2.17) i n which it i s assumed t h a t e = 0.

It follows from eq.(2.22) t h a t , i n t h e case of a hub w i t h i n t e r s e c t i n g hinges with t h e r o t o r axis d e f l e c t e d backward a t a n angle 6 , t h e blade w i l l be d e f l e c t e d i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n through t h e same angle.
T h i s means t h a t t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s i n space remains constant while t h e r o t o r hub t u r n s .
The result i s c o r r e c t and has p h y s i c a l meaning. The s o l u t i o n f o r p i s p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.13 and spaced hinges ( f o r e = 0.2") on t h e basis of eqs.(2.20) i n t h e case of superposed ( e = 0) The curves w e r e constructed

at

-% = 0.01.
u)

and (2.22).

Fig.2.13

Flapping Angle f3 VS. Azimuthal P o s i t i o n of Blade.

A s i n d i c a t e d by Fig.2.13, over a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l of t h e t h e motion of t h e blades almost coincides, ?.e., t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n space i s constant; a f t e r this, t h e blade on a hub w i t h spaced hinges gradually starts following t h e a x k of /66 r o t a t i o n , i.e., t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade approaches t h e plane of rotat i o n of t h e hub, w i t h some phase shift.
~~ ~

* Such a l a r g e

value of e i s used t o make t h e graph c l e a r e r . does not exceed 0.02.

I n practice, e

A t this time, however, t h e angle of t u r n of t h e hub i s already so g r e a t t h a t a f u r t h e r analysis i s u s e l e s s since' t h e blades are p h y s i c a l l y r e s t r a i n e d i n t h e i r a r r e s t i n g devices on t h e hub and s i n c e t h e above theory holds only f o r small 6 . Thus, t h e study of short-time o s c i l l a t i o n s shows t h a t t h e r o t o r w i t h small hinge spacing i s p r a c t i c a l l y equivalent t o a r o t o r w i t h i n t e r s e c t i n g hinges, i.e., it r e t a i n s i t s p o s i t i o n i n space unchanged.

Yl

fig.2.a

Velocity Diagram of Blade Element.

Fig.2.15

Change of Velocity f i e l d during Rotor Rotation.

I n t h e subsequent a n a l y s i s we w i l l disregard hinge spacing, and assume Furthermore, we have reason t o believe t h a t t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s (as w i l l be shown below) e n t r a i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e blades beyond t h e motion of t h e hub so t h a t equilibrium i s e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e blades and t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s t h a t tend t o keep t h e r o t o r p o s i t i o n i n space constant; thus, t h e plane of r o t a t i o n follows t h e motion of t h e hub w i t h some lag.
e = 0.

3. &xodynamic Forces Acting on t h e Blade


Let us assume t h a t t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on a blade element l i e i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e blade a x i s and depend only on t h e v e l o c i t y component lying i n this plane.
The coordinate axes l y i n g i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e blade a x i s a r e s i t u a t e d such t h a t t h e Ox a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and t h e Py axis, perpendicular t o it, l i e s i n a plane containing t h e r o t o r axis.

L e t us now deconpose t h e v e l o c i t y a c t i n g on t h e blade element i n t o t h e comThese are equal t o , (Fig.2.a). ponents U, and U U,=ro
U , =Wodt

+pRo sin q;

(2.23) (2.24)

r -4 pRu$ cos

++Q,r cos 9- P,r sin 0.

only Here, eq.(2.23) i s t h e same as i n r e c t i l i n e a r motion. I n eq.(2.&) t h e l a s t two terms are added, which take i n t o account t h e e f f e c t of r o t a r y motion of t h e axis. Consideration of t h e s e terms gives t h e change i n v e l o c i t y f i e l d of t h e r o t o r , which becomes analogous t o t h a t depicted. i n Fig.2.15.

65

Taking t h e new values of U , and Uy i n t o account, a l l elementary f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r blade can be obtained.


0

Fig.2.16

Forces Acting on a Blade Element.

A s derived by Lock, t h e elementary & aerodynamic f o r c e s and moments are expressed i n terms of v e l o c i t y components of t h e element i n t h e following manner:

dM =

be (cXpa, U i - a,yU,Uy
dH=-ssln+-pdTcos+; dMt
.d

-.

a&;) r dr;

dS= -

r dM r

cos

+-

pdT sin 9.

4. Equation

of Moments Relative-to

F l a a i ~ R L ~

The equation of moments r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge can be w r i t t e n as follows ( s e e scheme i n Fig.2.16):

- 2 m P p cos 9r2dr+
0
0 0

(2.29)

After i n t e g r g t i o n , we o b t a i n
RR

Let us change from d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h respect t o t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h respect t o $, assuming d$


=w:

and then rewrite t h e equation of moments, a f t e r dividing i t by I,.,w:


QY
0

dTr-2-

sin+-2 % cos$0

1h.h O2

sh.h -.

66

Using eqs.(2.23) and (2.&), entering eq.(2.25) f o r dT:

we write out t h e expressions f o r : U

and UxU,

The t h r u s t . moment i s

B 2 B3 +T 'pp2sin2$+3 B 2 +-ipsing2
8 3

h-2

8 4

4 d+

-- B3 -ppcos+-3
8 3

de

B4
4

0, sin++

B2

-pp2singcosgB4

- -psin$3 4
3 w

de

(2.33)

--- psin2g+--cos$+3 w

9,

9,

' L e t us s u b s t i t u t e expression (2.33) i n t o eq.(2.30) this f i n a l l y y i e l d s

and s e t y

bpaS4

.
'

2Ih.h

The p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (2.34) can be represented a s t h e s e r i e s

'$=a,- a, cos 9- b, sing - a2cos 2g- b, sin 2g - .. .


the e

(a

first.

3,

It i s known from s o l u t i o n s obtained with r e t e n t i o n of only f i v e terms i n ression of B and f r o m p r a c t i c a l experwents t h a t , i n t h e usual case of the second harmonics of t h e angle B a r e small i n comparison with t h e

For g r e a t e r c l a r i t y and s i m p l i c i t y of t h e derivations ( w h i l e fundamentalb r e t a i n i n g an accurate p a t t e r n ) we W i l l discard, i n solving t h e problem, t h e second harmonics i n t h e expression f o r p , i.e., we take B i n t h e form

p=ao - a, cos + - 6 , sin 9.

(2.35)

67

We t h e n f i n d t h e d e r i v a t i v e s

eq.(2.3!+).

and s u b s t i t u t e them i n t o dJ, Discarding terms containing functions of double angles, we d e r i v e

and

Since eq.(2.36) i s a n i d e n t i t y , we equate t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s i n J,, cos $, and of t h e f r e e term, whence we o b t a i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of flapping motion. The free term i s

/69

The c o e f f i c i e n t of s i n J, i s

from which it follows t h a t

The c o e f f i c i e n t of cos

is
1
B3
B4QYY Qx
2-9 0

b,y -4 B2+- 2 p2)-.--aOYp=


whence

-40

Fox- t h e conditions of r e c t i l i n e a r motion we o b t a i n

68

Then eqs.(2.37),

(2.381, and (2.39) can be r e w r i t t e n as

We have examined t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of eq.( 2.34). I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e general s o l u t i o n of this equation characterizing t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade show t h a t t h e blade i s stable and, a f t e r having been d e f l e c t e d from i t s p a t h normal f o r t h e given regime, w i l l r e t u r n t o it under strong damping during one o r two revolutions of t h e r o t o r . T h i s means t h a t t h e new flapping motion of t h e blades, described by eqs.(2.41) and caused by t h e presence of angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t , i s e s t a b l i s h e d r a t h e r promptly (within one r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r ) .

The obtained expressions hold f o r r o t o r s with l a r g e y. Equation (2.41) shows t h a t , under t h e e f f e c t of angular velocity, t h e cone of t h e blades r o t a t e s together with t h e s h a f t , lagging behind it by a constant angle Aa, and i s a l s o d e f l e c t e d i n a perpendicular d i r e c t i o n . Thus, t h e plane of this new slope i s s h i f t e d i n phase r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r a x i s . T h i s shift A I ) i n t h e case of l o n g i t u d i n a l r o t a t i o n i s characterized by t h e relation

where Ab, and Aa, are determined by eqs.(2.41). Equations (2.41) can be used f o r compiling a table ( s e e Table 2.1) showing t h e d i r e c t i o n of flapping of t h e cone under t h e e f f e c t of angular velocity. Deflection of t h e cone i n t h e case of complex motion of t h e r o t o r (for example, t o t h e f r o n t and r i g h t ) i s easily obtained by means of eqs.(2.41). Thus, f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r case y = 8 and Sa, =a,, we o b t a i n Table 2.2.

69

TABLE 2 . 1
Mode of Revolution of Rotor k s Pitches
,Banks t o t h e l e f t

Mode of Def lect i o n of Cone Forward and l e f Right and f orward Backward and right Left and backward Dives and banks t o the right Dives and banks t o the left Pitches and banks t o the right Pitches and banks t o the left Backward

To r i g h t
To l e f t Forward

Dives
Banks t o t h e

right

The d e f l e c t i o n of t h e cone during r o t a t i o n i s easily determined i f we rec a l l t h a t it i s d e f l e c t e d t o t h e s i d e opposite t o t h e r o t a t i o n ( i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ) and, furthermore, i s deflected i n a perpendicular d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e gyro r e a c t i o n (a right-handed gyroscope, on sloping backward, i s d e f l e c t e d t o t h e r i g h t w h i l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l . s l o p e of t h e cone occurs t o the left).

5. Physical Meaning of t h e Obtained Re&


Equations (2.41) show t h a t , i n response t o r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r axis t o some side, t h e a x i s of t h e cone i n this d i r e c t i o n will l a g ( t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s , relative t o t h e s h a f t axis, i s d e f l e c t e d t o t h e opposite s i d e ) and, furthermore, w i l l i n c l i n e i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e r o t a t i o n .

It i s not d i f f i c u l t t o demonstrate t h a t t h e lateral i n c l i n a t i o n is caused by aerodynamic f o r c e s and t h e l a g by i n e r t i a f o r c e s .


A s a t y p i c a l example, l e t us examine t h e case p = 0; B = 1 .

Let us assume t h a t t h e r o t o r revolves backward; according t o eq.(2.&),


Uy=AI?of

a,

> 0;

a,

0. Then,

dt

de

- pRB COS 9 + Qyrcos,+ =Uyst +~ u ~ ,


(4

where U Y s t i s t h e expression f o r U, when h2 = 0. The angle of a t t a c k of t h e forward blade s e c t i o n s


= const, decreases by
AU
'1

= I T ) , assuming A =

All, =-=--

QY
0

ux

w h i l e t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s s t a t i o n a r y w i t h respect t o t h e


flow i n c r e a s e s by t h e quantity

Under t h e e f f e c t of t h e change i n moments of aerodynamic f o r c e s occurring i n this case, t h e f l a p p i n g motion of t h e blades Will change u n t i l a new equilibrium of t h e moments and a corresponding flapping motion are established. As follows from t h e condition of zero hinge moment, t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s should r e t u r n t o t h e i r previous value corresponding t o r e c t i l i n e a r motion ( s i n c e no new f o r c e s appeared arid t h e v e l o c i t i e s U, remained constant).

T h i s i s r e a l i z e d when t h e r e a l ascis of r o t a t i o n of t h e cone swept by t h e blades i s d e f l e c t e d leftward by t h e same angle Acr ( t h e axis i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e r i g h t t o reduce t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e advancing blade i n t h e case of r e g u l a r stationary flight).
Actually, t h e formula f o r b l [eq.(2.39)]
b1 =b; --,
QY
0

w i l l y i e l d i n this case:

i.e., t h e s l a n t of t h e cone t o t h e r i g h t , occurring i n r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t , decreases by t h e i n d i c a t e d quantity.


N o w l e t us examine t h e e f f e c t of i n e r t i a forces. The a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e acti n g during t h e r o t a t i o n i s t h e f o r c e due t o C o r i o l i s acceleration. Its moment, according t o eq.(2.7), i s
A I , = - 2mPywr2sin 9 dr = - 2/h,hPro sin 9,

i.e.,

during backward r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r t h e advancing blade


= 21h.hO+.u

a c t e d on by t h e moment M,

E )i s 2 , which tends t o depress t h e blade.


$
=

T h i s new moment changes t h e blade flapping. Equilibrium i s established when, as a consequence of this flapping, t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade sect i o n s i n a forward p o s i t i o n . i n c r e a s e so t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l aerodynamic moment equalizes t h e moment of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s .

i s achieved 2 when t h e real a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e cone described by t h e blades i s d e f l e c t e d forward (under r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t conditions, t h e a x i s i s i n c l i n e d backward so that t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e advancing blades diminish).
=

A n i n c r e a s e i n t h e blade angle of a t t a c k a t t h e p o s i t i o n

Actually, eq.(2.38)

for al yields

D . 2
8QY
YO

a,=+-,

71

i.e.,

during backward r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , t h e cone follows t h e r o t o r a x i s

w i t h some lag, being d e f l e c t e d forward from i t through t h e angle

84 -.
'yw

6. Equation of Torque
The elementary moment due t o aerodynamic f o r c e s can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form of eq.( 2.26) :

dM,= 2 b g ( rxPov U:- a,yU,U,-

a,Ui)rdr.

Here t h e braking moment i s considered t o be p o s i t i v e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e forces, a d d i t i o n a l i n e r t i a f o r c e s [eqs.(2.5), (2.8), and (2.10)1 appear i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n owing t o r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r axis i n space.

, U , and : U i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion can be represented by The expressions U eqs.(2.23) and ( 2 . a ) i n t h e following form:

u,u, =u , u Yst

U,Au,,;

= - Q p p R r sin2 UxAUy

+ Q y w 2cos + + QyopRrsin + cos +;

+-

Q,or2 sin

+ 4-

(2.42)

uy=u,5t +Auy;
A U= ~ -! 2 gsin 9

+ Byr cos +;

+ +2 -de Q p r 2sin (i, + 4J +2PQ2,wpl?r sin + cos 9 +2Qyo)il?rcos + de QYwr2 cos + - 2jjQywpl?r cos2+ -2 4J - 2Q,Qyr2 sin cos + P$2sin2 9 +Qi .2 cos2
AUZ,
= -2

ui =uist$-A@;

~,wh~ sin r

$ J

$ J

t).

(2.43)

Then, transforming t h e expression dM, and adding t h e moments due t o i n e r t i a (2.81, and ( 2 . 1 0 1 , we o b t a i n f o r c e s according t o eqs.(2.5), where

+ m [ - 2 ~ ,d de tsin+-2~,

-cos++ (f?
dt dt

(2.44)

72

Assuming B = a. - al cos Q - bl s i n Q and s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(2.&) t h e expressions U,AU, and AUp from eqs.(2.42) and (2.43), we obtain, according t o eq*( 2.45) 9
Mt=Mt
st

fi

+-2

+ +

- 'pQyor3 cos + -'pQ,v)pRr? sin.+ cos + 2Q,ohRr2 sin + -2a,Q,or3 sin2+ 2b,52,wr3.sin cos + -2 (ao- a , cos (0 - 6 , sin +) Q,opRr2 sin + cos + -251, ohRr2cos + 2a1Q,,w?sin + cos + - 2b1Qywr3 cos2+ 2 ( a , - a, cos + - b, sin +) QyopRr2cos2+ 2Q,Qyr3sin + cos + -

* ?
bea,
0

['pQ,wpRr2sin2++y8,or3sin+-

- 3:r3 sin2+ - S 2 ; r3cos2+] d r

R
0

m [ - 2a1Qyw sin2 (1, +

+26,QYwsin 9 cos ++ (Ql/ - 52:) sin + cos + -

- 2 ( a , - a, cos + -- 6 , sin +) ( a , sin + - b, cos +) w2] r2dr.

The moment due t o zb of t h e blades p e r revolution i s

B4Qy

a , - - 40 b,-+

+--sop-30 8 (w ) 2 - 8 ( x ) ] +

B3B,

8 4

9,

84

Qy 2

(2.46)

i s t h e moment due t o aerodynamic forces, obtained i n t h e theory Here Mts f o r r e c t i l i n e h r motion

73

I t

We then write t h e expression f o r m, by means of eqs.(2.46)

and (2.47):

7. Rotor Thrust a n d &-~l. .of Attack


The r o t o r t h r u s t i s
2x

BR

21:

ry) dr.
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values of U , and Uy from eqs.(2.23) grating, we o b t a i n and (2.24) and i n t e -

Setting

A s we see, t h e expression f o r t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t has been somewhat


changed; nevertheless, assuming

= 0,

we o b t a i n t h e same expression as for

t h e case of r e c t i l i n e a r motion. The formula f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k , after determining t h e induced velocity, i s obtained from t h e expression

T =2nR2QV'V,
where V' i s t h e r e s u l t a n t velocity,

(2.51)

V'=l/( V sin a - v)2+ V?cos2 a .


S u b s t i t u t i n g T and V by t h e i r expressions and remembering t h a t

74

A=
we o b t a i n

Vsina-U
W R

;' P

oR

cos a
f

i.e., t h e usual expression f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k i n which o n l y t has a new value. Writing this i n expanded form, we d e r i v e

8 . L a t e r a l Force

According t o eq,(2.28),

t h e elementary l a t e r a l f o r c e i s
dS= --cosrj,-(jdTsinrjr. dMt
r

We can represent dS as dS=dS,


A dS,

where dS,, i s t h e elementary l a t e r a l f o r c e f o r t h e case of r e c t i l i n e a r motion:


Ads=-AdMt r

cos 9- PA dT sin$.

(2.55)

I n eq.(2.55) we can replace AdM, = A d M t a e r o s i n c e t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s L22 when summed with respect t o z,-blades W i n give zero. It i s easy t o demonstrate this by means of eq.(2.&):
R
R

ddMtacro

cos

1)

= - bea, [?SZppRrsin29 cos $I

1 2

+pSlxuJr2 sin rj, cos 9 - yQyor2cos2 9 - 'pQy opRr sin c) cos2li,f +2 Q p l R r sin c) cos $I - 2a18,0r2 sin2,+ cos 9+ +26,Q,or2 sin 9 cos29 -2(a0-a, cos 9 -6 , sin +)Q,u)pRrsin 9 cos* 9- 252,wA~rcos2c)$2a,Qyor2sin~cos2975

'I

- 2b,Qyor2 cos3++ 2 (ao - a , cos 9- b, sin+) Q,opRr cos3+$

+2Q,Q,r2 sin 9 cos2+ - Qir2sin29cos + - Qir2cos3+]dr.


Setting

dT=dTst f A dT =dTs+

+bQa,U,AU, dr, 2
1

(2.57)

we f i n d , by means of eq.(2.42),
PA dT sin $=1

bea, ( a o - a, cos 9 - 6 , sin +) (- QxopRrsin3+-

- Q p r 2sin2+

+Q,wr2sin + cos 9 +S2,wpRr sin2+

COS +).

(2.58)

The l a t e r a l f o r c e of t h e r o t o r can be represented in t h e form where

2r:BR

- 52n
0 0

PA dT sin 9 dr dq.

(2.59)

S u b s t i t u t i n g e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 5 6and ) (2.58) i n t o eq.( 2.59) and i n t e g r a t i n g , we obtain

(2.60) S u b s t i t u t i n g S S t by i t s value of

fi

S , ,= - 1z , b ~ / i ~ ~ ~ a ,
2

(2.61)

+aoa,

(5BP))
aoa,

we f i n a l l y o b t a i n

3 -2 aor( B A S B" 2 'p)+

(S-B$)+

76

. . .. . .

(2.62)

9. Longitudinal Force
According t o eq.(2.27), t h e elementary l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e is
dH=-tsin+dM

PdT cos+.

Setting
dH=dH,+AdH,

we f i n d
A dH =
AdM" t

__sin$r

PA dT cos+.

Analogous t o eq.(2.56),
AdMtaem

sin+=-

- y&?,wr2 s in

' I +
2
bl

+yQxwr2sin2 9 cos 9 - pS2,wpRr sin2+ cos 9 +29,whRr sin2 9 bQa p8,u)pRr sin3+

-2alQxwr2 sin3~+2b,Q,wr2sin2+cos+- 2 (a, - a, cos (1, - b, sin +) 8,u)pRr sin2 C O S 9 -

+ +2 Q,QYr2sin2
Analogous t o eq.(2.58),

- 2QYwhRr s in + cos I), 2a,Q,wr? sin2+ cos + - 2b,Qywr2 sin I),cos2I),f 2 (a, - a , cos I()- 6 , sin 9) Q,wpRr sin + cos2I()+
2 2 cos (1, - Q,r2 sin39 - Slur2 sin $ cos291 dr.

( 2.64)

PA dT cos

+=

+ - b, sin +) ( - S2,wpRr sin2 9 cos + - Q,w2 sin 9 cos + + Qywr2 cos2+ + QywpRrsin 9 cos2 +).
1 -beam(a, - a, cos 2

(2.65)

Let us use t h e same n o t a t i o n s as i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e l a t e r a l force,

-e&

(2.66)

S u b s t i t u t i n g here eqs.( 2.64),

(2.65) and i n t e g r a t i n g , we o b t a i n

L22
(2.67)

77

The expression of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e for r e c t i l i n e a r motion has t h e form

Surmning eqs.(2.67)

and (2.68), we f i n a l l y o b t a i n

1 0 . Consideration of the- Cha.we n i d u c e d

Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n dur&ng CurvilinGar Motion I n c u r v i l i n e a r motion, a change both i n magnitude and i n character of t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o t o r d i s k should occur owing t o t h e presence of new forces, namely C o r i o l i s i n e r t i a f o r c e s ; t h e moments produced by t h e s e forces are balanced ( i n t h e case of hinged blade attachment)by t h e redist r i b u t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s

It i s l o g i c a l t h a t , i f t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s a t a given angular p o s i t i o n i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion do not change i n comparison with those e x i s t i n g i n r e c t i l i n e a r motion, t h e n both t h e f o r c e s and t h e induced vel o c i t i e s caused by them a l s o Will remain constant.

Assuming t h a t t h e r o t o r revolves backward (0,> 0), t h e angle of a t t a c k of blade section, a t p = 0; B = 1, w i l l be


U Y
ARw

a,=y+

u -=y+ x

- raal s i n + + rob, cos + + Qyrcos (I, ..


ro

S u b s t i t u t i n g here t h e expressions f o r a1 and bl obtained from eqs.(2.3$) and (2.39) and s e t t i n g p = 0, B = 1, and R, = 0, i.e.,

we obtain
a,=y+-AR
f

8Qy

Yo

-sin$.

The angles af a t t a c k i n t h e forward and rear p o s i t i o n s ((I = 0, $ = IT), as shown above, do not change when A = const, i.e., t h e kinematic change i n velocity

78

of t h e disk (Q,r cos J r ) does not produce a change i n t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e b l a d e s thanks t o t h e corresponding change i n flapping motion. The above statements a l s o hold f o r p # 0 . The curves of t h e azimuthal & 3 , change i n angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade section, p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.23, f o r r e c t i linear motion and for r o t a t i o n of t h e axis i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n a l s o show t h a t , at azimuths $ = 0 and $ = IT, t h e angles of a t t a c k , f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, remain constant3$. The change i n angles of a t t a c k , f o r t h e example under study, t a k e s p l a c e from t h e r i g h t and l e f t of this p o s i t i o n , t h e m a z h u m change occurring when
$ =+and$
=
IT,

which corresponds t o t h e azimuth of t h e maximum value of

t h e Coriolis i n e r t i a forces. Thus, it can be assumed t h a t t h e previous d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of f o r c e s and induced v e l o c i t i e s over t h e d i s k i s superposed by aerodynamic f o r c e s equalizing t h e moments due t o t h e C o r i o l i s i n e r t i a f o r c e s and t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t i e s . i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rotaThese f o r c e s have a t i o n , s o t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d w i l l be t i l t e d i n this d i r e c t i o n . The v e r t i c a l components of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s a r e expressed, according t o eq.(2.7), i n t h e following manner:
R

KQ = - s2m8,wr sin 9 dr = - 2Shah Qyu' sin 0); Y


0

KgX= - 2mQXwrcos 0) dr = - 2S,,Q,w


0

COS 0).

(2.70)

These f o r c e s a r e l i n e a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e radius and a r e periodic.

It can be assumed t h a t t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s and t h e i r induced v e l o c i t i e s , equalizing t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s at each angular p o s i t i o n , obey t h e same law of change both with r e s p e c t t o azimuth and r a d i u s of t h e blade. Then t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e case of c u r v i l i n e a r motion can be expressed i n t h e form

v =vo v1 R sin

++ v, L- cos 9. R

(2.71)

Here, t h e v e l o c i t y d i r e c t e d downward i s comidered t o be p o s i t i v e . denote


p
Y-

Let us

--=c IYQ Y IVI


VO

(2.72)
T '

VO

x- The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e section, at Jr = 270, f o r rotat i o n i n a t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n (see Fig.2.22) i s due t o a change i n A .

79

are t h e absolute values of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s at angular p o s i t i o n s where they reach a maxi". I n c a l c u l a t i n g v,, i t was assumed t h a t this v e l o c i t y i s constant over t h e radius. Assuming a n a d d i t i o n a l induced v e l o c i t y as a l i n e a r function of t h e radius, we should, from t h e condition of equality of momentum, introduce some f a c t o r C i n t o t h e expressions f o r px

Here, lKnj and IKn,l

P X '

3Sh.hZb
I

(2.73)
0

-a ~ n R 4 t
2

S u b s t i t u t i n g v1 and v2 by t h e i r values from eqs.(2.72),


v = = v o + p y v o L s i n + + p XvO LRc o s q . R

we obtain

We then express t h e mean induced v e l o c i t x i n terms of t h e magnitude of t h r u s t . According t o t h e l a w of momentum

Substituting the Here V' i s t h e r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y determined from eq-.( 2.52). expressions f o r T and V' from eqs.(2.49) and (2.52), we o b t a i n

Let us denote

Then, t h e v e l o c i t y component U, of t h e ' b l a d e element w i l l have t h e form


de U' =kRo - pyhlrwsin 9 - p.A1rw cos (I, - r -Y

- pew? cos 9

+Q,r cos 9 - P,r sin 9.

dt

To t h e expression UxUy obtained f o r v = const, we t h e n add t h e terms


U,A'U, = - pyklr2w2 sin 9 - pyklw2Rrp sin29 -

- p,Alr2w2 cos 111 - pA1w2Rrpsin 9 cos 9.


The expression f o r t h e r o t o r t h r u s t w i l l have t h e form

(2.77)

80
. .

T=-J
2n

2 x BR

Tbea, 1 ('pU:+U,Uy+U,A'Uy)drd(O,

which, i n t h e expression f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, w i l l give t h e a d d i t i o n a l term

I n t h e expression f o r t h e t h r u s t moment, we o b t a i n t h e a d d i t i o n a l terms


BR

A'

J dTr =$bea, r U x ~ ' U y dr r


0

==

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e expression f o r t h e t h r u s t moment ( w i t h these a d d i t i o n a l /80 terms) i n t o eq.(2.30), we o b t a i n t h e following expressions of t h e flapping coef-. f i c i e n t s , with consideration of a v a r i a b l e l a w of induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n :

L e t us now d e r i v e t h e formula f o r torque i n t h e case of a variable l a w of induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n .


We f i n d t h e expression f o r U ; .

L e t us denote

(2.81)

where U , i s t a k e n w i t h r e s p e c t t o eq.(2.&), variable induced velocity.

i.e.,

without consideration of a

81

The expression for dM[ reads

dM' - - b1e ( c x ~ ~ ~ 2 Ux-aa,~U~~U I2 ~-a,U~)rdr.


t-

W e can represent this i n t h e form

dM; =? be [c,,,JJ:

-a , c p (U,U,

+A'U,U,)

-aa, ( U ~ ~ 2 U y A ' U y ~ A ' U ~ ~ ] i d r


or
dM;=dM,
where

+A'dM,,

A'dMt = -- beam ( P A 'uxuy2uyA'U,


2

'

+A'U;) r dr.

.(2*83)

Substituting here t h e necessary expressions from eqs .( 2.77) and (2.82) and integrating, we obtain

/81

- - '( 4 -PA 0

8 4

Qy

Qx PYh)] ;

or, s e t t i n g m : = m, + A " ,

we obtain for A'mt t h e expression

We now determine t h e expressions for p x h l and prhl with t h e a i d of and (2.75), assumkg h t o be small i n comparison with p (which holds for p 2 0 . 1 5 ) :
eqs.(2.73)

82

(2.86)

Obviously, t h e a d d i t i o n a l terms i n t h e exqressions f o r t h e flapping coeffic i e n t s and i n t h e expression f o r t h e torque do not depend on A . Equations (2.86) show t h a t t h e smaller t h e value of p , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e i n f l u e n c e of d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s becomes understandable i f we r e c a l l t h a t t h e smaller t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l velocity, t h e g r e a t e r should be t h e induced v e l o c i t y caused by an aerodynamic f o r c e of t h e same magnitude. The f a c t t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s pxAl and pvAl do not depend on A g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s and f o r c e s f r o m t h e v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y . The c a l c u l a t i o n i n this case i s performed i n t h e same manner as f o r a constant induced v e l o c i t , except t h a t +, a l , and bl a r e c a l c u l a t e d from eqs.(2.78), (2.79), and (2.80 and t h e expression f o r mt from eq.(2.@); t o t h e obtained value, we add t h e term A'm, c a l c u l a t e d from eq.(2.85).

ANALYSIS OF OBTAINED RESULTS

1 1 . Blade F l a w i n g
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t , we made various c a l c u l a t i o n s of a r o t o r i n curvil i n e a r motion.
Design data: m; r o t o r diameter, D = loading c o e f f i c i e n t , c i = 0.065; s t a t i c moment of blade r e l a t i v e t o axLs of flapping hinge, S h a h= = a 2 kg m; angle of blade s e t t i n g , cp = 3', am = 5.7.

All c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed f o r t h e regime of a u t o r o t a t i o n .


Figure 2.17 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n i n flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s , calculated f o r

a constant value p = 0.3 and d i f f e r e n t values of t h e r a t i o


transverse direction). W e s e e from Fig.2.17

Fd

(rotation i n

/82

t h a t , on r o t a t i o n t o t h e l e f t , t h e cone described by t h e I n rotation t o the right

(+

>

0)

bl i n c r e a s e s w h i l e al decreases, ?.e.,

blades i s d e f l e c t e d t o t h e r i g h t and forward.

(%e 0),

we have a decrease i n bl and an i n c r e a s e i n a l , which i n d i c a t e s de-

f l e c t i o n of t h e cone t o t h e l e f t and backward. The coning angle a. s l i g h t l y increases with r o t a t i o n t o t h e l e f t and decreases with r o t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t .

Consideration of t h e change i n t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n l e a d s t o an even g r e a t e r change i n bl a t an angular v e l o c i t y 0,. Curve bl c a l c u l a t e d f o r a v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y i s p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.17 a s a broken l i n e . For p r a c t i c a l purposes, we can ao,aJJr*Pmln disregard t h e changes i n a. and al due t o v a r i a b l e induced velocity. Figure 2.17 a l s o gives t h e curve f o r t h e values

, / = which , shows a marked decrease i n pmin f o r rotation t o either l e f t o r r i g h t . T h i s means t h a t t h e reserve of blade overhang decreases markedly toward t h e lower a r r e s t i n g device. The blades will pass lower, t h e g r e a t e r t h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e roll and t h e smaller t h e value of y
p m i n = a.
Figure 2.18 gives. t h e same curves f o r t h e case of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t i n longitudinal direction. In conformity with t h e foregoing, Fig.2.17 Flapping Coefficients i n Transverse during r o t a t i o n i n a dive, a l Rotation of Craft (p = 0.3). i n c r e a s e s and bl decreases, i .e., t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s i s displaced backward and t o t h e l e f t , whereas during r o t a t i o n i n pif,ch i t - i s s h i f t e d forward and t o t h e r i g h t . Curve B m i n shows t h a t nose-down r o t a t i o n causes t h e g r e a t e s t decrease i n B m i n , i.e., t h e blades pass very f a r below t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , /sg whereas p i t c h i n g r o t a t i o n i n this sense i s most favorable. Figures 2.17 and 2 . l e p e r t a i n t o c r a f t whose c o n t r o l i s not accomplished by means of an automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism ( f o r example, by a i l e r o n s and rudders, by d e f l e c t i n g t h e hub of autogiros with d i r e c t c o n t r o l ) . Both Figs.2.17 and 2.18 i n d i c a t e t h a t , f o r such c r a f t i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion ( f o r example, during a sharp bank o r going i n t o a dive), t h e change i n p m i n may be much g r e a t e r t h a n i t s v a r i a t i o n over t h e e n t i r e speed range of t h e c r a f t i n r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t . T h i s should be taken i n t o consideration i n s e l e c t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e lower a r r e s t i n g device of blade flapping. On a helicopter, t h e p i l o t , i n d e f l e c t i n g t h e automatic p i t c h control, reduces t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade cone i n c u r v i l i n e a r f l i g h t ; thus, t h e r e s e r v e s of t h e angle toward t h e lower a r r e s t i n g device do not diminish s o severely.

rI
1

P i

b
I

IL

-00;

I L
I I L L

Fig.2.18 Flapping Coefficients i n Longitudinal Rotation of t h e Craft (p = 0.3).

Change i n Angle of Attack and Thrust Coefficient Fig.2.19 of a Rotor, as a F u n c t i o n a f t h e Angular Velocity of Rotation of t h e C r a f t a t Constant p = 0.3.

85

12. E f f e c t of Curvilinear Motion at - Autgetation


of t h e Rotor

In t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r i n a u t o r o t a t i n g regime, eq.(2.@) i s used f o r determining A, which permits f i n d i n g t h e value of A, i f m , = 0 is assumed and cp, p, a,, and nu are known. However, i n p r a c t i c e this quadratic equation becomes very cumbersome after s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e values of +, al, and bl. For determining t h e value of A it i s more convenient, after p l o t t i n g t h e dependence of m, on A , t o read from t h e graph t h e value of A a t which m, vani s h e s . When constructing t h e p l o t of m,, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a,, a,, and b, should
be determined from eqs.(2.37),

(2.3$),

and (2.39). Figure 2.19 gives t h e values of /s4. t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r and t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t t, obtained f o r a constant value p .= 0.3 at d i f f e r e n t angular v e l o c i t i e s of r o t a t i o n of t h e craft. Figure 2.19 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , t o maintain a constant value of p a t cons t a n t f l y i n g speed i n t h e presence of angular velocity, t h e magnitude of t h e angle of a t t a c k must be changed and t h e more so, t h e l a r g e r t h e angular v e l o c i t y . When t h e c r a f t r o t a t e s t o t h e l e f t , a constant value of p can be maintained only by i n c r e a s i n g t h e angle of a t t a c k over t h a t i n r e c t i l i n e a r motion, whereas i n r o t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t t h e angle of Fig.2.20 Angle of Attack of Rotor a t t a c k must be reduce;. This exi n Autorotation. p l a i n e d p h y s i c a l l y by t h e f a c t t h a t , i n r o t a t i o n t o the l e f t , t h e r o t o r disk i s i n c l i n e d forward ( i n a d d i t i o n t o being i n c l i n e d t o t h e r i g h t ) , which reduces t h e angle between v e l o c i t y and plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade t i p s i n space. I n r o t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t , t h e opposite occurs. It can be assumed t h a t , t o maintain a constant value of p, t h e angle between t h e v e l o c i t y of flow and t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade t i p s must remain constant a t any angular v e l o c i t y R.

is

Figure 2.20 gives t h e values of t h e angles of a t t a c k as a function of p, obtained a t d i f f e r e n t angular v e l o c i t i e s of r o t a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e c r a f t . It can be s e e n t h a t , i f r o t a t i o n of t h e d s begins and proceeds a t a constant /85 angle of a t t a c k (i.e., angle between v e l o c i t y and a plane perpendicular t o t h e r o t o r axis), t h e n steady a u t o r o t a t i o n W i n occur only a t a new value of p, d i f f e r i n g from t h e former. Thus, i n r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t t o t h e l e f t at a constant angle of a t t a c k p will i n c r e a s e and i n r o t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t , it will decrease.

If i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e angle of a t t a c k a l s o t h e f l y i n g speed i s kept cons t a n t , t h e rpm of t h e r o t o r W i l l decrease on r o t a t i o n t o t h e l e f t and w i l l increase on r o t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t .

$6

- .~

. .. . . . .

..

..

.. .

. ._.

...

...........

To i l l u s t r a t e this phenomenon, F'ig.2.21 gives t h e revolutions of a r o t o r at angles of a t t a c k of CY = +4.5', 2.80, and 1.5' (po = 0.25, 0.30, 0.35 i n r e c t i l i n e a r motion) as a f u n c t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n i n t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n .

The number of r e v o l u t i o n s i n r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t i s taken a s no = 200 rpm. The rpm i n t h e presence of r o t a t i o n nn i s o b t a h e d from t h e following considerations :

1 t
iI
I I
1

n0=9.55

. roR '
V cos a
P d
PO

cos a ne=9,55 V ;

ne=no - .
Ps

1
F'ig.2.21 Rotor Revolutions i n Autor o t a t i n g Regime, as a Function

The value of psd i s determined from F'ig.2.20 a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e o r d i n a t e (Y = const with t h e curve (Y = f ( p > f o r t h e corresponding angular velocity.

A s a consequence of t h e above e f f e c t o f an i n c r e a s e i n angle of a t t a c k necessary f o r maintaining steady a u t o r o t a t i o n a t a given p, of " x W t h e r e e x i s t s t h e r i s k of t h e r o t o r l o s i n g a u t o r o t a t i o n a t high f l y i n g speeds i n t h e case of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t t o t h e l e f t .

-.

If t h e h e l i c o p t e r begins t o r o t a t e sharply t o t h e l e f t a t l a r g e p while i t s angle of a t t a c k remains constant, t h e r o t o r revolutions Will decrease r a p i d l y and p Will i n c r e a s e f u r t h e r . T h i s i s aggravated by t h e f a c t that t h e forward i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e r o t o r , generated when t h e c r a f t r o t a t e s t o t h e l e f t , w i l l p e r s e ( a g a i n s t t h e W i l l of t h e p i l o t ) c r e a t e a diving moment which tends t o decrease t h e angle of a t t a c k even more. The l a t t e r circumstance, i n c r e a s i n g t h e abruptness of drop i n r p m as t h e c r a f t r o t a t e s , involves an increase i n angles of a t t a c k w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade s e c t i o n s , which causes f l a w s e p a r a t i o n and marked i n c r e a s e i n drag.

Figures 2.22 and 2.23 give t h e v a r i a t i o n i n angles of a t t a c k , c a l c u l a t e d f o r s e c t i o n s of r = 0.5 a t p = 0.3, for t h e case of s t a t i o n a r y f l i g h t and f o r d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t . A s seen here, t h e -angles of a t t a c k with r e s p e c t t o t h e s e c t i o n s i n c r e a s e markedly on left-hand r o t a t i o n and nose-dawn of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t , i n t h e cases under consideration, an i n c r e a s e i n angles of a t t a c k a t angular s e t t i n g s of t h e blade of Jr = 270' and JI = 1 8 0 ' .(where t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s a r e already l a r g e ) i s required t o balance t h e moment of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s . Taking t h e v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y i n t o consideration W i l l always inc r e a s e t h e v a r i a t i o n i n angles of a t t a c k with respect t o azimuth.

Based on wind-tunnel tests /s6 of blades w i t h two p r o f i l e s , of which p r o f i l e No.1 has higher /J values of cy,,, and CY,, than prof i l e No.2, we p l o t t e d t h e curves of t h e reserve of a u t o r o t a t i o n i n Fig.2.& (Ref Ll):
a-ua,tan-I

-cx ==f(a-a,),
CY

Fig.2.22

Angle of Attack of Blade Section vs. Azimuth.

wherea'o i s t h e angle of a t t a c k a t which cy = 0 f o r t h e p r o f i l e . The diagram shows t h a t , i n t h e case cp = 3 O , t h e range of angles of a t t a c k . a t which an accelerati n g moment i s produced on t h e blade element extends fromcr, = = ' 4 , t o CY, = 15' f o r t h e p r o f i l e No.2, and i s much g r e a t e r f o r t h e p r o f i l e No.1, reaching a value of 30'. I n p r o f i l e No.2, during l e f t hand r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t with R a r a t i o of = 0.05 a t 1.1 =

= 0.3, a decelerating moment Will be produced even on t h e s e c t i o n r = 0.5, over a n appreciable porc t i o n of t h e disk, To maintain a u t o r o t a t i o n a t given p , an even l a r g e r angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r i s required; i f t h e angle of a t t a c k i s kept unchanged, t h e r o t o r rpm will drop and t h e flapping motion w i l l i n c r e a s e g r e a t l y .

T h i s brings us t o t h e cor+ c l u s i o n t h a t a constant (accordi n g t o Fig.2.21) decrease i n r o t o r rpm on left-hand rot.ation of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and a n increase i n rpm on right-hand r o t a t i o n w i l l take p l a c e o n l y up t o some

small value of
Fig.2.23 Angle of Attack of Blade Section vs. Azimuth.

"x , whose magni-. w

tude i s determined exclusively by t h e aerodynamic blade charact e r i s t i c s . A t l a r g e values of

88

I-

Fig.2.24
X
W

Curves of t h e Autorotation Reserve of Blades.

t h e r o t o r rpm on r o t a t i o n t o t h e l e f t w i l l drop more abruptly

even as f a r

as l o s s of a u t o r o t a t i o n as a result of flow separation, whereas i n r o t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t t h e rpm Will f i r s t cease t o increase and then, a t l a r g e values of
Qx , begin w

t o decrease.

Thus, f o r a r o t o r w i t h blade p r o f i l e s of l a r g e a u t o r o t a t i o n reserves one can s a f e l y permit a much g r e a t e r a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y t h a n f o r a r o t o r w i t h poor blade p r o f i l e s .

13. -Behavior __-of t~h e Res-Gtant- of A e r o d y - d c Forces


Q . -_ C_ gv _ i li n e. a . _ r H e l i c m t e r Motion

/88

According t o g e n e r a l considerations, t h e r e s u l t a n t i n t h e case of curvil i n e a r h e l i c o p t e r motion i s d e f l e c t e d i n a manner similar t o t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e cone described by t h e blades i n space. Thus, t h e r e s u l t a n t l a g s on t h e s i d e opposite t h e r o t a t i o n and, i n addition, i s d e f l e c t e d i n a perpendicular direct i o n by a n amount p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t i o

U).
L1

The l a g of t h e r e s u l t a n t causes, r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e c r a f t , a moment counteracting t h e r o t a t i o n . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s a damping moment which i s l a r g e r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t . The i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t i n perpendicular d i r e c t i o n i n t h e case of l a t e r a l r o t a t i o n causes a change i n angle of a t t a c k , whereas i n t h e case of l o n g i t u d i n a l r o t a t i o n t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e c r a f t i s t o t h e r i g h t o r t o t h e
left.

Figure 2.25 gives t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e quantity

characterizing t h e

angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t in t h e l a t e r a l plane, as a f u n c t i o n of t h e

S -

7
=rT

angular v e l o c i t y of banking
p = 0.3).

(at

-a

9
T T T

f
~ i g . 2 . 2 5 L a t e r a l I n c l i n a t i o n of t h e Resultant as a Function of t h e Velocity of Rotation i n Transverse Direction.

The formula f o r t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e i n r e c t i l i n e a r motion does not y i e l d t h e values of S c l o s e t o f u l l - s c a l e values (owing t o t h e poor convergence of t h e c a l c u l a t e d flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s t o t h e real c o e f f i c i e n t s ) ; however, t h e v a r i a t i o n i n l a t e r a l f o r c e a s a funct i o n of t h e angular v e l o c i t y i s colc r e c t l y given' by eq.( 2.62). The slope of t h e curve
= f(+)

2 = T
-

i s c l o s e t o t h a t of t h e

curve bl =

f(%). T h i s circumstance

can be used f o r an approximate calculat i o n of t h e damping f o r c e s and moments of t h e r o t o r with respect t o t h e degree of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e flapping coefficients. The magnitude of t h e component of t h e damping moment a c t i n g i n t h e plane of angular v e l o c i t y of t h e c r a f t i s r e a d i l y determined from t h e formula M = Tdy, where y = d i s t a n c e between c e n t e r of hub and c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e c r a f t ; 6 = angle of l a g of t h e r e s u l t a n t i n r o t a t i o n . According t o eqs.(2.80) and (2.86), we can take, f o r p
2

/89

0.2

Here, K, i s a c o e f f i c i e n t taking i n t o account t h e change i n t h e flow coeff i c i e n t h during r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t . The c o e f f i c i e n t Kl can be determined from experiment. If no experimental d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e , we can t a k e K, = 1 . The i n t e n s i t y of i n t e r a c t i o n , expressed by t h e slope of t h e curve S/T as a function of nx/w, may decrease on f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of this r a t i o above a c e r t a i n value, owing t o f l o w s e p a r a t i o n i n t h e blade s e c t i o n s .

A s a result of t h e above-described phenomenon of decrease i n rpm and hence i n t h r u s t during a u t o r o t a t i o n while t h e c r a f t rotates t o t h e . l e f t (with a r o t o r of r i g h t r o t a t i o n ) , t h e damping and t h u s a l s o t h e c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of t h e c r a f t i s l e s s i n t h e case of left-hand r o t a t i o n t h a n i n t h e case of right-hand rota-

tion. The use of an optimum supporting blade p r o f i l e extends t h e permissible range of t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s s o much t h a t , with proper arrangement of t h e helicopter, t h e c r i t i c a l magnitude of t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l not be reached i n a c t u a l service. EFFECT OF EbOTOR PARANETEX3 AND HUB DESIGN ON FLAPPING AND DAMPING O F THE EEDTOR Blade flapping and d e f l e c t i d n of t h e r e s u l t a n t i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion of a h e l i c o p t e r a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r i t s e l f , which rhanges i t s aerodynamics under t h e s e conditions. Below, we Will examine t h e e f f e c t on flapping and damping of t h e r o t o r , t h e moment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade p r o f i l e , i t s transverse centering, and hub design.

L e t us t a k e a hub with a flapping compensator, with kinematic dependence of t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g on t h e flapping angle - such t h a t t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g decreases with i n c r e a s i n g flapping angle.

&. Rotor w ith a P r o f i 1 g H a ~ n . ga V g i a b l e Center of Pressure


Until now, we discussed a r o t o r having blades with p r o f i l e s of constant c e n t e r of pressure and w i t h a f l e x u r a l a x i s coinciding w i t h t h e center of pressure. L e t us now examine a r o t o r having blades w i t h a variable c e n t e r of pressure. Recalling t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n the angle of a t t a c k d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e blade s e c t i o n s with respect t o a z i muth as they occur i n c u r v i l i n e a r motion, it i s easy t o show t h a t , i f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e moment rela.t i v e t o t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade c, depends on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e section, then t h e aerodynamic moment producing blade twist w i l l vary i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s angular p o s i t i o n . T h i s , as a result of blade twisting, W i l l cause a change i n t h e flapping motion and i n t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t . L e t us suppose t h a t t h e f l e x u r a l a x i s i s located a f t of t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r and t h a t t h e p r o f i l e , a t cy, = 0, has a diving moment

Diagram of t h e E f f e c t of Fig.2.26 C o r i o l i s Forces Producing Blade Twist i n Curvilinear Motion.

91

( c m 0< 0), i.e., w i t h increasing CY,t h e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e o f t h e blade s e c t i o n shifts forward and t h e diving moment c, decreases.

A s a n e x q l e , l e t us examine t h e case of left-hand r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t .


The character of t h e angle of a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n of t h e blade sections, f o r For t h e blade i n forward p o s i t i o n r o t a t i o n t o t h e l e f t , i s p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.22. (Q = IT), t h e a n l e s of a t t a c k decrease almost t o zero whereas f o r t h e blade located aft of ?I# = 0) t h e y i n c r e a s e appreciably. Therefore, t h e forward blade i s twisted i n diving, i.e., t h e angle of s e t t i n g decreases, whereas t h e rearward blade i s twisted very l i t t l e (with t h e v e l o c i t y U , being i d e n t i c a l i n both positions). To balance t h e angles of a t t a c k of such blades, providing zero hinge moment, t h e cone of t h e blades and hence t h e r e s u l t a n t should be d e f l e c t e d t o t h e l e f t . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t t o t h e l e f t , occurring i n l e f t r o t a t i o n , decreases t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e r o t o r t o r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t , i.e., damping, and may cause t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o bank a t l a r g e angular v e l o c i t i e s . T h i s e f f e c t produces p r e s s u r e on t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k direcced toward t h e s i d e of banking. The above d i s c u s s i o n shows t h a t , i f t h e flexural axis of t h e blade i s located i n f r o n t of t h e aerodynamic center, i.e.,
if

dcm < 0, dcr

the damping moment

of t h e r o t o r r e s i s t i n g r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t , increases.

15. E f f e c t of Blade C e n t e r i w
If we assume t h a t t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade s e c t i o n i s located a t some d i s t a n c e bf from t h e focus of t h e p r o f i l e ( p o s i t i v e bf backward), t h e n during r o t a r y motion of t h e r o t o r axis a couple, produced by t h e C o r i o l i s and aerodynamic forces, arises on t h e blades. T h i s i s shown schematically i n Fig .2.26.

The expression of t h e moment producing t h e blade twist (a p o s i t i v e moment will twist t h e blade toward a n i n c r e a s e i n angle) w i l l have t h e form

S u b s t i t u t i n g dKnx and dK

a, by t h e i r expression from eq.(2.7),

we o b t a i n

L l

M,=

2bfm(~eyosinI:,$&xocos~)rdr.

It i s obvious here t h a t t h e moment varies p e r i o d i c a l l y .


The angle of twist of t h e blade, under assumption of constant mass, a value 92

of b f , and t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y , i s determined by t h e formula

Assuming t h a t a l i n e a r l y twisted blade i s equivalent t o a blade with a constant angle of s e t t i n g equal t o t h e angle of s e t t i n g of t h e first blade at t h e s e c t i o n r = 0.75 R, we, f i n d

L e t us d e r i v e an a d d i t i o n a l p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n i n angle of s e t t i n g
where

AV=V,COS++T, sin+,

The periodic v a r i a t i o n i n angle of s e t t i n g l e a d s t o a v a r i a t i o n i n i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e cone during r o t a t i o n . The flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s take t h e form ( f o r constant induced v e l o c i t y )

8 2

1 + - p2 2

If t h e center of g r a v i t y i s located aft of t h e aerodynamic center (bf > 0, A > 0), an a d d i t i o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e cone and hence of t h e r e s u l t a n t t o t h e s i d e of r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a f t W i l l occur. If t h e c.g. i s ahead of t h e a.c., then t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n increases t h e damping moment of t h e r o t a t i o n .

The angles of twist Tl and 5, are easily determined i f t h e dynamic twist of t h e blade i n r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t i s calculated and t h e angle of twist vo i s &

93

known (Ref.6).

The r e l a t i o n between t h e s e angles i s determined by t h e formulas

(2.88)

16. Rotor w i t h FhppinR Cowensator


Let us now examine a r o t o r whose blades change i n p i t c h y , as a f u n c t i o n of t h e flapping angle B . There a r e many. methods of accomplishing such kinematics. f i g u r e 2.27 shows one of t h e methods of changing p i t c h i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e flapping angle fl (turned flapping \w hinge), where cp v a r i e s i n accordance with t h e l a w :

6-

Axis o f blade

'f= e ,

- ptono,.

k W
fig.2.27

Axis o f f l a p p i n g hinge

Diagram of Blade with Turned E n g e .

The f l a p p i n g angle B , i n this case, i s t h e angle between t h e blade a x i s and t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . Not wanting t o complicate t h e results, we w i l l t a k e t h e case IJ. = 0. The variat i o n i n f l a p p i n g motion obtained f o r regimes w i t h IJI = 0 can be extrapolated

t o t h e case IJ. > 0.

L e t t h e c r a f t be i n c l i n e d i n space at a constant angular v e l o c i t y having t h e components Sa, and R ,

The v e l o c i t y components of t h e blade element w i l l take t h e form

UY =hi? -r

-+ df
dfJ .

QYrcos - 8,r

sin

+.

B t a n q , we construct, as above, t h e equation of moments Assuming cp = r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l ( f l a p p i n g ) hinge f o r B = 1 :

Y +Tw
QY

COS+--

Qx

-sin+-2
0

-sin+-2-cosq~,.
0

QY

Qx
0

The p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of this equation has t h e u s u a l form

!=a, - a,cos

+-

6, sin+,

while t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e series have t h e values

--+mal)]8
Y 8

1 1 +tM2 1

01

'

Equations (2.90) show t h a t , i n t h e case of a turned hinge, t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e cone described by t h e blades and hence t h e r e s u l t a n t W i l l t a k e p l a c e at a smaller phase shift t h a n i n t h e case of a conventional hub. The absence of phase shift TABLE 2.3 means t h a t , i n t r a n s v e r s e r o t a t i o n , t h e r e should be no change i n l o n g i t u d i n a l i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t , i.e., a t 2 = 0, we should have
w

sa

al = 0 and, conversely, a t
I
I
I

= 0, w

bl = 0.

T h i s condition i s s a t i s f i e d i f
Y tanu --

(2-91)

The values of ol, shown i n Table 2.3, value of y .

a r e derived w i t h respect t o t h e

TABLE 2.4.
y=8
o,=o
0 1

v =4 . 6
= 45"
-.

o1=0

01

= 30"

=1

_ -QY
0

QY -0

-1.74-

QY
0

QY - 1.74 0

6 1
tan- 1

QY -0

QY -_

b r
0 1

45"

30"

It i s of i n t e r e s t t h a t t h e condition of absence of phase shift t a n crl = = y/8 y i e l d s t h e same magnitude of damping ( l a g of t h e r e s u l t a n t ) as f o r a r o t o r

95

lllll I1 II I I1 I1 I I I I

without flapping compensator. For example, f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l r o t a t i o n we o b t a i n t h e values i n d i c a t e d i n Table 2.4.

It i s obvious t h a t t h e absence of phase shift i n t r a n s v e r s e r o t a t i o n a t constant angle of a t t a c k ensures maintenance of IJ. i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, i.e., prevents a decrease i n r o t o r rpm o r i n c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y during r o t a t i o n .
F THE ROTOR AXIS FDTOR FLAPPING I N CURVILINE3R MOTION O AT VAR1ABI;E ANGULAR VELOCITY
Below, we will d e r i v e formulas f o r determining t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of blades i n t h e presence of uniformly accelerated and harmonic o s c i l l a t i o n of t h e r o t o r axis. For simplicity, we W i l l t a k e t h e case where p = 0. It i s shown t h a t , f o r both l a w s of v a r i a t i o n i n angular v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r axis, t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s and hence t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r w i l l vary by t h e same amount p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e angular v e l o c i t y as i n t h e case of uniform r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r a x i s . Furthermore, terms appear t h a t depend on t h e angular a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e r o t o r iwds.

fi

17. Uniformly Accelerated Rotation of t h e Rotor Axis


L e t us first examine,,the case of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r a x i s i n p i t c h i n g a t variable angular velocity"
Q,=At.
(2.92)

Let us s u b s t i t u t e t =

A . We can t h e n write and p u t k = 7


Q, =kq.

(2.93)

W e t h e n derive t h e expression f o r f o r c e s and t h e i r moments r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge.


The v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e blade section,
0, = 0, and B = 1 , can be obtained from
p = 0,

n ,

W,

Ux=rw,
U,=AwR$

kqr cos - r dt

(2.94)

Then, t h e t h r u s t moment t a k e s t h e form


(2.95)

* By turning
96

t h e coordinate axes through an angle $ , a l l results obtained below can be extrapolated t o t h e case of r o t a t i o n i n any d i r e c t i o n .

The moment due t o t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e i s

MK== - 21,,hk$0 sin+.


The i n e r t i a f o r c e of r o t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n reads

(2.96)

where

The moment of this f o r c e i s


R
M j ,=
U

mku) cos +r2dr =

ku)COS 3.

(2.97)

The equations of moments r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge, a f t e r canceling by I h . h w2, Will t a k e t h e form

The p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n t o this equation has t h e form


'$=a,-

a,+ cos*$ - 6 & sin li, - c1 cos 9 - d , sin +.

(2.99)

Let us f i n d t h e d e r i v a t i v e of i3 w i t h respect t o 9:

Ler

We next s u b s t i t u t e t h e s e values i n t o t h e left-hand s i d e of eq.(2.98), yieldi'bg Y -b13,cos 3, 3-&,+ sin 3, - 4 4

-(2T,+3G 41

$2 4 d , cos++a,=y(3++)+
k -+
0

+ , k

cos $8-

sin++

k 2-$8 cos +4 0

rb.hW2

(2.100)

.
97

Since eq.(2.100) i s a n i d e n t i t y , then, by equating t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of like terms, we o b t a i n t h e following system of equations f o r determining t h e coeffic i e n t s of t h e series
Y-

2k k
G1

-YF-Y
2a1- - Y b ,261 $--a,
4 Y 4

TU1=-Tv
1-4:'

+ '4 +-4Y

=o,
W

(2.101)

k d l = - -;
Sh.h
'h.hW2

a,=Y(3++)--. A

(2.102)

From eqs.(2.101)

we o b t a i n
8 k a,= --Y W k
-

b, = ;;
w

d,=-

12 k
Y

7.

Thus, t h e s o l u t i o n f o r B can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following form:


B=r(,+')+--cosq+ 4
h

8 k4J
Y W

12 k cos(1,----sin+.
W

It i s easy t o see t h a t t h e quantity kJr

i s none w
QY

o t h e r t h a n t h e r a t i o of

t h e instantaneous angular v e l o c i t y 0. = kJr t o t h e v e l o c i t y w. Thus, t h e coeffic i e n t s of t h e first terms i n eq.(2.107) are analogous t o those previously obt a i n e d f o r f l y = const, namely

q=-SQY , b l = - ; .
YW

The terms containing s i n Jr i n t h e expression f o r B a r e derived from t h e & influence of i n e r t i a f o r c e s generated as a result of nonuniform r o t a t i o n . I n backward r o t a t i o n , t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s tend t o Eft t h e blade which i s i n t h e r e a r p o s i t i o n ; this causes a change i n t h e f l a p p i n g motion and a decrease i n angles of a t t a c k so as t o a t t a i n equilibrium. I n s o doing t h e &s of t h e cone t i l t s

t o the left. So far we have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n f o r eq.(2.98), charact e r i z i n g forced o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade. Lzt us now examine t h e general solut i o n of eq.(2.98) without t h e right-hand member, i.e., t h e equation

S e t t i n g y = 8 i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r case, we f i n d t h e s o l u t i o n i n t h e form

The general s o l u t i o n of eq.( 2.98) t h e n becomes


P=C,e-*+C,+e-*+y

-+- :> + G

(2.109)

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s C1 and C, t i o n s $ = 0 ; fI = 0 ; fI' = 0 :

are found f r o m t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i -

e,= --+y YO

4k

($++).

(2.Ilo)

A s we see from eq.(2.108), t h e terms containing C1 and C2 decay extremely r a p i d l y ; thus, i n one r e v o l u t i o n ($ = 2n) t h e degree of p e r t u r b a t i o n diminishes tenfold: e- 4 = e-2n = 0.002, $e-$ = 0.012.

T h i s f u r n i s h e s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o use only t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.107), neglecting fre e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade, a procedure a l s o confirmed by experiment.

A comparison w i t h experiment showed t h a t , under s t a t i c operating conditions, t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e d i s k has a s u b s t a n t i a l influence on flapping; t h e refined formulas f o r t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s are given elsewhere (Ref .8).

For a r o t o r with a flapping compensator, t h e flapping motion of t h e r o t o r i s determined from t h e formulas:

99

a 1 = ---($+tmal)

1+ton201

. '

A comparison of eqs.(2.l.l2) and (2.U.3) f o r al and followed by comparing them with t h e previously obtained expressions (2.103) and (2.104) f o r a r o t o r without flapping compensator, w i l l show t h a t t h e l a g of t h e cone and hence of t h e r e s u l t a n t i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h e r o t a t i o n w i l l be p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same, whereas t h e i n c l i n a t i o n i n a perpendicular d i r e c t i o n w i l l decrease.

18. Harmonic O s c i l l a t i o n of t h e Rotor Axis


Let us now examine t h e case i n which t h e r o t o r a x i s executes a harmonic o s c i l l a t i o n i n space a t angular v e l o c i t y
Q,== A sin vt = A sin p+,

where p =

w i t h v being t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e c r a f t .

Since damping of t h e f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n s of rotary-wing c r a f t i s small, t h e harmonic l a w describes o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e c r a f t c l o s e t o t h e t r u e o s c i l l a t i o n s . W e again o b t a i n t h e expressions f o r t h e moments of f o r c e s relative t o t h e a x i s of t h e flapping hinge. The v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e blade section, assuming as usual p = 0, B = 1 , are equal t o
U, =r w ,

U,, = A d +
The t h r u s t moment i s

4. A sill ptj r cos II) - r dt

(2.116)

The moment of t h e Coriolis f o r c e reads


R

M,=

-2 ~ m A s i n p $ w r s i n + d r = - 2 / h.h wAsintnjrsinII).
0

(2.ll8)

The moment of t h e i n e r t i a . f o r c e of r o t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n i s

1 0 0

Mj,=I
0

nd Q Y r cos$r dr=
dt

A p o cos Pdi) cos 9.

The equation of moments, a f t e r canceling by form

1h.h

w2,

is written i n the

The s o l u t i o n t o this equation (assuming t h a t we can neglect t h e f r e e motion of t h e blade, according t o t h e foregoing) i s found i n t h e form of
;=ao-

a; cos ( p + -+)

- b; sin

( p +-+I - a; cos (&++I - b; sin (p+++).

S u b s t i t u t i n g this s o l u t i o n i n t o t h e equation of motion of t h e blade, we f i n d t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s :


A
Y2 -32 (P - 1) - ( P 2 - 2 P )
Y2

-t1 (P2- 2P)


1

a;=,

( P - 1)2 + (P2 - 2PY 16

Disregarding powers of p g r e a t e r t h a n t h e f i r s t ( s i n c e p does not exceed 0.03 0.Ok) and expressing s i n (pQ rt Q ) and cos (p$ f Q ) i n terms of t h e product Q s i n $, cos p Q cos $, s i n p$ s i n $, we of t h e form s i n p Q cos Q, cos p obtain

+A

sin Nsin q+ Q A p cos p+sin +.


Y O

101

Recalling t h a t

~Acos@=-= dQY -d+

1
0

dQY dt

we f i n d t h a t t h e flapping motion, i n t h e case of hamnortic o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e


r o t o r a x i s i n space, can be represented i n t h e form

+ T+u 4 dt -]sin$. 1

L Qy

dQY

(2.120)

02

Thus, t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e cone of t h e r o t o r during r o t a t i o n i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l plane w i l l be


8
QY

64

dQY

(2.121)

and t h e l a t e r a l i n c l i n a t i o n becomes

( 2 122)
These e q r e s s i o n s , r e l a t i v e t o t h e magnitude of t h e terms p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r s h a f t , coincide with those previously obtained f o r uniform and uniformly accelerated r o t a t i o n and thus can be used, i n t h e general case of h e l i c o p t e r motion, f o r determining f o r c e s and moments of t h e rotor, damping t h e h e l i c o p t e r motion. For a r o t o r w i t h a flapping campensator, eqs.(2.121), t i o n a l t o eqs.(2.102) - (2.106). (2.122) vary propor-

CHAFACYEUSTICS O F ROTOR AEEODYNAMICS DETERMI BY HINGED BLADE ATTACHMENT

Laa

Hinged blade attachment has a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e aerodynamics of t h e r o t o r ; t h e r e f o r e , an understanding of t h e r o l e and p h y s i c a l meaning of flapping motion w i l l help t h e reader toward a b e t t e r study of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r aerodynamics. These questions a r e presented below. Furthermore, a simple graphic d e r i v a t i o n of formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s i s given.

102

19. P__ bs - i c a l Meaning of Blade Flappi%


The equation of blade flapping i n steady r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t can be represented as

d2B+p=where
d92

Y a,
1

(2.123)

Here, S h S hi s t h e mass s t a t i c moment of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge

As s h m above [see eq.(2.33)1,


p i n g angle p and t h e angular v e l o c i t y

t h e expression f o r

-#-; this demonstrates t h a t t h e flapping


B2 = 1

dt contains t h e flapdF

motion r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge i s damped by aerodynamic forces. Owing t o appreciable aerodynamic damping [with l i n e a r i z a t i o n of t h e equat i o n , i.e., on t h e assumption t h a t c y = amar, t h e average ( p e r revolution) coeff i c i e n t of i n eq.(2.34)

i s equal t o

- 1.71,

t h e natural o s c i l l a -

t i o n s of t h e blade r a p i d l y d i e out and t h e flapping motion of t h e blade becomes a forced o s c i l l a t i o n due t o t h e t h r u s t moment. Since t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e blade i s c l o s e t o t h e rpm of t h e r o t o r [ t h e average ( p e r revolution) coeffic i e n t of B i n eq.(2.34) i s equal t o 11, t h e blade reaches i t s maximum o s c i l l a t i o n amplitude upon a v a r i a t i o n i n t h r u s t moment w i t h t h e frequency of t h e r o t o r revolutions, i.e., w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i r s t harmonic. The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e amplitudes of t h e second harmonic of flapping and t h e t h r u s t moment i s by approximately a f a c t o r of 10 less than f o r t h e first harmonic. Therefore, d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e amplitude of t h e second harmonic of t h e t h r u s t moment i s high, blade flapping occurs mainly w i t h respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic. Thus, t h e bulk of t h e flapping motion of t h e blade i s described by t h e e quation
?=a, - a, cos 9- 6 , sin $.

(2.124-1

kt us s u b s t i t u t e eq.( 2 . l a ) i n t o t h e equation of flapping motion (2.123) The left-hand s i d e of t h e equation i s equal t o a,:

The equation of flapping t a k e s t h e form

(2.126)

It follows from eq.(2.125) t h a t , i n each s e c t i o n of t h e blade, t h e sum of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e of flapping and of t h e component of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e /100 noma1 t o t h e blade a x i s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o a. and i s a constant, remaining unchanged upon r o t a t i o n of t h e blade although t h e flapping angle of t h e blade changes. This means t h a t t h e first harmonic of t h e moment of i n e r t i a f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge i s equal t o zero. Therefore, as shown by eq.(2.126), t h e t h r u s t moment of t h e blade relative t o t h e flapping hinge should be t h e same at a l l azimuths. Herein l i e s t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a r o t o r w i t h flapping hinges and t h e p h y s i c a l meaning of blade flapping with respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic: The Fig.2.28 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Thrust blade moves about t h e horizontal hinge over t h e Blade Radius a t I d e n t i c a l s o t h a t , as a result of t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s over t h e Magnitude of Thrust Moment R e l a blade caused by t h e flapping, t h e t h r u s t t i v e t o t h e Horizontal Hinge. moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e horizontal hinge does not change a t a l l azimuths.
20. Redistribution of Aerodynamic Forces over t h e Rotor Disk due t o Flapping Equality of t h e magnitude of t h e thrust moment of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge a t every azimuth w i l l not result i n blade t h r u s t , calculated only w i t h consideration of t h e f i r s t harmonics of flapping which are t h e same a t a l l azimuths, s i n c e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h r u s t over t h e r a d i u s changes from azimuth t o azimuth (Fig.2.28). However, owing t o flapping of t h e r o t o r with hinged blade retention, t h e f i r s t harmonic of t h e change of blade t h r u s t decreases steeply. The blade t h r u s t depends on t h e flapping motion m a i n l y w i t h respect t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l r e l a t i v e flow normal t o t h e blade a~5.s'~ p roduced during flapping of t h e blade elements, which changes t h e t r u e angle of a t t a c k of t h e element. The changes which introduce first-harmonic flapping i n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r u e angles of a t t a c k over t h e r o t o r d i s k are appreciable. For example, t h e addit i o n a l v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y of t h e air A g , ,= alF of a blade element a t azimuth $ = 90' and of t h e same element a t azimuth $ = 270' i s t h e same i n magnitude but opposite i n d i r e c t i o n . However, owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l components of t h e r e l a t i v e flow, t h e t r u e angle of a t t a c k of t h e element decreases

For simplicity, we w i l l c a l l t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r normal t o t h e blade a x i s t h e llverticalll v e l o c i t y .


104

l i t t l e at $ = 90 and i n c r e a s e s much more at $ = 270. T h i s explains t h e l o c a l i n c r e a s e of t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s i n t h e region $ = = 270 and t h e occurrence of flow s e p a r a t i o n a t high f l y i n g speeds f o r a r o t o r w i t h hinged blades (Fig.2.29).
Above, we determined t h e r e l a t i v e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y of t h e flow a t azimuths $ = 90 and $ = 270. T h i s w a s found equal t o , respectively, -alm and alrw. The expressions have a simple explanation. Figure 2-30 shows a r o t o r whose blades have d i f f e r e n t flapping angles a t azimuths $ = 0 and $ = 180, i.e., t h e a x i s of t h e cone of t h e blades i s def l e c t e d backward (al # 0). Here, t h e blades have a u m v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y with respect t o absolute magnitude on passing through azimuths $ = 90 and
$ = 270 s i n c e t h e blade, i n t h e same time i n t e r v a l A t
=

/ 1 0 1

%, i s v e r t i c a l l y
Jr
= 0

displaced by t h e l a r g e s t magnitude (p > n). A t azimuths t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y of t h e blades i s equal t o zero.

and

Jr

180,

I )$ ! =90 D; 270

Fig.2.29 Variation i n A n g l e of Attack of t h e Blade Section w i t h Respect t o Azimuth, due t o Blade Flapping.

Fig.2.30 Displacement of Blade Section Relative t o Plane of Rotation on Blade Turning.

Thus, a change i n v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y and, consequently, i n t r u e angle of I W i l l take p l a c e on v a r i a t i o n s i n a t t a c k and blade t h r u s t a t azimuths Jr and Q + I t h e blade flapping angles a t azimuths $ + 2 and $ +

and 2

v i c e versa.

Bear-

i n g this i n mind, i t i s easy t o understand how t h e r o t o r flapping w i l l vary i f , f o r some reason, a c y c l i c change of t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k t a k e s p l a c e o r a n a d d i t i o n a l moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinges appears on t h e blades. For example, i f because of blade t w i s t i n g o r f o r some o t h e r reason t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s i n c r e a s e t o a maximum a t azimuth $ and decrease ally at azimuth JI + IT,t h e n a n a d d i t i o n a l flapping motion of t h e blades i s

established so t h a t t h e blades occupy t h e lowest p o s i t i o n a t azimuth

JI

and, when flapping upward, reduce t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k t o a value a t which t h e condition of constancy of t h r u s t moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge i s observed a t a l l azimuths. The highest p o s i t i o n of t h e blades i s a t azimuth $ +

Along 2 with t h e v a r i a t i o n i n fla ping with respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic, t h e f o r c e s H and S a l s o vary (Fig.2.317:
+

LL a f t e r which they drop, r e s t o r i n g t h e dimjrnished angles of a t t a c k .

It w a s shown above t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e l a r g e f i r s t harmonic a t v e l o c i t y U, t h e f i r s t harmonic of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n blade t h r u s t with respect t o azimuth i s /103 r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , s i n c e it s u b s t a n t i a l l y decreases because of t h e flapping. The second harmonic of blade t h r u s t i s l a r g e r and t h e t h i r d smaller than t h e f i r s t harmonic.

P P"
h.h

/102

0.IO

Fig.2.31 Variation i n Flapping and Longitudinal and L a t e r a l Forces due t o Dynamic Twist of t h e Blade with Respect t o t h e First Harmonic.

Fig.2.32 Variation i n Flapping Angle, Angular Acceleration of Flapping, and Thrust Moment of Blade Relative t o Flapping Hinge as a Function of Azimuth.

The second harmonic of blade t h r u s t causes second-harmonic flapping motion of t h e blade


Ag-= - - u a , ~ ~ s 2 + - b b , s i n 2 ~ ,

(2.127)

which i s equalized by t h e moment of i n e r t i a f o r c e s (2.128)

106

and c r e a t e s some r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s of t h e blade with respect t o azimuth, which i s less extensive t h a n f o r t h e f i r s t harmonic. The higher harmonics of flapping are very small and have p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e blade aerodynamics. The graphs i n Figs.2.32 and 2.33 are a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of our statements on blade flapping and v a r i a t i o n i n aerodynamic f o r c e s w i t h respect t o azimuth. The diagrams w e r e obtained by rough calculation, on t h e assumption of uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o t o r d i s k and without consideration of e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade which a f f e c t t h e magnitude of t h e upper harmonics of flapping and blade t h r u s t . The c a l c u l a t i o n w a s performed f o r t h e following i n i t i a l data:

Fig.2.33 Variation i n Angular Velocity of Flapping, Angle of Attack of Section a t r = 0.975, and Blade Thrust as a Function of Azimuth.

1/=0.30;

t,=0.1.6;

a = -9.4';

M,=0.6;

L = O . 9 ; R=O, f,,=O.
am
'

The curves show t h e kinematic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of flapping B,

7 ' dJr2 '

dB

d2B

t h r u s t , and t h r u s t moment of blade t,,,, m h S h , and angle of a t t a c k of sectioncu, a t r = 0.975. W e s e e from this example and f r o m Table 2 . 1 1 t h a t , beginning with t h e second harmonic, t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s markedly decrease and, beginning with t h e t h i r d harmonic, t h e decay c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade t h r u s t diminish. Thus, t h e angle and angular v e l o c i t y of flapping as w e l l as t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n vary mainly w i t h respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic, i.e., with t h e frequency of t h e r o t o r revolutions. The second harmonic becomes manifest i n angular a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e blade, whereas t h e blade t h r u s t and i t s moment relat i v e t o t h e flapping hinge vary mainly with respect t o t h e second harmonic. 21. Approh-ate Deri-ti-on of- Formulas f o r Flapping Coefficients

On t h e basis of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of blade flapping, described i n Subsection 19, we w i l l derive approximate expressions f o r determining t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s a, and b, obtained i n Subsection 4. For simglicity, we w i l l take B = 1 and /104. w i l l disregard small terms of t h e order of p so as t o o b t a i n expressions w i t h a n accuracy t o p . On t h e basis of t h e constancy of t h e t h r u s t moment a t a l l azimuths, we w i l l T h i s method permits equate t h e t h r u s t moments for azimuths d i f f e r i n g by 1 8 0 ' .

107

a b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n of t h e mechanism of e q u a l i z a t i o n of t h r u s t moments by means of flapping, under d i f f e r e n t conditions o f blade flow a t azimuths d i f f e r i n g by


330'.

The angle of backward tilt of t h e a d s of t h e r o t o r cone a1 i s determined from a n examination of azimuths Jr = 90' and Jr = 270'; t h e angle of sideward tilt of t h e axis of t h e cone toward t h e s i d e of t h e advancing blade ($ = 90") i s determined from azimuths JI = 0 ' and Jr = 180'. The superposition of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y of f l i g h t on t h e r o t a r y motion of the r o t o r i s responsible f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t operating conditions of t h e A t azimuth Jr = 90' t h e v e l o c i t i e s are added blades a t azimuths 90' and 270'. and a t azimuth $ = 270, subtracted. Therefore, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a1 i s equal t o zero during s t a t i c operation of t h e r o t o r and increases w i t h a n increase i n f l y i n g speed V ( o r p = A t azimuth

'

'Os W R

cy

).
equal t o displacedecrease reduces

= 90, t h e relative flow i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n i s Here, i n t h e region of l a r g e v e l o c i t i e s , t h e backward ment of t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone causes a l i f t i n g of t h e blade and a i n t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e relative flow U, = w R ( h - alF), which t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k of t h e sections.

Jr

U,

wR(r + p).

A t azimuth Jr = 270, t h e r e l a t i v e flow i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n i s small, w h i l e t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y and t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s increase: U, = wR(F p ) ; U, = wR(X + alF).

Let us t h e n construct t h e equations f o r t h e elementary t h r u s t moment, take t h e i n t e g r a l from r = 0 t o 7 = 1 a t both azimuths and, equating t h e r e s u l t s , f i n d t h e expression f o r al. We can a l s o equate t o zero t h e moment of t h e t h r u s t d i f f e r e n c e a t azimuth Jr = 90' and Jr = 1 8 0 ' :

( 2 129
where
1

1 (E)
a,
dr +=2709

='P(r-p)2+(F-p)

(Afa17).

Hence,

Owing t o t h e v e l o c i t y difference of t h e oncoming flow a t azimuths Jr = 90' and Jr = 270, t h e quantity al will vary even a t t h e same change i n angle of att a c k o r v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y f o r t h e blade a t t h e s e azimuths. For example, upon a n i n c r e a s e i n angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r , equal v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s appear a t To have t h e blade t h r u s t t h e blade s e c t i o n s a t azimvkhs Jr = 90' and Jr = 270'. moment increments a t t h e s e azimuths i d e n t i c a l , t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e

108

s e c t i o n s a t azimuth Jr = 9 0 ' should be decreased f u r t h e r and, a t azimuth Jr increased again. Obuiously, this Will occur upon a n i n c r e a s e i n a,.

270,

T h i s i s a n important property of a r o t o r w i t h hinged blades: Upon an increase i n angle of a t t a c k of t h e h e l i c o p t e r owing t o a n i n c r e a s e i n al, t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e H i n c r e a s e s and a d e s t a b i l i z i n g moment appears r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e helicopter, causing an even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n angle of a t t a c k ; t h e h e l i c o p t e r i-s s t a t i c a l l y unstable w i t h respect t o t h e angle of a t t a c k .

3dU,=-Vd,

9 =O

9 =f&p-- v

W e should note t h a t a, does not depend on t h e i n e r t i a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blades, s i n c e a, equalizes t h e aerodynamic Ilasymmetryll i n r o t o r operation.
The presence of t h e coning angle i s responsible f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y IJy of t h e air r e l a t i v e t o t h e 0 and Jr = 1 8 0 ' blade, a t azimuths Jr = ' (Fig.2.34).

d [$ = Va,

Fig.2.34 Variation i n Velocity U, as a Function of t h e Coning Angle aO.

upward. During t h e second half of t h e revolution t h e blade drops, which increases t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k . Thus, t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone i s displaced l a t e r a l l y , toward t h e s i d e of t h e advancing blade ( J r = 9 0 ' ) -

For a blade i n t h e forward p o s i t i o n 180), t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e air i s d i r e c t e d from t h e bottom upward; t o reduce t h e t r u e angle of a t t a c k t h e blade, on passing t h e azimuths 90 - 270, i s l i f t e d

(Jr

L e t us now d e r i v e t h e expression f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t b,. ponents of flow around t h e blade s e c t i o n s are equal t o :


a t azimuth Jr
=

The v e l o c i t y com-

0,

a t azimuth Jr

1 8 0 ,
U, =wRr; Uy=wR (A - b,F+ pao).

Equating t h e t h r u s t moments of t h e blade at t h e s e azimuths, we o b t a i i

The c o e f f i c i e n t b, equalizes t h e aerodynamic I~aspnmetry"caused by t h e presence of aO. Since a, depends on t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade y, it follows t h a t a l s o bl depends on y.

22. Effect of Nonuniformity of t h e Induced Velocity .Field on t h e F l a p p i x Motion


N e x t , we W i l l define t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s al and b,

f o r t h e case i n which an a d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y appears on t h e s e c t i o n s and an a d d i t i o n a l p e r i o d i c moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge a c t s on t h e blade :

AU,, = - U , COS (I) - U2sin(I); AM= -Mlcoscj,-M2sin(I).


The blade t h r u s t moment i s t h e only moment a b l e t o balance t h e a d d i t i o n a l first-harmonic moment caused by a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y and i n t h e moment AM. The l i n e a r t h r u s t of t h e blade receives an increment owing t o a change i n I n this case, t h e equation t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s by a quantity Aa, and Abl. of flapping has t h e form
R

d T r = /h.h d a 0- M ,cos 9 - M , sin 9.


0

(2.134)

I n conformity with eq.(2.134),

we can examine t h e following e q u a l i t i e s :

/106

or, i n dimensionless form,

The e q u a l i t y (2.137) can a l s o be described d i f f e r e n t l y :

or, expressing

dt i n t h e form of d?

110

The p h y s i c a l meaning of e q . ( 2 . a 1 ) i s obvious: The flapping hinge moment, varying w i t h respect t o t h e first harmonic, i s equalized by t h e moment of t h e f i r s t harmonic of thrust". Henceforth we w i l l use t h e e q u a l i t y (2.139) and, accordingly, t h e e q u a l i t y (2.l-42) :
I

and determine only t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t increments. Let us examine t h e azimuths 4


=

9 0 '

and Q

270'

(Eg.2.35):

We W i l l give t h e expressions f o r

i :i

and
\

dF

(with an accuracy t o p 2 ) :

However -pa,r

dt (?)

i s not equal t o

dt dt (dF -(F )t,d


)a.,

s i n c e t h e term

i n t h e expression

i s the dt ? dF J ~ r = ~ o ~

c o e f f i c i e n t of sin2$ and does not per-

t a i n t o t h e f i r s t harmonic.

From t h e e q u a l i t y (2.139) we o b t a i n

N e x t , l e t us examine t h e azimuths $ = 0 and $ = 180' ( F i g 2.36) :

Fig.2.35 For Deriving t h e Ekpressions f o r Aa,. From t h e e q u a l i t y ( 2.l.42) we o b t a i n

Using eqs.(2.%3) and we t h e n derive t h e formulas f o r determining t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t increments, w i t h consideration of a nonuniform in/108 duced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o t o r disk.

(2.m),

~ig.2.36

For Derivihg t h e Ekpressions f o r Ab,.

I n first a p p r o x h a t i o n , t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n can be described by t h e equation (see Fig.2.6)


V ( f , I;))=P+&cosqJ.

Since t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y AU, i s from t h e bottom up and t h a t of t h e induced v e l o c i t y from t h e top down, a com-

p a r i s o n of eqs .( 2.l45) and (2.132) w i l l yield

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(2.Uc6) i n t o eqs.(2.&3) and (2.l4.4), we o b t a i n t h e sought expressions : Fig.2.37 Variation in b1 as a Function of p .


AUl=O;
1

ab1=4a j;"dr=u.
U

Thus, t h e backward d e f l e c t i o n of t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone Will not change, whereas t h e l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n w i l l increase by an angle numerically equal t o t h e increment of t h e r e l a t i v e induced v e l o c i t y a t t h e blade t i p i n both forward and rear p o s i t i o n s . If we assume t h a t a = ?-, i.e., t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y a t t h e leading end of t h e d i s k i s equal t o zero and a t t h e t r a i l i n g end equal t o double t h e mean value, t h e n

w h i l e t h e t o t a l value of backward d e f l e c t i o n of t h e cone a x i s W i l l be

A l o n g i t u d i n a l tilt of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a l s o a f f e c t s t h e magnitude of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r . L e t us d e r i v e t h e formulas f o r determining h and s:


h=u,[--Ip1 ~+3pal+ 1 q h a , + -3 B
1 4

(ui +-a:>-

Equations (2.3.49) (2.151) can be used a t p > 0 . 1 0.05. Therefore, i n fig.2.37 which gives t h e curve of bl as a f u n c t i o n of p, t h e s e c t o r from p = 0 t o p = 0.1 contains a broken curve, l a i d approximately through t h e p o i n t s p = 0,
?:-

The quantity a, as r e l a t e d t o t h e f l i g h t regime, can be determined from d a t a given elsewhere (Ref .25).

a t which b,

= 0 and IJ, =

0 . 1 .

By means of eqs.(2&3) and (2.w) we can a l s o o b t a i n t h e approximate expressions f o r determining t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t increments during curvil i n e a r motion of a helicopter, which were derived i n Subsection 4.

METHOD O F CALCULATING THE A E F D D Y N A M I C CHARACTERISTICS OF A FDMR FOR AZIMUTHAL VARIATION O F BLADE PITCH

23. E d v a l e n t Rotor The0.m


It w i l l be shown below t h a t a r o t o r whose blade p i t c h changes c y c l i c a l l y w i t h respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic

can be regarded i n t h e aerodynamic design as a r o t o r w i t h a constant p i t c h equal t o cpo, but with a d i f f e r e n t angle of a t t a c k . On this' basis, t h e method of determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r w i t h a p i t c h v a r i a b l e i n azimuth i s c a l l e d t h e equivalent r o t o r theory. The equivalent r o t o r theory f u r n i s h e s an explanation f o r t h e mode of variat i o n i n r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with d e f l e c t i o n of-the automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e angle of mechanism. The formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ql and d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and t h e kinematic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r hub a r e given i n Subsections 25 -. 28. Data published e a r l i e r (Ref .l5, I , ! + . ) were used i n presenting t h e material. F i r s t , l e t us examine t h e problem formally: S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( 2.152) i n t o t h e equation of flapping and, f o r simplicity, r e t a i n i n g only t h e f i r s t harmonics, a s e r i e s of transformations will y i e l d

Below, i n Subsections 23 and 24, only t h e p i t c h components (PO, @ , and F1 W i l l be contained i n t h e formulas so t h a t , f o r s i m p l i c i t y , we w i l l omit t h e subs c r i p t "0" of y o . From eq.(2.153), coefficients : t h e following formulas are obtained f o r t h e flapping

/ 1 1 0

It i s obvious t h a t , on making t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n A,, t o (2.156) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

= A

- F1p,

eqs.(2.154)

bl=

3 1

( +-2

1
P2)

aoP

ti l .
( 2 159

A comparison of t h e s e formulas with eqs.(2.4.0) f o r a r o t o r with constant p i t c h r e a d i l y shows t h a t a, and t h e f i r s t terms of t h e expressions f o r al and bl coincide, provided t h a t both r o t o r s have equal p and y, and t h a t t h e A of t h e r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h i s equal t o A,, Henceforth we will denote a l l quantit i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o a r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h by t h e s u b s c r i p t lleqll or l l e l ! ( f o r equivalent )

The coincidence of t h e formulas enables us t o determine t h e flapping coeff i c i e n t s of a r o t o r w i t h v a r i a b l e p i t c h from t h e formulas f o r t h e flapping coeff i c i e n t s of a r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h , adding (p.1 and Cpl: (2.160) (2.161) (2.162)

In s o doing it i s necessary t o satisfy t h e conditions of equivalence of t h e r o t o r w i t h v a r i a b l e p i t c h and t h e r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h :

N o w we are convinced t h a t t h e following r e l a t i o n s are s a t i s f i e d :


Ux= r
-

+p sin += Ux,;

(a-'p)
or

u-

=lTy

uy,
(2.168) (2.165),

Actually, on t h e basis of eqs.(2.160) of t h e e q u a l i t y (2.168) i n expanded form:

we represent both s i d e s

/ 1 l 1

It i s obvious t h a t t h e e q u a l i t y (2.168) i s v a l i d here. It follows d i r e c t l y from eq.(2.168)


that

Thus, t h e angles of a t t a c k a t a l l blade s e c t i o n s f o r t h e r o t o r w i t h v a r i a b l e p i t c h and f o r t h e r o t o r with constant p i t c h equivalent t o it are equal. Ekewise, we can show t h a t

d;

dt

t,==t,e '*
I =te.

Equations (2.168) (2.170) show t h a t a decrease o r i n c r e a s e i n linear t h r u s t , produced by a change i n p i t c h of t h e blade a t a given azimuth, i s due t o a decrease o r i n c r e a s e i n a t t h e same azimuth when c a l c u l a t i n g on t h e basis of t h e equivalent r o t o r theory.

u,

A t equal t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s , t h e r e l a t i v e induced v e l o c i t i e s are a l s o equal

from which it follows, based on eqs.(2.163)

and (2.164), that

W e represent t h e expression f o r

dq i n the
dF

form [see eq.(3.56)1

Using eqs.(2.168)

and (2.170),

we f i n d

Since, f o r a r o t o r w i t h flapping hinges, t h e value of t h e i n t e g r a l

i(

i s constant a t a l l azimuths, t h e i n t e g r a l with respect t o JI must be dF) equal t o zero. Consequently, t h e average per-revolution magnitude of t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r o t o r s i s i d e n t i c a l : mt=mto

.
dq dF,

( 2 178)
qq, and m,

f o r both r o t o r s are not t h e same and t h e r o t o r s have a d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e component of flapping motion about t h e drag hinge.

However, a t equal azimuths t h e values of

Jr

Let us now d e r i v e formulas f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s h and s of t h e r o t o r w i t h v a r i a b l e p i t c h from t h e corresponding c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r o t o r with constant p i t c h : he, and s e P . On t h e basis of eqs.(2.161), (2.162), (2.171), and (2.177) we t h e n o b t a i n Ah+= -tqeAPcos++Aq+sin+=+ex

(2.180) Consequent l y

(2.181)

(2.182)
Finally, l e t us d e f i n e t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s i n t h e v e l o c i t y axes. It follows from eqs.(2.172), (2.174), and (2.l-81) t h a t

Equations (2.183) and (2.184) show t h a t a r o t o r with d i f f e r e n t and q1 a t i d e n t i c a l p, A , , , cp has i d e n t i c a l t, and t,. Consequently, a t equal p 9 ty, t, t h e r o t o r w i t h a c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n of p i t c h and t h e r o t o r with a constant p i t c h have equal cp, h e , , cyeq, b u t d i f f e r e n t cy. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a hinged r o t o r manifests i t s e l f i n t h a t , a t equal t, and t, ( a t equal f l y i n g weight, speed, and a l t i t u d e ) but a t d i f f e r e n t ( d i f f e r e n t centering o r angles of s t a b i l i z e r s e t t i n g ) , t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i l l have d i f f e r e n t angles of a t t a c k and angles of The r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h and t h e r o t o r p i t c h . T h i s i s shown i n Fig.2.38: , , t, have equal c y e p b u t d i f f e r e n t c y ; consewith variable p i t c h , a t equal p, t quently, t h e h e l i c o p t e r with a deflected automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism i n t h e same f l y i n g regime w i l l occupy a new p o s i t i o n i n space.

Fl

P l a n e of r o t a t i o n o f r o t o r with p i t c h variable i n azimuth

-tr
'Qz
I //-

//

Plane of r o t a t i o n of r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h and p l a n e of e q u i v a l e n t rotzr for.

Y,+O

4 '

Angles of P i t c h of Helicopter a t Same Flying Regime Fig.2.38 but Different Deflections of Automatic P i t c h Control.

A n important consequence of eqs.(2.178), (2.183), and (2.184) i s t h e possib i l i t y of mathematically determining t h e interdependence of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s p,

118

ty, t,, m, i r r e s p e c t i v e of whether or not t h e r o t o r has a c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n of p i t c h with respect t o azimuth since, f o r any F1 and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t y , t,, m, do not change. T h i s property of t h e r o t o r g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e aerodynamic design of a helicopter.

GI,

The above-derived formulas of t h e equivalent r o t o r theory w i l l remain v a l i d even i f t h e y are not derived from eq.(2.153) and even i n t h e absence of assumptions of uniformity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d (without discarding higher harmonics of flapping) and of o t h e r assumptions. Consequently, a l s o here 'Plane o f transformations based on t h e equivalent r o t o r rotation theory will hold. The higher harmonics of flappl. acegal.t P ping and t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e blade i n t h e .q":od t h r u s t plane, f o r a r o t o r w i t h p i t c h varying as a function of t h e f i r s t harmonic and f o r a Fig.2.39 Displacement A s of r o t o r with constant p i t c h , are i d e n t i c a l i f t h e t h e Flapping H5nges Relative conditions of equivalence of t h e regimes (2.163) (2.165) a r e s a t i s f i e d . t o t h e Plane of t h e Equival e n t Rotor. The equivalent r o t o r theory i's not applicable i n t h e case of widely spaced flapping hinges, s i n c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e new reference plane, i.e., r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of t h e equivalent r o t o r , t h e blades execute a n a d d i t i o n a l displacement A s (Fig.2.39) together w i t h t h e flapping hinges, which does not occur when calcul a t i n g a r o t o r re,lative t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and i s not taken i n t o account i n design formulas.

Fig .2.4O

Reconstruction of t h e Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r a Rotor w i t h P i t c h Varying i n Azimuth.

Finally, f o r a r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h a l l dimensionless c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are defined upon p r e s c r i b i n g three q u a n t i t i e s (p, A , cp or any o t h e r three quantit i e s ) , whereas f o r t h e r o t o r w i t h variable p i t c h f i v e q u a n t i t i e s ( p , h , y, / l u , q ~ ~ , o r any other five) must be known f o r determining t h e dimensionless

119

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e r e l a t e d axes. Thus, it has been proved t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r w i t h variable p i t c h can be replaced by t h e simpler c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r w i t h variable p i t c h , i.e., s t i p u l a t i n g equivalence of t h e f l y i n g regimes (2.163) (2.165), with subsequent conversion by t h e above f o m u l a s .

The sequence of c a l c u l a t i o n i s as follows: From t h e q u a n t i t i e s p , A , cp, F1, which are known f o r t h e r o t o r with variable p i t c h , we f i n d w e , h e , y e . We t h e n d&"i.ne a o e 9 a l e , h e , te, m t e , he, se, t Y eh , e* From t h e conversion formulas, we f i n d a,, al, t,.

Fl

...

The equivalent r o t o r theory i s o f t e n used i n determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r from graphs. If t h e graphs are constructed f o r a r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h , t h e i r change f o r a r o t o r w i t h . v a r i a b l e p i t c h w i l l be I n t h e graphs f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k at cp = const (upper as shown i n F'ig.2.40. p l o t s ) t h e curves of t are e q u i d i s ta n t l y s h i f t e d by Act = &, and each p o i n t of t o t h e r i g h t and b A h = t & downward. t h e curves of h i s s h i f t e d by ACY = On t h e graphs f o r r o t o r p i t c h , a t cy = const (lower p l o t s t h e marking of t h e angles of a t t a c k i s changed ( f o r F1 # 0, each curve corresponds t o a n angle of attac -k g r e a t e r by and t h e curves of h, i n addition, are s h i f t e d by Ah = - -tFl. The graphs of m,, ty, t,, ao, and of higher harmonics of flapping a,, b, ( n = 2, 3, ...) are modified l i k e t h e graphs of t, whereas t h e graphs of s, al, bl are modified l i k e t h e graphs of h. On t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e v e l o c i t y axes ( t h e p l o t on t h e r i g h t i n F'ig.2.40) f o r a # 0, t h e marking of t h e angles of a t t a c k i s also changed. r o t o r with

Tl),

Plane o f e qu i v a1 e n t

Fig.2.41

For Determining t h e P o s i t i o n of t h e Equivalent Rotor Plane.

Let us now derive formulas c o r r e l a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r w i t h variable p i t c h and i t s equivalent r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h , on t h e basis o f geometric r e l a t i o n s .
Figure 2.4-1 gives a s i d e v i e w of t h e r o t o r and two blade s e c t i o n s at azi-

120

muths 90 and 270:. If' we draw a plane turned about t h e blade a x i s through a n angle b g = 9 0 0 = -?pl t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , then t h e blade p i t c h r e l a t i v e t o t h e turned plane w i l l be i d e n t i c a l and equal t o t h e mean value of p i t c h p e r / 1 1 5 revolution. T h i s plane i s t h e plane of t h e equixalent r o t o r . The angle of a t t a c k of t h e equivalent r o t o r (Y, = (Y If Cpl # 0, a n analogous p i c t u r e i s obtained on viewing t h e r o t o r from t h e a z m u t h Q = 0, i.e., t h e plane of t h e equivalent r o t o r i s turned, r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , through a n angle 'pl i n t h e s i d e plane of t h e helicopter.

6 : .

Thus i t i s obvious t h a t , f o r a r o t o r with p i t c h varying c y c l i c a l l y w i t h respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic, we can sel e c t another plane of reference relative ec. t o which t h e r o t o r p i t c h does not change. Therefore, relative t o t h e new reference plane we can determine forces, moments, and flapping of t h e r o t o r by formulas derived f o r t h e r o t o r with constant P l a n e of r o t a t i o n p i t c h . I n s o doing, it must be taken i n t o account t h a t t h e new reference plane has a d i f f e r e n t angle of a t t a c k Fig. 2.42 Velocity and Elementary and t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n Force Components of Blade Sections p e r t a i n t o axes r e l a t e d with it and i n Different Reference Planes. should be converted t o axes r e l a t e d with t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e geometric meaning of t h e formulas derived above.
P l a n e of e q u i v a l e n t

The p o s i t i o n of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e of t h e r o t o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e v e l o c i t y vector of f l i g h t does not depend on t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e reference plane; theref o r e , i t s components on t h e v e l o c i t y axes, i.e., l i f t and propulsive forces, are equal [see eqs.(2.183) and (2.184)l.

Fig.2.43

For Determining t h e Difference a t Azimuths Q = 0 ' and Q = 1 8 0 '

5 , .-

Uy,

L e t us now o u t l i n e t h e changes occurring when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e elementary f o r c e s of t h e blade s e c t i o n on change-over t o t h e new reference plane. Figure 2.42 shows t h e blade s e c t i o n at azimuth 4 . The s e c t i o n has a s e t t i n g

121

7
IE

angle c p ~r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and a setting angle c p relative t o / 1 1 6 t h e plahe of t h e equivalent r o t o r . The angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade section, i.e., t h e angle between t h e chord of t h e blade and t h e vector of t h e t o t a l relat i v e v e l o c i t y of flow around t h e s e c t i o n U, does not depend on s e l e c t i o n of t h e reference plane [see eq.(2.169)1. The r e l a t i o n s between t h e compgnents of U a t small values of hp equal [see eqs.(2.166) and (2.168)]:UX 2: U,; U,, r U, + + U,hp o r AUy -hpU,.

are

A s i n d i c a t e d above, t h e l a s t expression shows that any decrease o r i n c r e a s e i n load p e r u n i t l e n g t h of t h e s e c t i o n due t o a change i n blade p i t c h a t a given azimuth f b r an equivalent r o t o r w i t h constant p i t c h i s t h e result of a decrease o r i n c r e a s e i n U, a t t h e same azimuth. muths

L e t us define t h e reason f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n Uy a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c aziJr = 0 and 90'. A t azimuth $ = 0, U, and U,, are equal:
-

U,=p(a-f)-v

- - 4 . -r--, 4J

We see from Fig.2.43 t h a t , a t $ = O,, t h e value of B changes on changing t o another reference plane by t h e same quantity as CY s o t h a t CY - B = CY, - B e . T h i s

If AT = -pi COS $ 9 t h e n t h e plane of .the equivalent r o t o r i s i n c l i n e d l a t e r a l l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n by an angle on account of which

Thus, when t h e p i t c h of t h e blade a t azimuth $ = 0 changes by -&, a change owing t o t h e equivalent plane i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l lead t o a decrease i n t o a decrease i n t h e flapping r a t e r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of t h e equivalent r o t o r by a quantity equal t o

n,

TI?.

A t azimuth Q = 90, U, i s equal t o

- -de U y = p a -- v - r - ;
dll,

122

If

-yl

sin

4,

t h e changeConse w e n t l y when t h e blade p i t c h decreases a t azimuth w = 90'. -~ over t o t h e plane 'of t h e equivalerk r o t o r produces t h e same decrease i n aero, , < U, owing t o a decrease i n angle dynamic f o r c e as a result of t h e f a c t t h a t U of a t t a c k of t h e equivalent r o t o r and a n i n c r e a s e i n flapping rate relative t o t h e equivalent r o t o r .

In conformity w i t h Fig.2.42, t h e formulas f o r converting t h e load p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n t h e blade s e c t i o n will. be

Thus, a l l formulas of t h e equivalent r o t o r theory are i n essence only formulas f o r converting from one system of axes t o another.

24. Deri-vation of FormU&aSf o r a R o t x @ t h - F k p p i n g Hinges


.

a s -.f. . o .r . . a Rotor without % H i .Rotors . .~~ Rigid m

Equivalence. . . . . . . - . . o. . . . ~. . .-

I n t h e Glauert-Lock theory, when deriving formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s , torque, and flapping, t h e flapping angle of t h e d i r e c t i o n of forces. i n space i s reckoned from a plane r e l a t i v e t o which t h e s e t t i n g angle of t h e blade i n r o t a t i o n remains constant. Obviously the plane of t h e equivalent r o t o r meets t h e s e requirements. I n this Subsection, we W i l l derive formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of forces and torque of a r o t o r , except t h a t we conceive t h e hinged r o t o r as r i g i d r e l a t i v e t o t h e axis of t h e cone described by t h e blades. I n s o doing, we W i l l take t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s as t h e reference plane r a t h e r t h a n t h e plane of t h e equivalent r o t o r . Relative t o this new plane, t h e blade s e t t i n g angle changes i n r o t a t i o n but t h e r e i s no flapping; this s i m p l i f i e s t h e expression f o r t h e vel o c i t y component of t h e flow p a s t t h e blade U, normal t o t h e reference plane. Since U , e n t e r s t h e expressions f o r elementary f o r c e s more complexly t h a n t h e s e t t i n g angle, t h e formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s and torque i n t h e t i p plane a r e simplified.
T h i s method gives i n d i v i d u a l formulas applicable t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a

* Figure 2.43 shows t h e displacements of t h e blade A s relative t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and plane of equivalent r o t o r during a half-revolution of t h e blade; it
i s obvious t h a t

(3
\

'

1
3 )

dt

' dt
-*

dB 123

r o t o r both with constant blade s e t t i n g and w i t h a s e t t i n g angle variable relative t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . Occasionally, a p p r o h a t e . expressions f o r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r e n t e r t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n s and e s p e c i a l l y t h e stab i l i t y calculations:

h =tal; s=tbl.

I
The obtained expressions f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s are a d d i t i o n s f o r r e f i n i n g eqs.(2.185).

Obviously, these expressions are v a l i d i f t h e f o r c e s d i r e c t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s are equal t o zero, i.e., i f t h e res u l t a n t of a l l aerodynamic f o r c e s i s perpendicular t o t h e plane of the tips.

Finally, we w i l l derive various formulas w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e assumptions of t h e Glaueri-Lock theory. Blade flapping can be taken i n t o Fig.2.44. Velocity Components of Flow account only w i t h a n accuracy t o Past t h e Blade. t h e f i r s t harmonic. For a r o t o r w i t h i n f i n i t e l y heavy blades (a0 = = bl = s = 0, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of higher harmonics of flapping are a l s o equal t o zero) such formulas w e r e derived by Lock (Ref.37).

L e t us now derive t h e s e formulas.


&s

The v e l o c i t y components of flow p a s t t h e blade i n a plane normal t o i t s (Fig.2.44, plane N ) are t h e component p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of t h e blade Ux(K) wr

tips

+V

COS ( a

+a,) sin 9

w~

( ;

+p sin 9) =w ~Ux(,,,

(2.236)

and t h e component normal t o U,

( k)

Uy(K)= Vsin{~~+uJ--v--Vcos(a$u.,)cos+sin a,=:


z 2 w R (k

+ pol - a,p cos +)=wR (A(,<)

a,p cos 3) =o R 5Y ( K ) '

(2.B7)

(2.188) characterizes t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r f l o w through t h e plane of t h e blade

' ( . k )

tips.

Let us f i r s t examine a r o t o r having a p i t c h constant with respect t o azimuth. I n t h e s e c t i o n normal t o t h e blade a x i s a t azimuth Q , t h e angle between t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s i s equal t o = a l s i n $ - bl cos Q
P T T

Q +2

For Determining t h e Blade SetFig.2.45 t i n g A n g l e Relative t o t h e Plane of t h e Blade Tips.

(Wg.2.45). Therefore, t h e relat i o n between t h e q u a n t i t i e s pert a i n i n g t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and t h e plane of t h e t i p s , i n conformity with Fig.2.46, i s as follows :
'OW)=?

- B++ $='p - a, sin $+bl


UqK) = If x ;

cos 9; ( 2

.w)
/ 1 1 9

(2.190)

Uy(K) =Uy+UxP

* +a= U y + U x ( q s i n $ - b b , cos $1;

( 2 0191)

The expression f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n obviously should not depend on t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e reference plane. We will demonstrate t'his, a f t e r s u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(2.1@) (2.191) i n t o t h e expression f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e section:

- ?*+

);

Kr(K).+uy(K)

The expressions f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic f o r c e s of a blade element i n the-plane N have t h e usual form (see F'ig.2.46):

Omitting intermediate computations, we can give t h e f i n a l formulas:

1 1 -aopr cos 9 -aop2sin 2$ -2 2

cos 241 ;

(2-195)

where cxpB v i s t h e average value of cxp over t h e d i s k . To determine dq we must use eq.(2.193): dF

/120

S u b s t i t u t i n g cpckl with respect t o eq.(2.189)


dt

i n t o t h e expression f o r

'I

and i n t e g r a t i n g , we o b t a i n

=uw[fL+-

( I+-

3 1"2)]=t.

Since, i n r e a l i t y , t h e r o t o r blades have flapping hinges, t h e condition of flapping motion

1 a,,=s(=);d;,
y o
dr

is s a t i s f i e d , which y i e l d s

( 2.201)

Let us derive t h e expressions f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s .

126

The elementary l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s are equal t o

S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.( 2.195) and (2.196) i n t o t h e s e equations and i n t e g r a t i n g / 1 2 1 t h e elementary f o r c e s over t h e blade radius and azimuths, we o b t a i n t h e followi n g expressions f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of average per-revolution forces: (2.205) (2.206) With consideration of t h e s e e m r e s s i o n s . t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of longitudinal and l a t e r a l f o r c e s of-the r o t o r are equal t o
h =h(K)

Calculations show t h a t use of t h e approximate formulas P l a n e of r o t a t i o n (2.185) leads t o an e r r o r i n de30% termining h, equal t o 10 e (toward t h e s i d e of a decrease, a l a r g e r f i g u r e always p e r t a i n s Fig.2.46 Velocity and Elementary Force t o small t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s t ) . The d e r i v a t i v e s of t h e coeffiComponents of t h e Blade Section f o r c i e n t h with respect t o p , cy, cp Different Reference Planes. can be determined f r o m eq.(2.185). Determination of t h e coeffic i e n t s and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s by means of eq.(2.186) gives A result d i f f e r i n g g r e a t l y from c a l c u l a t i o n s by means of eq.(2.208). Equation (2.208), j u s t as eq.( 2.61) of t h e Glauert-Lock theory, a t uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , only approximately determines s, but c a l c u l a t i o n s by means of eq.(2.208) are c l o s e r t o t h e experimental d a t a than c a l c u l a t i o n s by means of eq.(2.185).

Jli I\

s .

=- S (K )

+f b

+ ta,;
1.

(2.207) (2.208)

P r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s i n autorot a t i o n i s c l o s e t o zero and amounts t o only a small p o r t i o n of t h e value of t h e A t average values of m, ( h o r i z o n t a l f l y i n g regime) t h e value of s product t b l . i s smaller t h a n t h a t of t b l and we can roughly consider s = h t b l . A t maximum power conditions, t h e value of s i s equal t o o r higher t h a n t b l . The torque c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r i s determined from t h e expression

2x

( 2 209
Since eq.( 2.209) provides f o r i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h respect t o from zero t o 2n, a l l harmonics of t h e expression f o r gration.
I / I

cis(
dq
k)

w i t h i n limits

vanish on i n t e -

Therefore, it s u f f i c e s t o s u b s t i t u t e i n t o eq.( 2.209) only t h e c e n t e r

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( 2.210) i n t o eq.( 2.209) and i n t e g r a t i n g , we o b t a i n

(2.2ll)

W e w i l l demonstrate t h a t m, = m
2%

, ( k )

I n f a c t , using eq.(2.197),

we f i n d m,:

/122
1

2x

(2.212)

It i s known from t h e equation of blade flapping relative t o t h e flapping


dt does dF not contain first harmonics $; consequently, t h e i n t e g r a l with respect t o $ i s equal t o zero. Thus, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e average per-revolution torque m, i s determined by eq.(2.2SL) ( t h e instantaneous values of m, are not mutually equal, i.e., m t # mtt). $
(k)$

hinge t h a t t h e expression f o r t h e t h r u s t moment of t h e blade

(1 -

"d")

It i s a l s o easy t o prove t h e e q u a l i t y of t h e expressions f o r m, [eqs.(2.211)


and (2.48)

1 by

taking t h e i r difference:

128

The expressions i n t h e brackets are equal t o zero, s i n c e they represent , formulas [eqs.(2.201) and (2.202)l f o r determining t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s a Thus, it has been proved t h a t m, = m, and bl
( k)

The l i f t and propulsive f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r do not depend on t h e mode of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e components o f . t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e of t h e r o t o r i n t h e r e l a t e d axes, whether r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n or r e l a t i v e t o t h e lane of t h e , s i n al blade t i p s . They are equal t o (considering cos al = 1 al

tY(K)

= t ( K )cos ( a

+a,) -h ( Ksin(a ) +al)=t

cos a - h sin a=ty;

(2.213)
(2.21k)

tx(K)=t(K sin ) (a+

a,)+/~( cos ~ )(a+a,)=t sin a+h cos a =t,.

The formulas derived i n this Subsection are simpler than those of t h e Glauert-Lock theory. They are a l s o of i n t e r e s t i n t h a t t h e y permit t r a c i n g t h e manner i n which,and t h e f a c t o r s by which,the formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a r i g i d r o t o r (simplest case) are transformed i n t o formulas f o r a hinged r o t o r . The change i n formulas t a k e s p l a c e f o r t h e following reasons:

1 . Change i n angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r owing t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of a r i g i d r o t o r through an angle al. In p l a c e of h we introduce h c k ) = h + a l p i n t o t h e formulas for a r i g i d r o t o r :

2. Cyclic change of r o t o r p i t c h r e l a t i v e t o t h e deflected plane of rotat i o n of t h e r i g i d r o t o r :

/123

With consideration of t h e c y c l i c change of p i t c h , t h e formulas f o r a r i g i d r o t o r t a k e t h e form

129

where

F1(k)

al, (pl(,)

= -b,

f o r t h e case i n which t h e blade p i t c h does not

change r e l a t i v e t o t h e suds of r o t a t i o n . W e note t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g a r i g i d r o t o r w i t h variable p i t c h , p o s s i b l e t o use a new reference plane r e l a t i v e t o which t h e p i t c h i s %.e., t h e equivalent r o t o r theory. T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r o t a t i n g , do not l i e i n a new reference plane but a c t u a l l y leave it, form flapping motion r e l a t i v e t o it, and t h e r i g i d r o t o r theory does f o r t h e new reference plane.

it i s imconstant, blades, on i.e., pernot hold

3. The coning angle of a rig2d r o t o r i n forward f l i h t c r e a t e s a c y c l i c change i n t h e v e l o c i t y component Uy of t h e s e c t i o n f l o w see Fig.2.34): AU, = Furthermore, owing t o t h e presence of t h e coning angle t h e blade = -pa, cos $. t h r u s t i s projected onto t h e plane of t h e t i p s , supplementing t h e f o r c e s h( 'r ) and s ( ~ ) . . These f a c t o r s f u r t h e r complicate t h e fo&-_ulas, so t h a t they a c q n r e a form whch, a f t e r t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n s tjl = -b, and = a,, coincides w i t h

t h a t of eqs.(2.198),

(2.205),

(2.206),

( k)

and (2.211):

( 2.218)

4. Change-over from t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n @ according t o t h e expressions

130

When using eqs.(2.215) (2.218) for c a l c u l a t i n g a r o t o r w i t h flapping hinggs according t o t h e condition of flapping motion [eq.(2.199)1, ao, T ~ ( ~ ) , and Cpl(k) w i l l be equal t o

L e t us next examine a r o t o r w i t h p i t c h varying i n azimuth.


Equations (2.215) - (2.218) without any changes are applicable a l s o t o calculating a rotor with variable pitch. I n this case, t h e conditions of e q u a l i t y of t h e s e t t i n g angles r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s are
GI(K)
=-'l+Gl;

= a 1 +?l?

(2.221)

where k ) , cpl( k ) and ao, as before, are determined i n conformity w i t h t h e t h e flapping hinge i n accordance with eqs.(2.220). condition of zero moment a t In p l a c e of t h e term h C k ) - 'pick) p it i s convenient t o s u b s t i t u t e h - F1p, i n t o eq.(2.220). Thus, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r w i t h v a r i a b l e p i t c h i s accomplished by means of formulas derived i n this Subsection and d i f f e r i n g only by t h e f a c t t h a t a l and bl arz not equal t o GI(k) and ?i71(k) and are found from eq.(2.221) a f t e r determining Cpl( k) and 4jl( k)

Fl(

and The angles Cpl(,> should be equal t o t h e angles between t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s and t h e plane r e l a t i v e t o which t h e r o t o r p i t c h i s constant, i.e., t h e plane of t h e equivalent r o t o r . Consequently,

( 2.222)

Thus, without introducing t h e concept of an equivalent r o t o r we obtained

/125

eqs.(2.2%) and (2.221), after a c t u a l l y r e l a t i n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s w i t h t h e i r corresponding q u a n t i t i e s of a n equivalent rotor

The formulas derived i n this Subsection y i e l d t h e conditions of equivalence i~ f their of a r o t o r with and without flapping hinges: Rotors are ~ l e q u i v a l e n t l angles of a t t a c k d i f f e r by a quantity equal t o al, and a r o t o r without flapping hinges has a coning angle and components of c y c l i c p i t c h change determinable by eq.(2.2%) or eq.(2.221).

Here, it i s assumed t h a t t h e flapping hinges are located on t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r or close t o i t and we can disregard t h e e f f e c t of second and higher harmonics of flapping on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r .
The geometric meaning of t h e conditions of r o t o r equivalence i s t h a t , upon s a t i s f y i n g t h e s e conditions, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e blades of both r o t o r s relative t o t h e velocity vector of t h e oncoming flow and t h e i r s e t t i n g angles a t a l l azimuths are i d e n t i c a l . It i s obvious t h a t , i n this case, t h e t h r u s t moment of t h e blade relative t o t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of a r o t o r without flapping hinges i s equal t o zero. If, f o r a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a r o t o r without flapping hinges, t h e c y c l i c variat i o n of r o t o r p i t c h f o r balancing t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e moments i s such t h a t eqs .( 2.220) are not s a t i s f i e d , t h e n t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r d i f f e r from those of a r o t o r w i t h f l a p p i n g hinges. For example, by c r e a t i n g a t r a n s v e r s e moment by a l a t e r a l shift of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r toward t h e s i d e of t h e advancing blade ($ = 90), we can reduce t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s a t azimuth $ = 270' and t h u s eliminate flow separations f o r a r o t o r without flapping hinges. 25. General FXpressions f o r DetermininE t h e Components of Blade P i t c h Change yo, Cpl, and

F1

I n Subsections 23 and we presented a method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with a blade p i t c h c y c l i c a l l y varying i n t h e first harmonic
?=YO - y1Cos $ - 'pl sin +.
I

a,

(2.223)

Let us now d e r i v e formulas f o r determining t h e components of blade p i t c h change 'Po, TI, and cp1
"he blade p i t c h e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e c o n t r o l units of t h e helicopter - c o n t r o l of t h e o v e r a l l r o t o r p i t c h and i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechan i s m - i s represented i n t h e form
O=

8 , -

8, sin+- O2 cos

+.

(2.224.)

W e assume t h a t t h e design and working p r i n c i p l e of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l are known t o t h e reader [see, f o r example (Ref.12)I.

132

I n addition, t h e blade p i t c h of h e l i c o p t e r s i s u s u a l l y changed during blade flapping, which i s achieved by a s p e c i a l arrangement of blade t u r n i n g l e v e r s and flapping hinges. The hubs of such r o t o r s are c a l l e d hubs w i t h "flapping compensatorll. Let us examine several schemes of hubs w i t h a flapping conpensator: Cardanic and non-Cardanic hubs d i f f e r i n g i n c o n t r o l of blade r o t a t i o n about t h e &a1 hinge, and a l s o hubs w i t h a n o f f s e t and with a turned flapping h i q e (fig.2.47)

Schematic Sketches of Rotor Hubs. Fig.2.47 Cardanic; b Non-Cardanic; c - With o f f s e t hinge; d - With turned hinge; v.h = V e r t i c a l hinge; a.r = Axis of r o t a t i o n ; h.h = Horizontal hinge.

I n t h e f i r s t scheme ( a ) , t h e blade turning l e v e r does not p a r t i c i p a t e i n moving t h e blade relative t o t h e drag hinge but p a r t i c i p a t e s i n others. I n t h e t h i r d scheme ( c ) , t h e flapping hinge i s located such t h a t , i n h o r i z o n t a l f w n g regimes, t h e blade a x i s i s p r a c t i c a l l y perpendicular t o t h e e s of t h e flapping hinge and goes through t h e middle between i t s bearings.

/127

I n t h e s e schemes, t h e interdependence of s e t t i n g angle and flapping angle of t h e blade i s accompEshed by displacement of t h e b a l l bearing of t h e blade lever A from t h e a x i s of t h e flapping hinge ( n # 0). In t h e f o u r t h scheme of t h e hub ( d ) , t h e interdeperdence of p i t c h and flapping angle i s achieved by r o t a t i o n of t h e a x i s of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge. I n a l l schemes, t h e blade i s shown i n a p o s i t i o n i n c l i n e d about t h e drag hinge through a n angle co = S a v . The flapping angle of t h e blade @ i s i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n and goes through t h e a x i s of t h e blade. Since t h e angle co i s small, t h e angle of t u r n about t h e flapping hinge i n t h e f i r s t three schemes can be considered equal t o t h e flapping angle of t h e

133

blade:

Bheh

cos co

'

B and, i n t h e f o u r t h scheme, as equal t o

ph.h

L-.

B_ _

cos

(a,

- co) -

W e d e r i v e t h e formulas i n t h e following sequence: First we determine t h e mode of blade p i t c h change i f t h e axial hinge had seized and t h e b a l l bearing of t h e blade-turning l e v e r A was disconnected from t h e rod of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism. T h i s change i n blade p i t c h , taking p l a c e without turning of t h e blade i n t h e axial hinge, i s c a l l e d Ilkinee w i l l denote it matic change of pitchll. W by b i n *
W e t h e n determined t h e amount by which t h e blade i s turned i n t h e axial hinge, owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o i n t A i s connected by a rod w i t h t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and cannot be displaced i n flapping. T h i s change of p i t c h i s designated by LqaBh The o v e r a l l change of p i t c h 4, i s equal t o t h e sum of @ k i n and n(Paah :
A% = A ' P h

AYa

(2.226)

The kinematic change of blade p i t c h i n being perflapping i s due t o t h e blade ~s pendicular t o t h e axis of t h e flapping hinge. I t s d e r i v a t i o n i s c l e a r from Fig.2.48. Point B, r e f e r r i n g t o t h e leading edge of t h e blade, during flapping of t h e blade i s displaced r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n by a g r e a t e r amount t h a n p o i n t B ' r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge. COEsequently, t h e blade changes i t s angle r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n : Fig.2.48 Kinematic Change of Blade Pitch.

The d e r i v a t i o n of fig.2.49

&?kin

i s i l l u s t r a t e d also by t h e drawing shown i n

It i s obvious t h a t , when t h e flapping hinge r o t a t e s t o g e t h e r with t h e blade during flapping of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge (hubs of Sikorsky helicopters, Fig.2.50), t h e r e i s no kinematic change of p i t c h . Such a change i s v i r t u a l l y absent i n t h e scheme shown i n Fig.2.47~ (hubs of Milt h e l i c o p t e r s ) since, i n h o r i z o n t a l f l y i n g regimes C h u b = co,
A!&in :=

e tan(c,

- ChuJ %

0.

( 2 228)

I n t h e scheme of a hub with a turned flapping hinge (scheme d i n Fig.2.47; such a scheme f o r t h e drag hinge i s sometimes used f o r t a i l r o t o r s of singler o t o r helicopters),

/128

134

11111

If p o i n t A i n Fig.2.47 w e r e not connected by a rod Now l e t us f i n d @a.h. with t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism, then during flapping of t h e blade it would be displaced relative t o t h e axis of r o t a t i o n by an amount As = I $ for a Cardanic ( u n i v e r s a l ) hub and AS = [n + ( t V e h -n)c2, + tbc,le = [ n + t b C O @ f o r

Fig.2.49

Kinematic Change of Blade P i t c h .

Fig.2.50

Schematic Sketch of Hub of Sikorsky Helicopter.

a non-Cardanic (nonuniversal) hub. Since p o i n t A cannot have such a displacement, t h e blade i n flapping t u r n s about t h e a x i a l hinge by a n amount .of

f o r t h e u n i v e r s a l hub and
~ c p , , ~= - ( + + c O )

P=

-(tan~l+co)p

(2.231)

for t h e nonuniversal hub.


For a hub w i t h an o f f s e t flapping hinge, we have

AT,,^

= - [tan 01 +(Co

- C,,)]
=

B =:-tan

alp.

(2.232)

For a hub with a turned hinge,

0.

Thus, t h e t o t a l change of blade p i t c h during flapping motion i s equal t o : f o r a u n i v e r s a l hub


A'pC=A.'Pki, +AYa.h = ( - t a n a l + t o n C o ) p ~ - ( t a n a l - C ~ )

p;

( 2 -233

f o r a nonuniversal hub and a hub w i t h o f f s e t hinge


ATc= -tMa,.p;

(2.234)

f o r a hub w i t h turned hinge"


x- For s i m p l i c i t y i n Subsection 16, we t a k e co = 0, kp, =

-e

t a n ol.

The dependence of p i t c h on t h e angle B, i n t h e g e n e r a l form, i s expressed by


A'~~=-kke
, I

(2.236)

where k i s a c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e flapping compensator. The value of k i s determined from eqs.(2.233) t o (2.235).

O u r derived expressions f o r k do not t a k e i n t o account a d d i t i o n a l changes i n t h e s e t t i n g angle, such as those caused by i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e rod of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism, e t c . Therefore, t h e quantity k should be corrected by measurements on a manufactured hub o r i t s model. T h i s i s deter-

/129

mined as t h e p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e k =

ag

a t a n average blade p i t c h and blade

angle of d e f l e c t i o n relative t o t h e drag hinge equal t o c o o For f u r t h e r computations, t h e quantity k i s conveniently represented as t h e tangent of some angle 6 :
4verage e l a s t i c t w t s t vo p e r r e v o l u t i o n

k=tan8.

(2.237)

The blade p i t c h i s equal t o t h e s u m of t h e angle 8 e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e cont r o l s and t h e angle kpC:


TJ=

6 ,

8, sin 9-

e,

COS

9-

kp.

(2.238)

0.7

5 07

Fig.2.51 Rotor P i t c h and Blade Twist. with Consideration of Average E l a s t i c Twist p e r Revolution.

S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.( 2.238) t h e expression f o r fl w i t h a n accuracy t o t h e first harmonic. we o b t a i n

'p.=(eo - Ra,) -(8 -kb,) sin 0) - (e, -RU,) COS q.

Comparing this w i t h eq.(2.223),

we f i n d

W e r e c a l l t h a t , i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s by t h e Glauert-Lock theory, t h e blade p i t c h i s counted from t h e z e r o - l i f t angle of t h e p r o f i l e :


'Po " p f L .
r6t-

Qll=f)o

-k a o -a,.

( 2.240

'1

136

For a r o t o r w i t h a flapping compensator, t h e equivalent r o t o r theory does not t a k e i n t o account t h e change of blade p i t c h w i t h respect t o harmonics higher t h a n t h e first, i n v i e w of t h e f a c t t h a t this change i s produced by higher harmonics of blade flapping. Higher harmonics of t h e change of p i t c h can be accounted f o r by s p e c i a l l y derived formulas.

T h i s a l s o p e r t a i n s t o t h e average e l a s t i c t w i s t over t h e blade w i t h respect t o higher harmonics and a l s o t o higher harmonics of t h e change of p i t c h due t o e l a s t i c i t y of t h e automatic p i t c h controlmec&nism. The average e l a s t i c twist over t h e blade i n t h e f i r s t harmonic Tlav and 31,v must be introduced i n t o t h e
expressions f o r (pl and The average twist p e r r e v o l u t i o n vo must be subdivided i n t o average twist over t h e blade w o a v and v a r i a b l e twist over t h e blade radius w i v o a v ; t h e f i r s t i s introduced i n t o t h e expression f o r y o , and t h e second i s added t o t h e geometric twist of t h e blade Acp (Fig.2.51).

GI.

Averaging of t h e e l a s t i c twist of t h e blade (this can be determined i n f l i g h t tests o r . b y c a l c u l a t i o n ; an estimate of t h e magnitude of twist can be made from t h e magnitude of t h e hinge moment of t h e blade) i s c a r r i e d out by means of t h e formulas

/130

Y,,

_-

=3

vlr2dr s vlr=0.7'

(2.241)

With consideration of t h e e l a s t i c twist of t h e blade, eqs.(2.%0)


f orm

take the

With t h e use of eqs.(2.161)

and (2.162), we f i n d

SolVing this system relative t o


-

Tl and

we o b t a i n

a,,+ ~ b , , e2 + Re1 -k 1 k2 + - l + k ?

+- -

vlav+kVl~V

1 7 '

(2.245)

137

4,

26. Determination of

Flapping _Coefficients of Rotor with Flapping Compensator

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(2.&5) and (2.246) i n t o e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 6 1and ) (2.162), we o b t a i n t h e following expressions f o r t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s a l and bl:

The first addends on t h e right-hand s i d e of eqs.(2.247) and (2.248) determine t h e flapping motions of a r o t o r having a flapping compensator w i t h a n undef l e c t e d automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism e2 = = 0 and without consideration of e l a s t i c t w i s t . For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t.he formulas we write them i n t h e form

6,=

6le--kai,

1+k2

The presence i n t h e kinematic scheme of t h e hub of a flapping compensator / 1 3 1 g r e a t l y a f f e c t s t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r o t o r . Upon a n i n c r e a s e of k t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone t o t h e s i d e of t h e advancing blade

(JI

= 90")

Kl decreases.

When k =

bl

we have bl = 0, and w i t h a f u r t h e r in-

t h e a x i s of t h e cone i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e c r e a s e of k, gl becomes negative, i.e. s i d e of t h e r e t r e a t i n g blade (JI = 270"j. The backward i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e e s of t h e r o t o r cone Z1 upon a n i n c r e a s e i n k varies d i f f e r e n t l y . A t a small value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e flapping t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone i s s t i l l i n c l i n e d toward t h e compensator (k < L), a le advancing blade and t h e s e t t i n g angle of t h e blade i n c r e a s e s a t azimuth JI = 90" (Ayk = -kB) and decreases a t azimuth $ = 270". Therefore, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Zl increases.
bl

a e A t ,k= bl
10

,bl

= 0 and t h e s e t t i n g angle

a t azimuth JI = 90'

and

Jr = 270" w i l l not change. Thus, zl = a l e . On f u r t h e r increase i n k, t h e angle b, becomes negative and t h e s e t t i n g angle at azimuth JI = 9 0 ' decreases, whereas
a t azimuth Jr = 270" i t i n c r e a s e s .
Therefore, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t 8, decreases.

For a single-rotor helicopter, t h e t a i l r o t o r has no automatic p i t c h cont r o l s o t h a t t h e blade flapping i s determined by t h e q u a n t i t i e s a,, Z,, b, ( t h e e l a s t i c twist of t h e t a i l r o t o r s being s m a l l ) .
The h
u m flapping angle of t h e blade i n this case i s equal t o

Equations (2.249) (2.251) show t h a t t h e flapping compensator decreases t h e magnitude of t h e variable p o r t i o n of t h e flapping motion" A@ and changes t h e azimuth at which t h e flapping angle has an extreme value t a n $ B , ~ = ~

-bl. 8 1

Both

t h e f i r s t and second f a c t o r may be of s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a single-rotor helicopter: t h e f i r s t decreases t h e variable loads on t h e blade of t h e t a i l r o t o r and t h e second changes t h e gap between t h e blades of t h e t a i l r o t o r and t h e t a i l boom.

For h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configuration, t h e gap between t h e blades It i s expedient t o and t h e fuselage i s determined mainly by t h e quantity b,. s e l e c t a kinematic scheme of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism such t h a t a d e f l e c t i o n of this mechanism Will not influence t h e quantity bl ( u s u a l l y only course c o n t r o l of a h e l i c o p t e r i s accomplished by t h e automatic p i t c h control, Consequently, f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configurai .e., change i n a,), t i o n we must t a k e i n t o account, when s e l e c t i n g t h e magnitude of t h e flapping campensator and disregarding t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and of t h e blades bl = bl, t h a t t h e quantity 5 , should be higher or lower depending on t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r s .
For coaxial h e l i c o p t e r s t h e $ap between t h e blades of t h e upper and lower r o t o r s depends on t h e quantity bl (because of t h e mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e r o t o r s , t h e aperating conditions of t h e upper and lower r o t o r s are not t h e same s o t h a t a l s o t h e d i f f e r e n c e of thf? c o e f f i c i e n t s a, of t h e r o t o r s has an influence on t h e gap). A s we s e e from F i g . 2 . 5 2 t h i s gap i s

It i s obvious t h a t t o i n c r e a s e t h e gap we mus& s e l e c t a magnitude of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e flapping compensator such t h a t b, u P. = b l l O W - = 0 .

/132

The value of b, of single-rotor and fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s and t h e value of a, of h e l i c o p t e r s of any configuration are determined by balancing t h e helicopter. The p i l o t , d e f l e c t i n g t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k and a c t i n g on alto, and b l c o n ,
3:-

R.A.Mikheyev determined t h a t A@ decreases somewhat l e s s t h a n d m - f o l d , s i n c e t a i l . r o t o r s with k = 0 and k # 0 should be considered a t a n i d e n t i c a l angle of a t t a c k and s i n c e CY, of a r o t o r w i t h k # 0 i s less t h a n a , of a r o t o r w i t h k = 0; due t o this f a c t , t h e quantity a,, of t h e former, a t equal t h r u s t , i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e l a t t e r .

*
+o+b,

=goo

,Lower r o t o r

e s t a b l i s h e s al, bl, h, and s i n such a manner t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s i n balance. However, a t t h e required values of al o r bl t h e q u a n t i t i e s and blcon depend on and El; consequent0n ly, t h e flapping compensator influences t h e def l e c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l s i n f l i g h t , i .e., i t s 11balancing curves". 27. Determination of t h e Components of Blade P i t c h Change T1 and after Deflection of t h e Automati;. P i t c h contr_ol

p=27Oo

Fig.2.52 For Determining t h e Gap between Rotors of Coaxial Helicopters.

F1

The second addends on t h e right-hand s i d e of eqs.(2.&5) and (2.246) determine t h e increment of t h e components of c y c l i c p i t c h change and t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of a r o t o r w i t h a flapping compensator, a f t e r manipulation of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l . They represent t h e change i n p o s i t i o n of t h e blade cone and t h e direct i o n s of f o r c e s and moments r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r s h a f t when t h e h e l i c o p t e r c o n t r o l s a r e manipulated. We denote t h e s e by $ l o o n and (plCon o r aleon and blco :

Let us now e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e angles of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and t h e magnitude of t h e angles el and I2. Figure 2.53 shows a diagram of t h e hub and automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i n top The arrangement of t h e flapping hinges i s not shown, s i n c e this has no influence on our d e r i v a t i o n s ( o n l y t h e expression f o r k depends on i t ) . The segments A A ' are p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e i n c l i n e d rods of t h e a u t o m a t i c . p i t c h controls; p o i n t A i s t h e coupling of t h e rod with t h e blade t u r n i n g lever, w h i l e p o i n t A' i s t h e coupling of t h e rod w i t h t h e automatic p i t c h control itself.
v i e w along t h e r o t o r s h a f t .

The r o t o r blades are shown i n p o s i t i o n s a t which Acp,,,, = e2 ($ = 180') and A % o n = el ($ = 270'); here t h e hub and automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l are turned, relat i v e t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l 9 s of t h e helicopter, through t h e angles $ h u b = = 1 8 0 ' + co and q h u b = 270 + c0. The angles of t u r n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l w i l l de denoted by t h e l e t t e r s x and T i , where N. i s t h e t u r n mainly causing d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade cone i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l plane of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and 7 i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e plane.

ht t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l be d e f l e c t e d through a n angle w relative t o t h e a x i s 00' located a t a n angle A(rc0,, t o t h e t r a n s v e r s e plane of t h e helicopter.

.A @=e.

$=270

Fig.2.53

Kinematic Diagram of Hub and Automatic P i t c h Control.

Considering t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l displacements of t h e p o i n t s A and A' are equal t o ( S A = S i ) , we f i n d

Similar expressions are obtained on d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o w t r o l r e l a t i v e t o t h e axis 00'' t h o u g h a n angle 7

Let us determine t h e increments of t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r o t o r when t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i s d e f l e c t e d through t h e a l e s H and 7 , subs t i t u t i n g t h e obtained r e l a t i o n s i n t o eqs.( 2.252) and (2.253

ap)
C W

=x
lb
=X

C O S (011

- A+,--" -CO)

+ k sin
l+kZ.

(a11

- 4 J W n - CO) (2.256) (2,257) (2.258)

R . COS 6 COS (all b '

- Co - 6 ) ;

a i ' ) = -q R~ cos 6 sin (al1 -qWn - c,, - 6 ) ; con


b '

b{:bn==x R1 ~ ~ 0 ~ 6 s i n ( a ~ , - ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ - 6 ) ;
'b

1 4 . 1

Ii

Usually, t h e angles are s o s e l e c t e d t h a t cos (oll A$,,, - co 6 ) 3 A$,,, co - 6 ) ; consequently, t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l through a n angle z t mainly causes a change i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t al, whereas a d e f l e c t i o n through a n angle W i l l change t h e c o e f f i c i e n t bl. The

> s i n (oll

/134.

product

R , e

cos 6 cos (oI1

-A $ , , ,

co

S ) , which i s dependent on t h e kine-

matic scheme of t h e hub, c o n s t i t u t e s a r e l a t i o n between t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone and t h e angle N. T h i s i s denoted by D,:


LIJ D, =R -cos

6 cos (a,,

[b

-A + ~c,, ~ 8 )~.

(2.260)

The product

Rw
b

cos 6 s i n (oil

-A $ , , ,

co

6 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e in-

c l i n a t i o n of t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r cone i n a l a t e r a 1 , d i r e c t i o n . by D , :

T h i s i s denoted
(2.261)

n2

5 9 cos 5 sill ( G I , - A
[b

~co~ 6).~

The value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s D, and Dz can be refined by t e s t i n g t h e f u l l s c a l e hub or i t s model. For this, t h e blades are set i n a n azimuthal p o s i t i o n (shown i n Fig .2.53) and relative t o t h e flapping hinge a t an angle p = B,, = ab. After d e f l e c t i n g t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l through a n angle N , t h e increments of t h e s e t t i n g angles, i.e., t h e angles e2 and el, are measured. The values of

El, D2, D,,

and D , are found from t h e expressions

The quantity k i s a l s o found from tests ( s e e Subsect.25). Thus,


(2.262) (2.263) uc2

Helicopter designers o f t e n accomplish t h e kinematics of t h e automatic p i t c h , = 0. T h i s i s done so t h a t , w i t h a l o n g i t u d i n a l d e f l e c t i o n c o n t r o l i n which D of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k causing i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l by an angle H , only t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a1 i s changed, i.e., s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e i s d e f l e c t e d s t r i c t l y i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l plane of t h e helicopter. T h i s c r e a t e s a moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , a l s o a c t i n g i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l plane of t h e c r a f t . However, t h e motion of h e l i c o p t e r s i s s o interconnected i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s t h a t t h e r e i s no sense t o rigorously i n s i s t on t h e condition of coincidence of t h e d i r e c t i o n s of a c t i o n of t h e moment and def l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k . For h e l i c o p t e r s of side-Q-side and coaxial configurations, f o r which s p e c i a l demands are made on t h e quantity bl, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t D, should be equal t o zero s o t h a t bl does not change when t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i s deflected l o n g i t u d i n a l l y forward o r backward.
W e see from eq.(2.261)

that D , = 0, when
A+con = a l l - co - 6 .

/135
( 2 264

If, i n t h e kinematic scheme o f t h e hub and automatic p i t c h control, a value of ol1 - c o - 6 # 0 i s obtained, then t h e plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e cone axis w i l l not coincide with t h e plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l b u t w f l l lead t h e plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l by an angle of

C =a,

- c,, - 6.

(2.265)

Let us explain t h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e l e a d angle, assuming - f o r s i m p l i c i t y - t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e flapping compensator i s equal t o zero ( 6 = 0 ) . I n this case, t h e c y c l i c change of t h e s e t t i n g angle i s produced exclusively by i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l . Fig.2.54 P o s i t i o n of Blade a t I n s t a n t of Maximum P i t c h Change (Hub without Flapping Compensator). Figure 2.54 shows a blade i n a p o s i t i o n

a t which i t s s e t t i n g angle has a maximum

value s i n c e t h e p o i n t A' of t h e rod, connecti n g t h e blade t u r n i n g l e v e r w i t h t h e automatic p i t c h control, l i e s i n t h e plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h control. The plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e cone axis i s perpendicular t o t h e blade p o s i t i o n . We see from F'ig.2.54 t h a t 5 = oll c0. The angle 5 i s nonzero s i n c e t h e mechanism changing t h e p i t c h i s change of blade p i t c h a t some azimuth $, t h e designed such t h a t , f o r a automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l will. be d e f l e c t e d a t an azimuth d i f f e r i n g by an angle 90' oll + co If oll # co, then t h e plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l w i l l not coincide w i t h t h a t of t h e cone axis.

At 6

0, t h e c y c l i c change of t h e s e t t i n g angle i s not only d i r e c t l y due

143

. .

. .

..

. ..

__

....,

.-.__.__ ..._-- -.. .

...- . .._.

t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l b u t a l s o t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e change of flapping, caused by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e mechanism, i n t u r n changes t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g . Here, t h e azimuth of t h e maximum t o t a l change of s e t t i n g angle l a g s by angle 6 = tan-lk behind t h e azimuth of t h e maxi change of sett i n g angle due d i r e c t l y t o i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e automatic i t c h control. Therefore, a t 6 # 0 t h e l e a d angle i s determined by eq.(2.2657. For t h e plane of i n c l i n a t i o n of t u d i n a l o r w i t h t h e t r a n s v e r s e plane control), t h e axes of i n c l i n a t i o n of should be turned t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l through an angle A$co,, = 5. t h e cone a x i s t o coincide w i t h t h e longiof t h e h e l i c o p t e r (so-called 15ndependentlI t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l 00 and 00 and t r a n s v e r s e planes of t h e h e l i c o p t e r

It follows from e ~ p ( 2 . 2 6 0 ) t h a t , with 15ndependentIl control, t h e coeffic i e n t w i l l be .R D , =*COS 6. (2.266) b


If f o r a hub c o = 0 t h e rod of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i s v e r t i c a l , t h e n
Rasp--

and

Ib

cosq1

(2

/136 267 1

D l = -C. O S O ~ ~
28. Sequence of Aerodynamic Calcglation w i t h Variable P i t c h

cos 8

( 2.268)

o f .a

Rptor

Thus, t h e expressions f o r t h e components of c y c l i c p i t c h change are w r i t t e n i n t h e form

For brevity, t h e l a s t addends of eqs.(2.269) what follows

and (2.270) are omitted i n

Let us now.derive t h e expressions f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s h and s:

3-44

The flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r o t o r are

For h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t w i t h s i d e s l i p , eqs.(2.269) rected. For example (Fig.2.55),

(2.274) should

be cor-

s i n c e t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e cone a x i s and of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e produced by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i s determined along axes r e l a t e d with t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e g a r d l e s s of t h e d i r e c t i on of t h e v e l o c i t y vector. The angles a l , al, bl, bl, j u s t as t h e f o r c e s H and S, are t h e angles and f o r c e s along axes f i x e d with respect t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y vector.

"i

If we represent he and s, i n terms of c o q o nents l y i n g i n t h e plane of t h e blade t i p s [eqs.(2.207) and (2.208)1, we o b t a i n

h=h(K) +fai=h(K)

$f&$f

(D1x- Dzq);

(2.277) ( 2 278)

S=S(K)$fbl=S(K) + f b 1 + f ( D 1 q + D2 ~ ) .

Equations (2.269) and (2.270) show t h a t , f o r /137 a r o t o r w i t h a flapping compensator, Cpl and depend not only on t h e angles of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l b u t a l s o on t h e flapping Fig.2.55 Decomposition c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equivalent r o t o r . T h i s subof a l c o n and blcon i n t o s t a n t i a l l y complicates t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r Velocity Axes during w i t h a flapping compensator since, i n determining Helicopter F l i g h t with t h e i n i t i a l d a t a f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e equivalent Sideslip. r o t o r A,, cp, p , it i s necessary t o know t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ale, bib, aO. However, when any f i v e quantit i e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e operation of a r o t o r with v a r i a b l e p i t c h are prescribed, it i s always p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t a c a l c u k t i o n sequence (sometimes p r e a s s i g n i n g several values of A, or c p and constructing a d l i a r y graphs) which w i l l contain a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of forces, moments, and flapping of t h e r o t o r .

Let us give a t y p i c a l example. A t given t ( r o t o r t h r u s t approximately equal t o h e l i c o p t e r weight), p , eo, n, and TI, t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n sequence f o r t h e r o t o r can be as folloI$s: Assigning various values of A,, t h e expression obtained from eqs. (2.157)" and (2.242)
__

.3t We r e c a l l t h a t cpo entered t h e formulas i n Subsections

24. For s i m p l i c i t y ,

t h e subscript

11011

of cp was omitted.

145

w i l l yield cpo,

after which eq.(2.50)

w i l l give t, = t.

After determining, e i t h e r by t r i a l and e r r o r o r graphically, t h e values of A, and y o a t which t i s equal t o t h e prescribed value, eq.(2.4O) w i l l f u r n i s h ao, "le and b,, Then, - eqs.(2.2&9), (2.250), (2.2691, and (2.270) w i l l be used , bl, ql, and F1. W e now have a l l d a t a necessary f o r calcuf o r determining Z l a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e equivalent r o t o r and t h e i r conversion i n t h e a x i s of a r o t o r with variable p i t c h . To determine h, s , and m, we can a l s o use - derived i n Subsection obtaining i n t h e above-described sequence formulas cpl( k) C p l ( k) , and A( k) from e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 2 2 2 )

a,

The aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r balancing a r e performed i n t h e same sequence.

A s shown i n Subsection 23, t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r i n a v e l o c i t y coordinate system - t, = f ( t, , m, ) a t constant values of p and M, - do not depend o n & and therefore, t h e computation can be performed from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with constant p i t c h : t,, = f(ty, , mte ) f o r t h e same values of p ( p = V) and h. From t h e aerodynamic calculation, we obtain the coe f f i c i e n t s t,, and ty,; a t any value of and F1 i n a given f l y i n g regime, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e equivalent rotor':' W i l l not change and Will correspond t o t h e found values of p , t x e , and ty,. Thus, as a result of t h e aerodynamic calculation, we will o b t a i n a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e equivalent r o t o r . /138 After this, we c a l c u l a t e eo = cpo + k+, bl and, from eqs.(2.271), (2.272) o r (2.277), (2.278), t h e components h and s which do not depend on a l c o n and From t h e condition of helicopter balancing, ?.e., from t h e condition of blco n equating t o zero t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e moments, we f i n d a, and bl con con and follow this by c a l c u l a t i n g u, 7 , a,, bl, h, and s .

G1;

6 ,

xl,

Section 3. Momentum Theory of Rotor

I n t h e momentum theory of a r o t o r 9 t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s and t h e power required by t h e r o t o r are found by applying general theorems of mechanics t o t h e flow around t h e r o t o r .
T h i s theory i s used i n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s i n which both t h e induced

'5

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e equivalent r o t o r f o r any

suming t h a t t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e fuselage (and a l s o t h e angle of a t t a c k of

t h e wing of a winged h e l i c o p t e r ) does not depend Usually, this assumption i s valid. If average value (&),,[a = CY, i t i s not, it w i l l be necessary t o perform second-approximation c a l c u l a t i o n s from t h e value of q , obtained f r o m t h e balancing c a l c u l a t i o n .

- (Flav)l.

g1 are t h e same when ason F1 and i s determined as some

vC6

and p r o f i l e power of t h e r o t o r are determined on t h e basis of simplifying assumptions or from precalculated graphs.. I n this case, t h e r e i s no need t o determine t h e angles of a t t a c k and elementary aerodynamic f o r c e s i n each blade section, a f a c t responsible for t h e s i m p l i c i t y of t h e formulas. I n t h e momentum theory, t h e components of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r along t h e v e l o c i t y of f l i g h t (drag) and normal t o it ( l i f t ) are determined, which m a k e s this theory convenient f o r use i n h e l i c o p t e r calculations.

1 . The0.q of a n I d e a l H e l i c m t e r Rotor
When c r e a t i n g l i f t and drag (or propulsive f o r c e ) , t h e r o t o r t h r u s t s an a i r mass downward and forward (or backw.ard)

Glauert postulated t h a t t h e r o t o r a c t s on a n a i r mass passing through t h e area of a c i r c l e placed normal t o t h e flow i n c i d e n t on t h e r o t o r . The diameter of t h e c i r c l e w a s t o be equal t o t h e diameter of t h e r o t o r (Fig.2.56). This p o s t u l a t e i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e same flow boundaries are s e l e c t e d both V V V f o r t h e p r o p e l l e r and f o r t h e wing, with u n i f o r m induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . For t h e p r o p e l l e r , this i s e n t i r e l y obv i o u s s i n c e t h e flow boundary i s determined by t h e a r e a swept by t h e blades; f o r t h e Wing, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of selecti n g such a flow boundary i s given by t h e Fig.2.56 Model of Airflow around vortex theory. Recently developed vortex Rotor. t h e o r i e s of a r o t o r rather. accurately confirm t h e correctness of Glauert s hypothesis concerning t h e a i r mass p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e generation of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s of a r o t o r .
f

I n t h e i d e a l r o t o r theory (Ref.21), i t i s postulated t h a t t h e air flows a t t h e same v e l o c i t y over t h e e n t i r e area of t h e c i r c l e : The air stream does not mix w i t h t h e surrounding air, s o t h a t it i s proposed t h a t t h e a i r i s an i n v i s c i d f l u i d . Furthermore, it i s assumed t h a t p r o f i l e l o s s e s of power and v o r t i c i t y of t h e stream are absent.

A model of t h e a i r f l o w and i t s v e l o c i t y components i n t h r e e s e c t i o n s - f a r qpstream of t h e r o t o r ( s e c t i o n 0-0), along t h e r o t o r cuds ( s e c t i o n 1-l), and f a r downstream of t h e r o t o r ( s e c t i o n 2-2) are shown i n Fig.2.56. The induced vel o c i t y corresponding t o t h e r o t o r l i f t Y i s denoted by t h e vector vy, w h i l e t h e

induced veAocity4corresponding t o t h e r o t o r drag X, i s represented by t h e vector v , (vy 1 1 7 , v, (13) and t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e undisturbed flow, by V. Au.

w 7

vectors are shown f o r p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n , w i t h t h e s u b s c r i p t s corresponding t o t h e s e c t i o n number. From t h e theorem of moment of momentum follow t h e r e l a t i o n s

Y=m(vy,-vyo)=mvy,; X = m ( V - V2)=mv,,,
where m i s t h e air mass flowing p e r second through t h e s e c t i o n 0-0, 1 1 , or 2-2. The v a r i a t i o n i n k i n e t i c energy of t h e per-second air mass i s

E = E2-E,=Equating eq.(3.2) r o t o r i n u n i t time

1 2

m (Vi

+ vi, - V".

t o t h e expression of energy inparted t o t h e air by t h e

After transformation, this expression i s reduced t o t h e form


VY, (VY,

- 2vy,)=vx, (2vx,-v x , ) ,

which i n d i c a t e s t h a t , i n t h e examined flow, t h e following conditions are satisfied:

vx,

1 =1 vx,.

(3.5)

These r e l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e r o t o r plane are one half those far downstream of t h e r o t o r . The power supplied t o a n i d e a l r o t o r i s expended only f o r c r e a t i n g k i n e t i c energy of t h e flow and t h u s i s equal t o it. Making use of eq.(3.3), we have

75N=Yv,,

--x

( V -v x , ) .

(3.6)

The weight rate of flow of a i r m p e r second i s equal t o t h e product of t h e mass d e n s i t y and t h e volume rate of flow of air p e r second:

m=QFV',
where V ' i s t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e v e l o c i t i e s V, vY1 and vxl :

(3.7)

To account f o r t h e so-called t i p l o s s e s of t h e r o t o r , t h e following /Ilea method i s used: In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f o r c e s and induced v e l o c i t i e s , t h e air mass = E?F smaller than t h e area swept by t h e flowing through an e f f e c t i v e area F , blades i s introduced. Usually, f o r forward f l i g h t regimes we take B2 = 0.98)RI. = 0.94 0.96 [ t h e e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of t h e r o t o r R e f f = BR = (0.97 The power i s calculated on t h e basis of t h e m a s s of a i r flowing through t h e a c t u a l area. Therefore, by means of eqs.(3.1) and (3.4) t o (3.8), w i t h conside r a t i o n of t i p losses, we o b t a i n

Y = 2B2eFv,, 1/(V-vx,)2+ vi,;


X =2B2eFvx,v ( V - vs,)2+ vi,;
1 75N= [Yv,, - X ( V - v ~ , ) ] .

(3.9)

B2

L e t us now change over t o dimensionless q u a n t i t i e s moments (power), and velocity:

c o e f f i c i e n t s of forces,

mt =-E2

[cy.,- c, (V -Zx)].

In t h e s e expressions we omitted t h e s u b s c r i p t s since, from now on, we w i l l be concerned only with t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n 1and, f o r simplicity, w i l l n o t section 1 give them a s u b s c r i p t .
Equations (3.12) t o ( 3 . a ) describe t h e general case where any aerodynamic system c r e a t e s l i f t and drag (or propulsion) and consumes o r y i e l d s power. Therefore, t h e s e expressions a l s o are v a l i d f o r a p r o p e l l e r and f o r a wing. For a p r o p e l l e r , C, = vy = = 0 must be s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o eqs.(3.12) t o (3.l.4) and f o r a wing which does not . i n j e c t engine power i n t o t h e flow, m, = 0. (For a wing, one usually t a k e s V x < V, vu < V. )

Fig.2.57 Decomposition of t h e Resultant Aerodynamic Force of a Rotor i n t o Velocity and BodyFixed Axes.

In t h e r o t o r theory, it i s conventional t o use q u a n t i t i e s i n rotor-fixed coordinates C T , C H , IJ.9 1, e t c *

I n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r y i e l d s t h e following relat i o n s between t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s and v e l o c i t i e s , i n d i f f e r e n t coordinate systems (F'igs.2.57 and 2.58):

C,= Cycos a+ C , sin a ;

vt=vy cos a

+v, sin a;

C,=C,

cos a - Cy sin a;

- - cos a -vy vh=vx sin a ; P= (V COS a -vh)'+ (V sin a -vr)'=p2+~2;


)i=

Vsina-vf.

(3.21) and (3.17) we o b t a i n

' S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(3.12) and (3.13) i n t o eqs.(3.15) formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s C, and C,:

Let us now study t h e v e l o c i t y polygon of a r o t o r and d e r i v e a number of additional relations f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r o t o r characteristics. The v e l o c i t y and f o r c e polygons are shown i n Figs.2.58 and 2.59. The l a t t e r diagram, as a supplement t o fig.2.58, shows t h e vector of t h e r e s u l t a n t induced velocity
+ 4

.-c

-c

u =vy+v~,=vt+ vh as w e l l as t h e angles 5 and 6 , as follows : 5 - angle between t h e veFig .2.58 Velocity Polygon o f Rotor. l o c i t y of t h e undisturbed stream ( f l y i n g speed) and r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y in t h e r o t o r region, 5 > 0 a t Cy > 0; S - angle between t h e normal t o t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e undisturbed stream and r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e of r o t o r .

150

Since
6.

ZR (1 2,

t h e angle between t h e vectors TY and

T'u

w n i a l s o be equal t o

The angles 5 and 6 and t h e f l y i n g speed 7 completely determine t h e v e l o c i t y polygon. To determine t h e v e l o c i t y polygon i n terms of vectors i n a fixed coordinate system, one more quantity must be known, such as f o r ex/ucz ample t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r CY.

kt us w r i t e out t h e main rel a t i o n s between f o r c e s and velocit i e s i n t h e v e l o c i t y polygon:

Fig. 2.59

Velocity Polygon of Rotor.

- - Using t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , eqs.(3.12)

vy=ucos 6, v,=u sin 6.

I
be w r i t t e n i n another form

(3.a) can

Cx=Cytan8;
1 =-8 2

(3032)

[cyv,-cc, (V-.,)] = c '(V-;Jx 82


(3.33)

Equations (3.31) t o (3.33) a r e of i n t e r e s t i n t h a t t h e two independent v a r i a b l e s 5 and 6 c o r r e l a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s Cy, C x , and Et a t any value of V, which i s a consequence of t h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e v e l o c i t y polygons i n regimes i n which t h e r a t i o s
CY

V2

and 1 a r e equal.

T2

HarLng assigned a series of values t o t h e angles 5 and 6 , we can f i n d the ratios


CY , ~ q

, & &

A, 5 and construct a graph f o r t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n . 2 B2T2 o3

~ig.2.60 I n t e r r e l a t i o n of Coefficients of Eft, Propulsive Force,


and Torque of an I d e a l Rotor

A t Cy = 0 (C = 0), e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 3 1t)o (3.33) a r e not applicable; therefore, i n constructing t h e graph, we used eqs .( 3.l3) and ( 3 .U> transformed i n t o

Such graphs ( ~ i g s . 2 . 6 0 and 2.61) a r e convenient f o r solving problems of aerodynamic design.

1-1, I I I I I-

I I 1 - 1 I 1-1 1 I I I I 11I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
10

i/j)I)
IS

I 1-LLLLLL

1 1 I I I I 1 1 .
20

Fig.2.61

I n t e r r e l a t i o n of Coefficients of Eft, Propulsive

Force, and Torque of an I d e a l Rotor

(A = 1.0 - 12.0). B2F

To determine t h e q u a n t i t i e s entering t h e v e l o c i t y polygon of a r o t o r , we must know i n a d d i t i o n t o V - angles 5 and 6 . The angle 5 i s determined r a t h e r accurately by means of graphs (see Figs.2.60 and 2.61), w h i l e the angle 6 i s deC termined from Cy and C,: 6 = tan-' a .

C Y

A t small 5 and 6 ( l a r g e Actually, we have

v,

small C y ) eqs.(3.31)
C y = 4BzPC;

t o (3.33) are s h p l i f i e d .

&

c, =Cy8;
1 mt--C,V(C - 6 ) . B2

(3-36)

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e first two e q u a l i t i e s i n t o t h e t h i r d , we o b t a i n

A t small angles of a t t a c k

The expression f o r ifit i s generally used Ln this form i n aerodynamic calcul a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r i n f l y i n g regimes a t V 2 0.15.

To c a l c u l a t e f l y i n g regimes w i t h l a r g e 5 ( a t small which are not covered by t h e graphs shown i n figs.2.60 and' 2.61, we m u s t use eqs.(3.12) t o (3.z). S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(3-.13)

v),

and transforming, we o b t a i n

T h i s expression permits constructing graphs f o r t h e aerodynamic characteri s t i c s of a r o t o r C, = f(iiit'>, f o r any s e l e c t e d values of V and C y : Assigning v,, we f i n d C,, then T,, and f i n a l l y Et from eq.(3.&) ( t h e s i g n of C, coincides w i t h t h e s i g n of 5,).
To c a l c u l a t e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an i d e a l r o t o r , we can a l s o use t h e following expressions :

CR=4B2iV'=4B2u =4B2u

v(V-G

sin6)2+

(GCOS~)~=
( 3*41)

I/-vZ-u

(2l/sin 6-

u).

Let us then transform eq.(3.41)

into

fromwhere it i s obvious t h a t we can construct t h e graph of t h e dependence of


N

u = + J

4-B"

O n V =

G 4B2

and 6 .

Such a graph, borrowed from another publi-

c a t i o n (Ref.2), i s shown i n Fig.2.62. I n this diagram, t h e broken l i n e i s t h e approximate curve which can be used as basis f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e vortex-ring state a t 6 = +60 and 6 = +90.; f o r this curve, t h e i d e a l r o t o r theory does not hold.

A determination of t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r i s of independent interest.


If t h e angles

5 and 6 are known, t h e r a t i o of t h e induced v e l o c i t y t o


t h e f l y i n g speed can be determined by express i o n s derived from eqs.(3.26) and (3.27):

tonC

v x=vYt a d .

(3.44)

If t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r i s known, t h e v e l o c i t i e s v, and v, can be ob.tained from eqs.(3.16) and (3.18).

I n t h e operating conditj-on C, = v, = 0, t h e v e l o c i t y Ty i s determined from t h e expression:

Tx <

7 is

A t small angles 5 and 6 , t h e r e l a t i o n satisfied, so that

or Fig.2.62 Induced Vzlocity as a Function of V and 6 .

1 55

I l l l I 1 I1 II

At

72
ti

0.15 and a t small angles of a t t a c k (more accurately, i f

2.0 and

a t small

where

- in

conformity with ~ig.2.62

u = -)

t h e simplified expres-

s i o n s widely used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l r a t h e r accurately y i e l d t h e induced velocities

I n t h e s e cases, t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s denoted by t h e l e t t e r v without subscript, f o r simplicity.


2. Derivation gf-the of a Real Rotog Ekpression f o r t h e Torque C o e f f s e n t

Equations (3.l.4) and (3.37) were derived above f o r determining t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t of an i d e a l r o t o r , when considering t h e r o t o r as an a c t i v e d i s k influencing i t s own circumflow. These expressions a r e i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t Et i s represented as an e x p l i c i t function of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i f t and propulsive I n t h e same form, t h e expression f o r Et can be derived a l s o /uc7 f o r c e C y and C,. The obf o r a r e a l r o t o r . T h i s d e r i v a t i o n was originated by L.S.Viltdgrube. t a i n e d equation i s v a l i d f o r nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o t o r d i s k and t a k e s i n t o account t h e f o r c e s of t h e p r o f i l e drag of t h e blades.

As i s known from t h e c l a s s i c a l theory (Sects.2 and 4.), t h e conponents of t h e dimensionless v e l o c i t y of flow p a s t t h e blade s e c t i o n s ( a t t h e h = 0, cos p = 1) are equal t o
U , =%=r
wR

- -

+ v cos a sin +;
de -.

(3.50)
d+

U , = -=
wR

u,

- V sin a - v - V cos a sin pcos 9 -- r

The components of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s located i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e blade ;uds a r e expressed by t h e equations

Substituting, i n t o eqs .( 3 4 2 ) and (3.53), t h e expressions

we obtain

156

dq=(c,,U,solving eq.(3.54)

cyUy) U bdr.

---

(3.55)

relative t o c,t&

and s u b s t i t u t i n g this i n t o eq.(3.55),

we o b t a i n

The elementary torque of t h e r o t o r i s

dmt=dqF.
Fr m this, a f t e r s u b s t i t u t i n g dq from eq.(3.56)
- --

(3057)
and

r fr

m eq.(3.50)

we o b t a i n

dm,=c,,U3Gr - d t o y - d q v

COSa

sin+

(3.58)
and t h e expres(3.59) (3 -60)

For f u r t h e r transformations of eq.(3.58) we use eq.(3.51) s i o n s f o r t h e elementary l o n g i t u d i n a l and propulsive forces:


dh =dqsin + - d t sin @cos +; dfx=dh COS a +dt'sin a.
A s a r e s u l t we o b t a i n

/llc8
de d t v + d t ; --ddtVsina+dt

dm,=c,,U3bdr+ - d q sin

- _-

sin @ c o s + . c o s a -

_- q ~ vcos a=cXpU3bdr+ d t u + d t r- de - d t v sin a d+ --de cos a=cXpU3bdr+ d t ~ + d t r-dt,~. d+

d+

( 3 =61)

-dhV

We t h e n i n t e g r a t e t h e elementary torques w i t h respect t o t h e r o t o r area:

The equation of blade flapping has t h e form

157

so t h a t
0

u m d2B 7 + B - const. dtF i s proportional t o the s dJI

Therefore,

s i n c e fl and

at 7

dB

I /

0 and

JI

2n have a n i d e n t i c a l value [V.E.Baskin

gives

such a d e r i v a t i o n of eq.(3.63)1. Thus, t h e expression f o r m, can be represented as


2x 1

2x

J
0

cXpfl3l%d+ f
0

d$J d t s -t, V .
0

t-

For simplicity, we derived t h e expression f o r m, on t h e basis of eqs.(3.50) More accurate expressions, taking account of t h e com, and and (3.51) f o r U ponent of induced v e l o c i t y v,,,

v,.

will y i e l d , a f t e r analogous computations, t h e following expression f o r m,:


2r 1 2x I m,=J J ~ , ~ % 8 ~ d ; d + + j d +(dt& S -dt,v,)-t,V.
0 0
0 0

(3.67)
f l &

The f i r s t i n t e g r a l in.eq.(3.67) contains t h e f o r c e s of p r o f i l e drag and t h e second t h e f o r c e s of induced drag. We designate them, respectively, as

For an i d e a l r o t o r f o r which cXp = 0 and f o r which t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s are uniformly distribut,ed, we o b t a i n from eq.(3.6?) with an approximate conside r a t i o n of t i p losses,
- 1 m --[tyv,,-tx(V-~,)] t-B2

or, multiplying both s i d e s of t h e e q u a l i t y by t h e loading f a c t o r ,

1 m f ---[[c,v, gZ

--C~(V---G~)].
obtained i n t h e i d e a l r o t o r

(3

Equation (3.68) coincides w i t h eq.(3.%) theory.

We note t h a t i n t h e expression f o r m, used f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e c l a s s i c a l theory, t h e term taking account of t h e p r o f i l e drag of t h e blades do& not coincide with t h a t obtained above and, i n conformity with eq.(3.55) and (3.57), i s equal t o

The discrepancy of t h e s e expressions i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o f i l e drag f o r c e s e n t e r not only i n t o t h e expression f o r pression f o r dq b u t a l s o i n t o the exdr and t h u s i n t o t, and t, a s well; i f cXp i s taken i n t o account

dt dF

a t some f i x e d values of t h e angle of a t t a c k a and t h e p i t c h cp of t h e r o t o r (%.e., t r u e angle of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n as i s done i n c a l c u l a t i o n s by t h e c l a s s i c a l theory), t h e n both m, (by an amount mir ) and t, and t, a l s o w i l l change. When c a l c u l a t i n g mt by eq.(3.67), t h e term mpr determines t h e increment i n m,, provided i d e n t i c a l values of t, and t, are maintained, which obviously occurs a t d i f f e r e n t a and cp f o r r o t o r s with d i f f e r e n t cXp

Since it i s of g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t t o compare r o t o r s with d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e drag of t h e blades a t i d e n t i c a l t, and t,, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s of t h e r o t o r a r e estimated with respect t o t h e quantity mPr calculated a t angles of a t t a c k and p i t c h e s of t h e r o t o r s corresponding t o t h e same value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t,. For t h e reasons presented above it i s obvious t h a t , f o r changing from a n i d e a l r o t o r with c e r t a i n t, and t, t o a real r o t o r w i t h t h e same t, and t,, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s must be determined from t h e expression f o r mpr

It a l s o follows from eq.(3.67) t h a t t h e influence of a nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o t o r d i s k a t given t, and t, i s d i r e c t l y deterFurthermore, t h e form of t h e induced v e l o c i t y dismined by t h e quantity m i n d . t r i b u t i o n influences t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s and t h u s a l s o t h e quantity mpr

The flapping angle of t h e blades does not d i r e c t l y e n t e r i n t o t h e co/150 e f f i c i e n t m, owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n t e g r a l (3.63) i s equal t o zero. However, flapping does influence t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c X p , d t , and v over t h e r o t o r d i s k and hence t h e quantity mPr and m i n d .

3. Rotor P r o f i l e Losses
A s shown above, a t given values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t, t h e r o t o r p r o f i l e l o s s e s are determined by t h e expression

With consideration of t h e r a d i a l v e l o c i t y component of flow p a s t t h e blade (see Fig.2.91), t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s are determined by t h e expression

00'

Equation (3.70) should be used a t small values of M, and t,, i.e., i n cases when t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cxp i s determined mainly by f r i c t i o n forces. A t l a r g e M, and t, , when regions of flow s e p a r a t i o n and a n i n c r e a s e i n wave drag appear on t h e r o t o r , t h e p r o f i l e drag of t h e s e c t i o n s i s determined by t h e vel o c i t y component of t h e stream U normal t o t h e blade axis, and eq.(3.69) m u s t be used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g mpr To c a l c u l a t e %r it i s necessary t o kgow t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e drag c o e f f i c i e n t cXp and v e l o c i t y of flow U about t h e blade s e c t i o n s over t h e r o t o r d i s k . Conseqvently, a c a l c u l a t i o n of mpr i s a laborious t a s k and, i n p r a c t i c e , can be performed only on high-speed computers. Figures 2.63

t,, t,, V, M,

2.70 give graphs of mp;

as a f u n c t i o n of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

OR f o r a-

a r o t o r with rectangular blades and a loading f a c t o r

of 0 = 0.091. The r o t o r blades ( v a r i a n t I 1 i n Table 2.10) have a l i n e a r geometric twist Acp = 7'. The blade p r o f i l e i s as follows: a t t h e shank, up t o F = = O . $ 5 - NACA 230 with a r e l a t i v e thickness C = l % , a t t h e end of t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e with a r e l a t i v e thickness F = 9%. The c o e f f i c i e n t cXp obtained on exposing t h e model t o an airstream increased by AcXp = 0.002 and p e r t a i n s t o a r o t o r hav5ng a high p r o f i l e drag owing t o poor manufacture. The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e s are given i n Section 4, 3.

Here, it was asThe c a l c u l a t i o n was c a r r i e d out by means of eq.(3.69). sumed t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s constant over t h e r o t o r d i s k and w a s determined by eq.(3.46).
The method of c a l c u l a t i o n and t h e remaining a s s u q t i o n s are described i n Section 4.2 and 4.4.

W e see from t h e graphs t h a t a t numbers M , = 0.6 g r e a t l y depends on t, and t,.

0.7 t h e quantity mpr

At M, s 0.5, t h e quantity mPr depends l i t t l e on t, and increases somewhat upon a n i n c r e a s e of t,.


160

Fig.2.63- Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor ( V = 0.15; M, = 0.6; a = 0.091).

Fig.2.64

-Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor = 0.6; o = 0.091). ( V = 0.2;

161

fig.2.65 Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor ( V = 0.3; M, = 0.6; CY = 0.091).

Fig.2.66 Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor ( V = 0.4; Ivb = 0.6; cs = 0.091).

Fig.2.67 -Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor ( V = 0.15; M, = 0.7; cs = 0.091).

162

Fig.2.68

-Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor ( V = 0.2; M o = 0.7; o = 0 . 0 9 1 ) .

Fig.2.69

-Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor ( V = 0.3; Mo = 0.7; o = 0.091).

163

The materials f o r determining

/154.

qP f o r blades w i t h o t h e r geometric

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are presented below i n Subsections 4 - 6. Certain Considerations i n .Selecting . - - .. Blade ShaDe and s o f i l e

i j i 0 . 0 1 0

4.

m D p

The power expended t o overcome p r o f i l e l o s s e s of t h e r o t o r constit u t e s a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l required power of t h e helicopter. A s shown i n Fig.3.52, about 50% of t h e required power i s expended f o r overcoming t h e p r o f i l e drag of blades i n horizontal f l i g h t . Since. t h e induced l o s s e s constit u t e a smaller p o r t i o n of t h e l o s s e s than t h e p r o f i l e losses, we can cons i d e r t h a t t h e conclusions as t o t h e e f f e c t of t h e geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade on p r o f i l e l o s s e s p e r t a i n a l s o t o t h e t o t a l power of t h e r o t o r , e s p e c i a l l y at high f l y i n g speeds when t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s are small and t h e induced l o s s e s do not exceed 12 15% of t h e t o t a l power. fig.2.70 Coeffisient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotor (V = 0.4.; M, = = 0 . 7 ; o = 0.091).

Figures 2.71 - 2.74 contain comparative graphs of t h e p r o f i l e drag coeffic i e n t mpr f o r r o t o r s w i t h f i v e blade v a r i a n t s : Variant I - t r a p e z o i d a l twisted blade w i t h high-speed p r o f i l e a t t i p ; Variant I1 - rectangular twisted blade w i t h high-speed p r o f i l e at t i p ( r o t o r described above) ; Variant I11 rectangular twisted blade with NACA 23012 p r o f i l e ; Variant IV - rectangular twisted blade with symmetric NACA 0012 p r o f i l e ; Variant V t r a p e z o i d a l f l a t blade w i t h high-speed p r o f i l e a t t i p .

A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of a l l blade v a r i a n t s i s given i n Table 2.10. A comparison of t h e blades i s c a r r i e d out f o r average and l a r g e l i f t coeff i c i e n t s , a t two values of V: 0.2 and 0.4. A comparison shows t h a t a t low Mach number M, S 0.5 t h e t r a p e z o i d a l LE5 t w i s t e d blade, at a l l values of t h e propulsive force, has approximately 8% less p r o f i l e power l o s s e s than t h e rectangular twisted blade. Since, i n horizontal f l i g h t , about one half of t h e required power i s exqended t o overcome t h e p r o f i l e drag of t h e blades, a decrease i n mPr by 8%Will lead t o a decrease i n t h e required power c o e f f i c i e n t m$. i by 4%.
Therefore, f o r l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r s f o r which optimum planform of t h e blade i s trapezoidal.

M, i s small and ymax = 0.3, t h e

The plane blade i n a n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime does not d i f f e r from a twisted

blade, but becomes appreciably worse than t h e twisted blade i n h e l i c o p t e r regimes, e s p e c i a l b a t l a r g e V. It can be used f o r a h e l i c o p t e r only a t small and average values of t, and M, < 0.6.

'When varying t h e blade p r o f i l e a t small p e r i p h e r a l v e l o c i t i e s , mpr w i l l vary within 5 - 12%. The symmetric p r o f i l e i s somewhat b e t t e r than t h e asymmetric; a t V = 0.2, t h e blade w i t h a t h i n high-speed p r o f i l e on t h e t i p has smaller l o s s e s .
We should mention t h a t t h e i n f l u ence of t h e q u a l i t y of manufacture of t h e p r o f i l e on mpr can prove t o be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e e f f e c t of t h e type of p r o f i l e : Am,, f o r d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s i s about 0.0002 ( t h e maxi" d i f f e r e n c e a t l a r g e t, i s not more than O.OOOl+.), whereas owing t o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e type of construction and q u a l i t y of manuf a c t u r e of t h e blade t h e p r o f i l e drag c o e f f i c i e n t of blade s e c t i o n s may d i f f e r by an appreciable amount going /157 as high as 0.003 0.004 (see Sect.4, 3), which gives a d i f f e r e n c e i n prof i l e l o s s e s - i n conformity w i t h eq.(3.71) - of

Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotors 4 t h Blades of Different Shape ( V = 0.2; M, = = 0.6; c s = 0 . 0 9 1 ) .

Ampr

=z3 (1 + 3. 0.32) =0.001.


4

238 m/sec), t h e use of a highA t high Mach number M, (M, = 0.7; mR = 230 speed p r o f i l e a t t h e blade t i p markedly reduces p r o f i l e l o s s e s . The decrease i n mpr amounts t o 0.0015 a t 7 = 0.2 and 0.004 a t 7 = 0.4. T h i s reduces mpr by 40 45% and t h e t o t a l required power, by 20 and 25% respect i v e l y

I n f l y i n g regimes ( t , < 0) of helicopters, mPr i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e geometric twist of t h e blade. A s t r a i g h t blade i s not used i n h e l i c o p t e r regimes, and i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regimes i t s p r o f i l e drag does not d i f f e r from t h a t of a t w i s t e d blade. The t r a p e z o i d a l b l a d e i s b e t t e r than t h e rectangular one i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regimes and a t low propulsive force. I n h e l i c o p t e r regimes where t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e t i p s e c t i o n s of t h e t r a p e z o i d a l blade are l a r g e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n mpr decreases w h i l e a t l a r g e t, t h e rectangular blade becomes better.

A t moderate Mach number M , (M,

0.6; coR

197

204. m/sec) t h e p e c u l i a r i -

165

Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotors with Blades fig.2.72 of Different Shape (V = 0.2; & = 0.7; a = 0.091).

7 6

Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotors w i t h Blades Fig.2.73 of Different Shape (V = 0.4; Mo = 0.6; 0 = 0 . 0 9 1 ) .

166

of t h e curves of m p r , which were noted a t Ivb = 0.7 ( t o a l a r g e r e x t e n t , a t V = 0 . 4 . ) , begin t o appear: The t w i s t e d blade with a high-speed p r o f i l e a t t h e t i p becomes b e t t e r , and t h e s t r a i g h t blade i n h e l i c o p t e r regimes becomes app r e c i a b l y worse t h a n t h e twisted blade.
A cgnparison of r e c t a n g u l a r and t r a p e z o i d a l blades for M, = 0.6 0.7 shows t h a t at V = 0.4 and a l s o a t V = 0.2-for l a r g e t, t h e former has t h e advantage, whereas f o r medium and small t, a t V = 0.2 t h e t r a p e z o i d a l blade becomes of advantage. I n general, t h e rectangular blade i s p r e f e r a b l e f o r heavy and medium h e l i c o p t e r s , whereas i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o use t r a p e z o i d a l blades f o r r g t o c r a f t f o r which t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t, of t h e r o t o r a r e small a t l a r g e V, owing t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of a wing and a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r .

ties

Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of Rotors w i t h Blades F'ig.2.74 of Different Shape (V = 0.4; M, = 0.7; 0 = 0.091). A t 7 = 0.4, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s a r e q u i t e l a r g e even with a high-speed /158 p r o f i l e a t t h e blade t i p : mrjr i s twice t h a t a t Mo = 0.4. 0.5. To estimate t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of decreasing t h e q u a n t i t y mpr , F'igs.2.75 and 2.76 give graphs of mPr for blades of t h e v a r i a n t s I and I1 and a l s o f o r a rectangular blade with an increased geometric twist ( v a r i a n t V I ) , f o r an expansible blade(Q = 0 - 5 ; varia n t V I I ) , and f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r blade with an i n c r e a s e t o F = 0.75 of t h e p a r t W e see from Figs.2.75 and 2.76 t h a t , w i t h a high-speed p r o f i l e ( v a r i a n t V I I I ) , in h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and e s p e c i a l l y i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, t h e t r a p e z o i d a l , . t h e opthum blade i s t h e blade blade remains p r e f e r a b l e . A t l a r g e values o f t w i t h increased t w i s t , which reduces mpr a t V = 0.2 by 20% (m, by 10%) and a t V = 0.4 by 1 0 % ( m t h a f by 5%). Consequently, t h e use of a blake'with g r e a t e r t w i s t r a i s e s t h e dynamic a s w e l l as t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , inc r e a s e s t h e s t a t i c t h r u s t (see Fig.2.171), n e g l i g i b l y i n c r e a s e s t h e maximum

167

Fig.2.75 Coefficient of P r o f i l e Paver of Rotors with Different Blade Shapes (B = 0.2; Mo = 0.7; 0 = 0.091).

Fig.2.76 Coefficient of P r o f i l e Power of . Rotors with Different Blade Shapes ('ii 0.4; Mo = 0.7; 0 = 0.091).

A n enspeed, and appreciably i n c r e a s e s t h e r a t e of descent i n autorotation. largement of t h e blade p o r t i o n with t h e high-speed p r o f i l e s l i g h t l y reduces t h e value of mpr.
The obstacle i n using blades with g r e a t e r geometric twist l i e s i n t h e increase of dynamic s t r e s s e s i n t h e blade spar, whereas f o r blades with an enlarged high-speed p r o f i l e , t h e increase of hinge moments i s t h e obstacle. The expansible blade i s preferable over t h e rectangular design only a t very l a r g e values of t h e propulsive force c o e f f i c i e n t t x
A comparison of t h e graphs of mpr for Mo = 0.6 and Mo = 0.7 shows that, i n a r o t o r with our high-speed profile a t t h e t i p , it i s impossible t o avoid a pronounced i n c r e a s e i n p r o f i l e l o s s e s a t Mo = 0.7, f o r a l l blade v a r i a n t s .

The method of u t i l i z i n g graphs of m p r f o r r o t o r s with t h e s e types of blades but with a d i f f e r e n t loading f a c t o r i s described i n Section 6.

5. m r o x i m t e Determination _of Rotor P r o f i l e Losses


The q u a n t i t y m p r i s most r e l i a b l y determined from graphs p l o t t e d f o r each 2.74 s p e c i f i c r o t o r . If t h e r e a r e no such calculations, t h e d a t a of Figs.2.63 can be used for an approximate estimate of mpr.

A t small Mo, t h e approximate equation (3.72), derived on t h e assumption of constancy of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cxD i n a l l blade sect i o n s , c-an be used f o r d e t e r d n g m p r . TABLE 2.5 Let us derkve eq.(3.72). For a rectangular blade, we have 5 = const = 1.0. Having taken
-

j -1
l.o

0.94

i p
o.91

we obtain

where cxp,, i s t h e average value of t h e coefficient cxp over t h e r o t o r disk.

For t r a p e z o i d a l b l a d e s , qr i s smaller than f o r rectangular blades. T h i s i s taken i n t o account by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t P which i s pre-assigned i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e blade t a p e r TI (Fig.2.77) i n Table 2 . 5 .
To account for t h e influence of t h e r a d i a l v e l o c i t y component of f l o w past A n approximate est-+te (Ref.25, 36) t h e blade, mpr i s calculated by eq.(3.70). shows t h a t , t o account f o r this component, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of V i n eq.(3.71) /160 should be changed from 3 t o 5.

169

Axis of rotor rotation

\ I

Thus, t h e final formula f o r d e t e r mining mpr reads

I
Fig.2.77

7-0
brip

For Determining Blade Taper.

The average p r o f i l e drag coeffid e n t c x p a vover t h e d i s k i s determined as a function of t h e average l i f t coeff i c i e n t cyo over t h e d i s k ; t h e l a t t e r i s found from eq.(3.74) whose derivat i o n i s given beluw:

2
0 0

Substituting

and i n t e g r a t i n g , we obtain

Ekpressing Y i n terms of t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t CY o r t y , we f i n d

Having determined cyo, t h e p r o f i l e p o l a r i n t h e s e c t i o n yield


c ~ P ~ ~ .

F = 0.7 w i l l

L.S.Vil*dgrube proposed t o t a k e i n t o account t h e planform of t h e blade by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t P and t o determine c x p a vas a function of c y 0 .

6. Effect of Air Compressibility on Rotor P r o f i l e Losses


A t average and l a r g e Mo ( f o r p r o f i l e s generally used a t Mo > 0.55 0.6, i.e., a t wR > 185 Z O O m/sec) it i s necessary t o supplement mPr, calculated which t a k e s i n t o account t h e increment i n from eq.(3.72), by t h e term bo

p r o f i l e power produced by t h e i n c r e a s e i n p r o f i l e drag c o e f f i c i e n t s of s e c t i o n s / 1 6 1 . over which t h e f l o w has high &ch numbers. Thus,

(3.75)
The c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e increment in p r o f i l e power Amco should be determined with consideration of t h e a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s over t h e r o t o r disk, s i n c e an increment i n p r o f i l e drag due mprT t o an i n c r e a s e i n MO generally occurs OR15 i n a l l blade sections. Figures 2.78 and 2.79 show M.N.Tishchenko's graphs aor of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p r o f i l e power c o e f f i c i e n t of a blade a s a function of i t s azimuthal p o s i t i o n i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . W e see from Fk.2.78 t h a t , a t l o w f l y i n g speed roo zoo 300 0" (V = 0.2) but a t l a r g e t h r u s t coeffic i e n t , t h e p r o f i l e power of t h e blades Fig.2.78 Variation i n P r o f i l e Power i n c r e a s e s a t a l l azimuths a s t h e Mo Coefficient of Blade with Respect t o increases. A t high f l y i n g speeds Azimuth. (see F'ig.2.79), t h e increment i n prof i l e power occurs mainly a t azimuths of 30 150".

The graphs of Amco f o r t h e v a r i a n t I1 of t h e r o t o r a r e given i n Figs.2.80 t o 2.84. The q u a n t i t y Amco i s defined as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r o f i l e a t t h e examined Mo and a t MO = 0.4 a t i d e n t i c a l values of power coefficient-m,, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s V, t,, t,:

Amco(Ma)=mpp(Ma)-mav (M0=0.4)-

(3.76)

It follows from Figs.2.80 2.84 t h a t Amco i s a function not only of 7 and t h e k c h number MO but a l s o of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t,. The c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t, have an e s p e c i a l l y strong e f f e c t a t small V a t which, i n conformity with Fig.2.78, t h e increment in mpr occurs a t a l l azimuths. Upon an i n c r e a s e i n V t h e increment i n mpr occurs mainly in t h e region 6 = 90" (see Fig.2.79) where t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s &re c l o s e t o zero regardless of t h e value of t,. Consequently, a t V = 0.4 and V = 0.5 t h e influence of t, and t, on t h e q u a n t i t y Amco i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t .
W e see from Figs.2.80 2-84 t h a t , a t l a r g e Mor ? , and t,, A a o i s l a r g e . 0.6. A t n e a r s e p a r a t i o n The q u a n t i t y Amco g e a t l y i n c r e a s e s when Mo > 0.55 values of t, when V = 0.15 and V = 0.2, hm,. has a high value already a t MO > 0 . 5 .

So a s t o keep t h e i n c r e a s e i n required power of a helicopter, due t o t h e le%, t h e r o t o r of t h e v a r i a n t I1 compressibility e f f e c t , from excgeding 15 should be used when Mo=,0.7 a t V s 0.3, and when Mo = 0.65 a t V 0.4. For i -0.0075, t h e increment example, when Mo = 0.7, V = 0.3, t, = 0.15, and t x h e=

Ill1 I I I 1 I1 I

Fig.2.79

Azimuthal Variation i n P r o f i l e Power Coefficient of Blade.


k=0.15

F'ig.2.80

Increment i n P r o f i l e Paver Coefficient of Rotar, due t o Air Compressibility.

172

Am,,
0 . 0 0 4

qoos
0,OOl
0.001

Fig.2.81

Increment in Profile Paver Coefficient of Rotor, due to Air Compressibility.

Fig.2.82

Increment i n P r o f i l e Power Coefficient of i r Compressibility. Rotor, due t o A

V=O.Y. G =0,09?

Fig.2.83

Increment in Profile Power Coefficient of Rotor, due to Air Compressibility.

'4
Fig.2.84 Increment in Profile Power Coefficient of Rotor, due to Air Compressibility.

Fig.2.85 Increment in Angle of Attack of Rotor, due to Air Compressibility at Constant Coefficient of Propulsive Force.

i r Increment in Angle of Attack of Rotor, due to A fig.2.86 Compressibility at Constant Coefficient of Propulsive Force.

176

i n p r o f i l e power w i l l be Amco = 0.0016 which amounts t o 18%of m t h e i . When Mo = 0.65, 7 = 0.4, t, = 0.13, and t x h e= f 4.0133, t h e increment i n p r o f i l e power w i l l be Amco = 0.002 which amounts t o 16%of m t h e f . Since, a t l a r g e 7, t h e increment @ m p r $ occurs mainly a t azimuths close t o 90, t h e increase i n Amco a t l a r g e V i s i n t i m a t e l y connected with t h e relat i o n between t h e Mach number of t h e bladet i p sect+ a t Jr = 90, equal t o M i l + MO = = M o ( 1 + V ) , and t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number /167 of t h e s e c t i o n p r o f i l e . The c r i t i c a l Mach number M , , i s determined a t CY = 0 since, i n t h e t i p s e c t i o n s a t $ = 90, we have Ol, = 0. These d a t a show t h a t a 1 5 18% increase i n required power, due t o t h e comp r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t , occurs a t Mil + MO = = 0.91, i.e., M f l + Mo i s l a r g e r by 0.1 than Mop of t h e high-speed p r o f i l e when A t M f l + Mo = M o r + = 0 (see Fig.2.99). + 0.15, t h e i n c r e a s e i n required power i s t h e compresabout 30%. A t M i l + Mo = M,,, s i b i l i t y e f f e c t i s v i r t u a l l y absent. These r e l a t i o n s between Mo, M f l , and Mor of t h e blade p r o f i l e can be used when s e l e c t i n g M O f o r a h e l i c o p t e r with high f l y i n g speeds.

Fig. 2.87 Increment i n P r o f i l e Power Coefficient, due t o Air Compressibility f o r Rotors with Blades of Different Shape.

Since, on an i n c r e a s e i n Mo, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e . r o t o r should be more negative so as t o r e t a i n i d e n t i c a l v a l u e s o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t x , t h e graphs f o r t h e increment i n r o t o r angle of a t t a c k a r e given i n Figs.2.85 and 2.86: V =0 . 4 ; G = 0.091
A mco

0.008

Auto (M,)=u

(M0)-

~(MOz0.4).

(3.77)

0007 0 . 0 0 6
0.005

-- 0.15

No graphs were constructed f o r 7 = 0.3 since, a t a l l t, and tx, t h e q u a n t i t y AcY,, does not exceed lo0

Q 004 9 00:
QOOi

aoo#

Fig.2.88 Increment i n P r o f i l e Power Coefficient, due t o Air Compressibility for Rotors w i t h Blades of Different Shape.

Figures 2.87 and 2.88 show comparative graphs of Am,, f o r r o t o r s with blades of t h e I ,1 1 1 , and V . Calculations variants I showed t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y Am,, i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e type of p r o f i l e (this i s seen from a comparison of t h e v a r i a n t s I1 and 1 1 1 ) and by t h e geometric twist of t h e blade (variant V, s t r a i g h t blade). The planform of t h e blade plays a r o l e only a t l a r g e t, i n which case, f o r t r a p e z o i d a l blades where f l o w separation begins e a r l i e r , Amco i s g r e a t e r than for rectangular blades. The planform of t h e blade plays a minor r o l e a t l a r g e M O i n v i e w of t h e f a c t

177
4

It

t h a t , as w i l l be shown i n Section 4.7, a v a r i a t i o n i n planform will cause a change i n t h e angles o f a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s mainly a t azimuths JI = 250 where p r o f i l e l o s s e s a r e small i n t h e pre-separation regime.

- 340'

A comparison of blades with a high-speed p r o f i l e a t t h e t i p ( v a r i a n t 1 1 ) and without it ( v a r i a n t 1 1 1 ) used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , will show t h a t a highspeed p r o f i l e must be established a t t h e blade t i p when Mo > 0.6 0.625.

The graphs of Amco and A%, should be calculated f o r each s p e c i f i c r o t o r . However, i f no such c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e available, t h e d a t a i n Figs.2.80 2.88 can be used f o r an approximate estimate of Amco.

The graphs i n Figs.2.80 2.88 a r e l a i d out a l s o f o r t a k i n g i n t o account / I & t h e influence of t h e Mach number MO on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r , for cases i n which t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s experimentally determined a t l o w Ma are t o be used a l s o a t high Moo Furthermore, t h e graphs are u s e f u l f o r aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n s t o avoid i n t e r p o l a t i o n of t h e Mach number Mo i f t h e calculated Ma values do not coincide with those f o r which t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were p l o t t e d . To use t h e graphs shown i n Egs.2.80 2.83 f o r r o t o r s with similar blades but with a d i f f e r e n t loading f a c t o r , it i s necessary t o r e c a l c u l a t e t h e coeffic i e n t t, f o r 0 = 0.091 (Sect.6).

7. Induced Losses of a Real Rotor


Assuming a constant induced v e l o c i t y . o v e r t h e e n t i r e r o t o r disk, t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t can be obtained fgr t h e gra2hs i n Figs.2.60 and 2.61. The i n t e r dependence of t h e r a t i o s Cy/B V Cx/B2v and &/p,which w a s derived i n t h e theory of an i d e a l r o t o r , i s v a l i d when t h e s e r a t i o s a r e determined w5th respect t o t h e t o t a l f o r c e s Y and X taken w i t h consideration of t h e p r o f i l e drag, s i n c e t h e forces of t h e p r o f i l e drag a l s o c r e a t e induced v e l o c i t i e s so t h a t t h e vel o c i t y polygons and a l l r e l a t i o n s given i n Subsection l remain i n force. W e must add t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s t o t h e Et obtained i n t h i s manner.

Consequently,

- mtjd - mf=--= - V 3 f m p r r

v3

(3.78)

where

v3

The addend i n t h e expression f o r Et, containing t h e product of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e and t h e induced v e l o c i t y G R ~ ,w i l l be c a l l e d t h e induced l o s s e s of t h e rotor.

In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e induced losses, we i n t r o d u c e a c o r r e c t i o n f o r taking i n t o account t h e nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o t o r disk.

As follows from e q . ( 3 . 6 7 ) , mined by means of the formula

the induced losses of a real rotor are deter

However, to calculate ordinary helicopter regimes, at ty > tx, an approximate expression is used

First, just as in the ideal rotor theory, we determine mind under the assumption of constant induced velocity over the entire rotor disk. With this assumption and with a n approximate consideration of tip losses, the expression for m i n d takes the simple form
2x

1 192

For flying regimes at

72

O.lS,.substitution of e q . ( 3 . 4 8 )

for

7 will yield

We w i l l demonstrate that e q . ( 3 . 8 2 ) holds not only for the assumption of constant induced velocity over the rotor disk but a l s o for an induced velocity distribution obeying the law _ _
v (r,+)=

G+

arcos +,

( 3*e3:

where a is a constant. According to e q . ( 3 . 8 3 ) , the induced velocity has a minimum value in the forward portion of the rotor disk ($ = I'T, F = 1 ) and increases linearly in the direction of the velocity flaw. In a direction perpendicular to the velocity flow, the induced velocity remains constant. Thus, the form of the induced velocity diagram is a cylinder cut off by a plane turned toward the plane of rotation of the rotor about an axis perpendicular to the direction of motion (see F i g . 2 . ' 6 ) ; the angle of turn is characterized by the quantity a; 7, the average induced velocity of the disk, is determined from e q s . ( 3 . & 6 ) or ( 3 . 4 8 ) . The induced velocity diagram described by e q . ( 3 . 8 3 ) is close in character . to the time-average induced velocity diagram found f r o m experiment (see Fig.2.3, Let us substitute e q . ( 3 . 8 3 )
2x

into e q . ( 3 . 8 0 )
2x

and find
1
2r.

mind=
0

d+ dt ( + ;
6

arcos +) = ;

f d+ d t +,a [ cos + d+
0

dtr.

The i n t e g r a l i n t h e first addend i s equal t o t h e r o t o r t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t . The i n t e g r a l f o r radius i n t h e second addend i s proportional t o t h e sum (see
+ I3 const f o r a r o t o r with flapping hinges. With an accuracy 1 d$ t o t h e first harmonics of flapping, t h e s u m7 d2B + B = a o ; consequently, PF d$ i s a q u a n t i t y independent of t h e azimuthal p o s i t i o n of t h e blade. Therefore,

Subsect.2)

- ,

d2B

2l-r 0

1
0

s c o s $ d $ l d t F = 0. Thus, f o r t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n accordance with eq.(3.83) t h e induced l o s s e s a r e a l s o determined by eq. (3.81) Calculations based on t h e vortex theory f o r a r o t o r with an i n f i n i t e number of blades show t h a t , Owing t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e induced v e l o c i t y diagram from eq0(3.83), the4 induced l o s s e s of a r o t o r with twisted blades a r e about 5% g r e ~ t e r . Taking B = 0.92, t h e induced l o s s e s of t h e r o t o r i n f l y i n g regimes a t V r 0.15 a r e determined by t h e expression
mind=-

1.05
0.92 4

fza

=0.285

f2a -. V

(3.84)

where

In flying regimes with small ? , t h e q u a n t i t y Eind i s found from eq.(3.85) i s determined as a function of C R , and 6 from t h e graph i n F'ig.2.62:

v,

/170

where, j u s t as i n eq.(3.8&), crease i n induced l o s s e s .

1.05 i s a c o e f f i c i e n t t a k i n g i n t o account t h e in-

on V can be refined by f l i g h t t e s t s . After determining The dependence of t h e required r o t o r power from f l i g h t t e s t s f o r a rider of horizontal f l y i n g speeds and a f t e r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e helicopter, we f i n d C y h a f , (see Chapt.111, expressions
CXh.f

Sect.l.2)

a s w e l l as C R , m t h e f , and then

? and

u from t h e

The graph of shown i n Fig.2.89.

u = f(?)

obtained from f l i g h t t e s t s of t h e

E-4 h e l i c o p t e r

is

The t e s t s were performed a t d i f f e r e n t heights between r o t o r and surface of t h e a i r f i e l d h. I n f l i g h t s close t o t h e ground, t h e q u a n t i t y was affected by

180

influence domain of t h e I f a i r cushionf1 h a r e p l o t t e d on t h e graph f o r d i f f e r e n t values of h = R The graph of i n Fig.2.89 w a s obtained f o r l o w h o r i z o n t a l f l y i n g speeds, when 6 = 6h.f = 0. However, t h e diagram can be used approximately f o r val2es of 6 within limits from + 5 O t o -20". . Calculations made from t h e graph f u, t h a t i n s t e a d of determining t h e product ~ C ,we R can shown i n Fig.2.62, r e v e a l c a l c u l a t e t h e product "U?'(Cy = CR cos 6>, determining f o r 6 = 0 and V =
Ifair

the

cushiont1. The values of

u i n the

-.

1.96 7 v ..

3R

Thus, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t low f l y i n g speeds, E i n d i s determined from t h e expression

$ T
i
I

Fquation ( 3 . 8 9 ) can be used both f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r o t o r paver required f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t low f l y i n g speeds and f o r determining t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r when calcul a t i n g t h e takeoff d i s t a n c e of a h e l i c o p t e r or t h e towing f o r c e of a t d n g helicopter. These c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e sub s t ant i a l l y simplified because of t h e f a c t t h a t , f o r d e t e r g n i n g t h e velocit y c o e f f i c i e n t V, it s u f f i c e s t o know C y and not CR.

The graph of t h e average induced v e l o c i t y f o r a rotor system (with consideration of mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e ) of t h e Yak-% fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r i s shown i n Fig.2.90. Figure 2.90 a l s o contains t h e curve ?; f o r t h e 1. u Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r outside t h e earth's influence. This graph can be used approxhaXely f o r deFig22.89 -Induced Velocity as a Function 6 of all h e l i c o p t e r s termining of V and h (Based on F l i g h t Tests of t h e of single-rotor configuration /171 Mi-4 Helicopter). and of fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s with an excess of r o t o r s (see Fig.3.8) close t o y k = 0.057, j u s t as f o r t h e Yak-&.

181

Turning t o t h e s e curves, we can f i n d 5 f o r fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h o t h e r 3; and a l s o f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configuration, after determining C at high f l y i n g speeds ( V r 0.15) from eq.(3.87), based on d a t a of an aerodynamic calculation. Such a curve i s p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.90 f o r a h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration w i t h a c o e f f i c i e n t of mutual induction u s s = -0.4.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t at low V f o r a fore-and-aft helicopter t h e induced v e l o c i t y coeffic i e n t , owing t o t h e mutual i n t e r ference of t h e r o t o r s , i s g r e a t e r t h a n i n a hovering regime. Consequently, i t s required power a t low f l y i n g speeds i s g r e a t e r than i n t h e hovering regime. Thus, a fore-and-aft helicopter has poor f l y i n g characteri s t i c s a t low f l y i n g speeds ( i n acc e l e r a t i o n , i n takeoff runs when taking o f f l i k e an airplane, and i n towing) ; they are s u b s t a n t i a l l y worse t h a n those of single-rotor and side-by-side helicopters. Since 5 depends on t h e r a t i o which i s d i r e c t l y proportional t o the ratio Induced Velocity 5 vs. ? f o r Fig.2.90 Helicopters of Various Configurations.

K'

V (p

t h e load p e r square meter of t h e r o t o r area, p = -),

being

T F

the flying

/l72 speed has a d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t on t h e required power f o r h e l i c o p t e r s with d i f f e r e n t p. Therefore, for h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a l a r g e r p, t h e wind i n t h i s case lowers t h e required power less o r i n c r e a s e s t h e maximum r o t o r t h r u s t i n hovering.
>?.

* 35

Thus, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t of a lift-producing r o t o r and a propulsive f o r c e w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s ty, t, exposed t o an a i r stream w i t h di2 0.15, we can use t h e following expression: mensionless v e l o c i t y

- 1.04tXv. mprS 0,285-S V

t2 a

(3.90)

182

Owing t o t h e n e c e s s i t y of taking t i p l o s s e s i n t o account, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

B2 are o f t e n omitted i n t h e term


f om:

1 t,fi s o t h a t B2

eq.(3.90)
-

t a k e s t h e following

mt=mp
The c o e f f i c i e n t %r Section.

+0.285 ZV
t2 a

-t,V.

(3.91)

i s determined as indicated i n Subsections 3

-6

of this

8. Determination of Angle of Attack and P i t c h of Rotor

/173

The momentum theory gives no d a t a on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r . Determination of t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e rotorcu and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n a rotor-fixed coordinate system ( f o r c e s T, H), however, i s necessary f o r calculati n g t h e r o t o r p i t c h , f o r r e f i n i n g t h e magnitude of p a r a s i t e drag of t h e non-liftproducing p a r t s of t h e helicopter, and mainly for determining t h e equil..ibrium conditions of t h e h e l i c o p t e r moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y (balancing) and i t s s t a b i l i t y .

I t i s obvious t h a t , when f o r c e s with c o e f f i c i e n t s Cy and Cx are generated during some operating regime of t h e r o t o r , t h e determined mean dimensionless inand TX over t h e d i s k must correspond t o t h e s e operating conduced v e l o c i t i e s d i t i o n s . However, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r may d i f f e r here and depends on t h e type of r o t o r (hinged o r r i g i d ) , on t h e blade shape, e t c . To determine t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r use must be made of t h e c l a s s i c a l theory, wherein t h e found magnitude of t h e angle of a t t a c k depends on t h e assumptions contained i n this theory.

; ,

kt us determine t h e angle of a t t a c k and p i t c h of t h e r o t o r .


To each p o i n t of t h e curves of mpr ( s e e Figs.2.63 - 2.74) t h e r e corresponds a c e r t a i n r o t o r angle of a t t a c k . The angles of a t t a c k are l a i d off on these curves s o t h a t , i n determining mpr from Figs.2.63 - 2.74, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r can be located. The r o t o r s e t t i n g i s found from graphs of t, = f ( a , eo, V) (see Figs.2.115 and 2.116) or from eq.(2.50) of t h e Glauert-Lock theory (3.21). (Sect.3), wherein 1-1 and h are determined from eqs.(3.20),

Jf t h e p r o f i l e power c o e f f i c i e n t i s determined from eq.(3.72) r a t h e r t h a n from t h e graphs i n Figs.2.63 2.74, thencu, which i s t h e angle of a t t a c k of a n equivalent r o t o r (see Sect .2), i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e approximate equation (3.95). T h i s formula i s derived on t h e basis of t h e following r e l a t i o n s :

t,= t sin a,+ h,cos

a,

=ta,+

he.

( 3 092)

A s s u m i n g he = t a l e , we f i n d from eq.(3.92)

.. .

...

. - -.

..

Ill1

Ill1

The flapping c o e f f i c i e n t ale can be expressed by t h e approxLmate r e l a t i o n [eq.(3.94)1 derived from formulas of t h e Glauert-Lock theory:

a,,=2V

[t (l-

4B2P

">

-vu,.

-1

(3.94)

After transformation of eqs.(3.93) determining CY^ :

and (3.94), we o b t a i n t h e formula f o r

(3.95)
A t l a r g e Mach numbers M, f o r V 2 0.4, t h e increment i n angle of a t t a c k i s found from t h e graphs i n Figs.2.85 and 2.86.
After
CY,

i s determined, p, A, cp,

and o t h e r d a t a are found.

Having determined a, eqs.(3.15) and (3.17) will permit f i n d i n g t h e coeffic i e n t s of t h r u s t and l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e of t h e r o t o r . Section

4.

C l a s s i c a l Rotor Theory. Method of Numeric a1 I n t e g r a t i o n

When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r i n regimes with l a r g e V, M,, and t y , many of t h e assumptions of t h e Glauert-Lock theory lead t o s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s . For commonly used r o t o r s , we can consider t h a t V 2 0.3-0.35; Mo 2 0.55 0.6; and t y c l o s e t o tY,, based on t h e condition of flow separation.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g such regimes it i s primarily necessary t o d i s c a r d t h e approximation of t h e p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s t i p u l a t e d i n t h e Glauert-Lock theory: c y = amur and cxp = cxp,,, where a, and cxp,, a r e constants a t a l l p o i n t s of t h e d i s k regardless of t h e angle of attackcu, and t h e Mach number of t h e blade section. I n p r a c t i c e it i s impossible t o give a s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate a n a l y t i c a l expression f o r t h e dependence of cy and cxp o n a and M. Therefore, i n t h e ref i n e d c a l c u l a t i o n methods t h e angle of a t t a c k and t h e Mach number are found a t each p o i n t of t h e swept d i s k a f t e r which c y and c x p are determined from t h e graphs of t h e p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

For c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e angles of a t t a c k , t h e flapping angle of t h e blade @ must be known; however, this can be determined only i f t h e t h r u s t moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge i s known. The l a t t e r can be found when t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e angles of a t t a c k i s known. Therefore, t h e calculat i o n can be constructed e i t h e r on t h e b a s i s of determining, by t h e method of successive approximations, t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s with respect t o t h e first

- 3 harmonics,

o r on t h e basis of determining

and

a by numerical integrad J r

184

t i o n of t h e equation of flapping; t h e second method of calculation, which has become widespread, ' i c L l l be described below. P r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of such a laborious computational process i s p o s s i b l e only with t h e use of high-speed d i g i t a l computers. Under this condition, t h e previously used assumptions f o r overcoming mathematical d i f f i c u l t i e s can be discarded. Unavoidable assumptions are o n l y those due t o our l a c k of knowledge of i n d i v i d u a l problems a t t h e p r e s e n t state of art of r o t o r aerodynamics. Such assumpt i o n s include : Determination of cy and cXp of sections, neglecting t h e angles of sides l i p (equal to-

" U )

and v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e boundary l a y e r produced by

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a r i s i n g on blade r o t a t i o n ; cy and cXp of t h e s e c t i o n s are determined from t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e obtained i n a p l a n e - p a r a l l e l flow. Neglect of t h e e f f e c t of unsteady c i r c u l a t i o n of flow about t h e blade sections, which involves a complex motion, on t h e aerodynamic characteri s t i c s of t h e D r o f i l e . Neglect of t h g f u s e l a g e and hub e f f e c t s on r o t o r aerodynamics, and others. The method of c a l c u l a t i o n permits taking i n t o account (within t h e assumpt i o n s g v e n above) i n d i v i d u a l features of t h e blade p r o f i l e s and t o s e l e c t a p r o f i l e on t h e basis of q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a r a t h e r t h a n of q u a l i t a t i v e cons i d e r a t i o n s , as w a s done previously. The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be calculated t o g e t h e r with calcul a t i o n of blade deformation and with consideration of t h e induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n caused by a vortex system of arbitrary form; t h e computational e f f o r t depends on t h e accuracy requirements and on t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e computer such as memory capacity and speed of computation.
1 . Formulas- f o r Calculating Forces and Moments of a Rotor

Fig.2.91 For Determining t h e Component of Relative Velocity of Flow around t h e Blade Section.

F i r s t , l e t us d e r i v e formulas f o r determining t h e components of t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of flow about t h e blade s e c t i o n s . These d i f f e r from t h e formulas derived i n Section 2 i n t h a t t h e y take i n t o account t h e spacing of t h e flapping hinges and do not consider t h e angles f! and @ t o be small,

The component U, (Fig.2.9la, b) i s d i r e c t e d perpendicular t o t h e blade a x i s and i s located i n a p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n (or located i n t h e

plane of r o t a t i o n when t h e flapping angle of t h e blade relative t o t h e flapping hinge i s zero). As shown i n Fig.2.91, U , i s composed of t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l y i n g speed, equal t o V cos a s i n $, and t h e p e r i p h e r a l speed of t h e s e c t i o n w[r l h . h ) cos B + t h . h ] :

Ur=o [(r- Zhh) cos p+ Zhh]

+V cos a sin $.

(4.11

Changing t o relative q u a l i t i e s , we o b t a i n

where
p = Vcosa UR

--V cos a.

(4.3)

S t r i c t l y speaking, w i t h consideration of flow s t a g n a t i o n i n t h e region of t h e r o t o r equal t o t h e induced v e l o c i t y vh, t h e flow v e l o c i t y i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n i s equal t o V cos CY - v , . Therefore, t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t p must be determined from eq.(3.20). T h i s introduces no complications i f t h e calcula- /176 t i o n i s made at a give; p, and t h e dimens i o n l e s s f l y i n g speed V i s determined from eq.(3.20) when Th i s already kn2w-n. If t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s made a t a given V, t h e n f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n we w i l l determine p by t h e xis approximate equation (4.3).

I n this Chapter, we w i l l not d i s c u s s blade flapping r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge. The v a r i a b l e p a r t of t h e angle of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade about t h e drag hinge i s negliFig.2.92 For Determining t h e g i b l e and i t can be considered t h a t a l l P o s i t i o n of Blade, Hub, and Longitudinal Axis of t h e H e l i blades t u r n about t h e drag hinge through an i d e n t i c a l angle cav = c0. Therefore, at copter Relative t o t h e F l i g h t Direction. some azimuthal p o s i t i o n of t h e blade Q , t h e r o t o r hub i s turned through an angle Q + co toward t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f l y i n g speed and through an angle Q + co - B s s t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of t h e helicopter, if t h e c r a f t i s f l y i n g w i t h s i d e s l i p (Fig.2.92).
The component U, ( s e e Fig.2.9la, equal t o c ) d i r e c t e d along t h e blade axis, i s

Uzs V cos a cos cos p.

(4.4)

T h i s component determines t h e angle of s i d e s l i p i n flow through t h e blades.

186

The component U , i s d i r e c t e d perpendicular t o t h e blade a x i s and i s located i n t h e blade flapping plane (being a r a l l e l t o t h e s h a f t a x i s when t h e flapping angle of t h e blade i s equal t o

A s shown i n F i g . 2 . 9 1 ~ ~ t h e component U, i s composed of t h e following speeds: p r o j e c t i o n of t h e speeds perpendicular t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , V s i n CY - v,; p r o j e c t i o n of t h e component of f l y i n g speed, V cos CY cos $;
p e r i p h e r a l speed of flapping, ( r The s u m of t h e s e speeds i s equal t o
de U, =(V sin a - v) cos - V cos a cos sill p - ( r - l,,~,) ,

- thah)

*.

dt

(4.5)

where v i s t h e induced v e l o c i t y component perpendicular t o t h e plane of rotat i o n (v, i n ~ e c t . 3 ) . On replacing t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect t o time by a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect t o t h e angle of blade r o t a t i o n ( Q = w t ) and changing over t o relat i v e q u a n t i t i e s , we o b t a i n
-

uy ---

-=

U Y

oR

(V sin a - v) cos p

-V cos a cos +sin (3 -

- ( r - l h - h ) -de = ~ ( r , + ) c o s ~ - ~ c o ~ o ) ~ i n ( 3 - ( r - l ~ .de ~)
d 4 J

- -

-.
d 4 J

Here t h e flow c o e f f i c i e n t h ( r , 4 ) a t nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s equal t o

/177

whence
A = V sin a -U,
-

(4.7')

where

F (r, Q ) v and A

= mean and variable p o r t i o n s of t h e dimensionless induced

velocity;
h = average flow c o e f f i c i e n t over t h e disk.

The geometric s u m of t h e components U, and U , i s equal t o t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y through t h e blade s e c t i o n i n a plane noma1 t o t h e blade a x i s :

U=

vu: +E .
d$

(4.81
of t h e flapping motion of t h e

The angle l3 and t h e angular v e l o c i t y

blade, which are determined from t h e flapping equation, e n t e r t h e expressions f o r U,, Uy, U , .

o r , i n dimensionless form,

h.h

small value of t h e angle

To c a l c u l a t e t h e f l y i n g regimes common f o r a helicopter, we can assume a Then t h e flapping equation i s simplified t o f3.

hh
To determine the angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n CY,,we examine t h e drawing (Fig.2.93) i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e blade a x i s (View along t h e arrow C i n Fig.2.91). Figure 2.93 shows t h a t a i r with a r e l a t i v e ve- /178 l o c i t y U, d i r e c t e d a t a n angle B t o t h e plane of rot a t i o n , will flow over t h e blade s e c t i o n turned through an angle cp t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n (cp being t h e blade p i t c h i n t h e studied s e c t i o n ) . The angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n i s equal t o
a,=cp+
@;

(4.13)

CJ= tan-' U Y ;

(4 .uc>
__ U?
U X

Fig.2.93 Speeds and Aerodynamic Forces of Blade Element.

ux

a, -- cp

+ tan-'

-= 'p UX

ffY

+ tan-'

A.

(4 015 1

The blade p i t c h i n t h e examined s e c t i o n depends on t h e following: o v e r a l l

188

p i t c h of t h e r o t o r lo equal t o t h e blade p i t c h i n t h e s e c t i o n F = 0.7 a t fl = 0 and without cycpic change of p i t c h ; angle of twist Acp of t h e s e c t i o n relative t o t h e s e c t i o n F = 0.7; flapping angle of t h e blade i n t h e presence of a flapu m of these terms i s equal ping compensator; c y c l i c change of blade p i t c h . The s to

where

ll and I2= components of c y c l i c change of blade p i t c h , w i t h d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h control; v, and F n = components of e l a s t i c twist of t h e blade.

The aerodynamic f o r c e s p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n t h e s e c t i o n r are determined by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and c, f o r t h e p r o f i l e of t h e s e c t i o n under s t u d y , . t a k e n i n Since, i n determining cy,, t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e s e c t i o n r e l a t i o n t o cy, was taken i n t o account, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and c, are taken f o r a p r o f i l e with i n f i n i t e elongation.

The Mach and Reynolds numbers i n t h e s e c t i o n are

Since t h e Re f o r h e l i c o p t e r s i s r a t h e r high, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and cXp of t h e s e c t i o n s will be considered ( f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n ) t o depend only on t h e Mach n m b e r i n t h e section. Therefore, t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e prof i l e for eachM a r e taken a t R e corresponding t o a given Mach and mean chord and flight altitude:
Re=(%)aybo.7

M.

(4.19)

The l i f t and drag p e r u n i t l e n g t h of t h e s e c t i o n w i l l t h e n be

w h i l e t h e i r components d i r e c t e d along t h e axes relative t o t h e r o t o r , i.e., t h e t h r u s t dT and t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o r o t a t i o n dQ, w i l l read

/179

S u b s t i t u t i n g , i n t o eqs.(4.22) s i n CP from eqs.(&.&) and (4.25)

and (4.23),

t h e expressions f o r cos Q and

COS a?= ( I . .

u'

(4.24)
(4.25)

UY sin Q =-

u
from eqs.(4.20) and (4.21),

and t h e expressions f o r finally obtain

dYSCO-

dr

and

dX,ec*

dr

we

or, i n r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s ,
~ dr = ( c , ~ , + c , U yUb; )
%=(cXpx
dr

-=

- - cyU,)

u b:

The a n t i t o r q u e moment of t h e blade p e r u n i t length, o r t h e s e c t i o n torque, i s determined from t h e formula ( i n r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s )

After i n t e g r a t i n g t h e loads p e r u n i t l e n g t h over t h e blade radius, we obt a i n expressions f o r determining t h e f o r c e s and torque of t h e blade. Since t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s depend on t h e blade p o s i t i o n i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ( i t s azimuthal p o s i t i o n J I ) , they are given t h e subscript JI :
1

tP=l
ih.h

d dt rd ?

(4.31)

h.h
1

(4.33)
h.h

The blade t h r u s t i s d i r e c t e d a t an angle fl t o t h e axis of t h e r o t o r . Its p r o j e c t i o n s onto t h e r o t o r a x i s and onto t h e plane of r o t a t i o n are equal t o t 4 cos p and t q , s i n fl

190

vcosoc

On mapping t h e blade f o r c e s i n /180 t h e plane of r o t a t i o n onto t h e longit u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e axes of t h e r o t o r , we f i n d t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e s of t h e blade

(Fig.2.94):

h+=

--+sin pcos++q+sinq;

s+= - t+sin p sin - q+ cos q.

(40%)
(4.35)

Fig.2.94

For Determining Coeffic i e n t s of Longitudinal and Transverse Blade Forces.

The component tq cos fi c r e a t e s t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l moments of aerodynamic f o r c e s mZA Jr and mxA$6:


mzAo =

- t+

COS

P Z , , ~COS +;

(4.36

mxA* = -

t , cos Fhoh sin +.


1 po(wR)F 2

(4-37)
and

I n order t o determine t h e blade f o r c e s and moments i n a dimensionless form,


t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s must be multiplied by
L _

po(~R)~Ft.

The instantaneous value of r o t o r f o r c e s and moments can be found by s d n g t h e f o r c e s and moments of a l l blades a t a s e l e c t e d i n s t a n t of t i m e (one blade being a t an angle $, t h e second a t a n angle $ +
+ 2

a, t h e t h i r d a t a n angle $
b

-$, and

so on).

The average per-revolution f o r c e s and moments created by t h e blade are equal t o t h e i n t e g r a l w i t h respect t o $ from eqs.(4.31> (4.37) divided by 2 n . On multiplying t h e result by t h e number of blades, we f i n d t h e average f o r c e s and moments of t h e r o t o r p e r revolution.

I n a dimensionless form, t h e average per-revolution f o r c e s and moments of aerodynamic f o r c e s are determined by t h e expressions

2X

S= -ss+d+; 1 2% ,
0

2r

/181 (4.41)

A f o r c e equal t o t h e sum of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of blade flapping i s transmitted through t h e flapping hinge t o t h e r o t o r hub (Fig.2.95). Its projection, d i r e c t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e r o t o r s h a f t axis,

c r e a t e s l o n g i t u d i n a l and lateral moments of t h e r o t o r (4.45)

which should be summed w i t h t h e moments of aerodynamic f o r c e s [see eqs.(4.42) and (4.43)l.

W e note t h a t t h e i n t e g r a l expressions (4.42), (4.43), (4.45), and (4.46) contain s i n Jr or cos $, due t o which t h e moments are created by t h e first harmonics of t h r u s t and 7T Y =y i n e r t i a f o r c e s . Therefore, t h e moments of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e are g r e a t e r i n magnitude than t h e VCOS~ moments of t h e aerodynamic force, s i n c e t h e first harmonic of t $ i s small because of blade flapping.

Fig.2.95 Generation of Rotor Moment .Created by I n e r t i a Forces of Flapping Motion.

The l i f t and drag coeffi/182 c i e n t s of t h e r o t o r are determined by changing from t h e body-f k e d system of axes t o a v e l o c i t y system:

192

t,=tcosa-hsina;

(4.47)

t,=t sin a + h cos a .


2. M e t hod of Calculation

(4.48)

The i n i t i a l d a t a f o r c a l c u l a t i o n are t h e dimensionless r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s = t i c s : geometric blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( v a r i a t i o n i n twist AT, relative chord 5, and p r o f i l e over t h e blade length), load f a c t o r of t h e r g t o r o, aerodynamic p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s t a g g e r of t h e flapping hinges t h a h , m a s s and weight c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade flapping compensator k. The operating regime of t h e r o t o r i s given t h e following dimensLonless data: angle of a t t a c k of r o t o r CY, c o e f f i c i e n t s of v e l o c i t y and l i f t V, t y ,Mach number Mo, d e f l e c t i o n of c o n t r o l s H , ll ( o r angles I1 and 0 , ) . The sequence of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s as follows: I n f i r s t approximation, t h e magnitude and d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y v and t h e r o t o r p i t c h Io are assigned. The induced v e l o c i t y can be taken from eq.(3.46) o r from experimental data. The r o t o r p i t c h i s determined e i t h e r by t h e Glauert-Lock theory with conor i s assigned a r b i t r a r i l y ( f o r example, eo = $ ) . version by means of eq.(2.&2) Let u s s e l e c t t h e azimuth w i t h which t o begin t h e c a l c u l a t i o n $o and t h e

(-&

p b o * R4
21h-

and

gshw2 'h.h

), coefficient

of t h e

i n i t i a l values of

Bo and 8: ( f o r b r e v i t y , we denote: 8 '

Usually, we t a k e Jl0 = 0 o r q0 = 270'; Bo and 86 can be determined by t h e Glauert-Lock theory o r we can assume Bo = Bo' y 0 (which, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, does not lengthen t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n c e t h e natural o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade decay r a p i d l y ) .

A t t h e i n i t i a l azimuth we c a l c u l a t e p , A , E,, 5, cp, CY,, and M a t a l l r a d i i , and t h e n determine c y and c X pfrom t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic charac-

zy,

t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e s .

Next,

dt and m h e h are determined, dF


e:,

and from t h e

flapping equation (4.10) we f i n d 8;. From f36, and Bo we f i n d , by numerical and 8 ' at t h e next azimuth and continue t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n this integration, sequence a t o t h e r azimuths.

I n t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n compiled and programmed by M.N.Tishchenko, i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e flapping equation of t h e blade with respect t o azimuth i s performed by t h e f i l e r method w i t h conversion. From t h e values of p i , B;, 8; and p i + l p , a t azimuth a t azimuth $i we f i n d t h e preliminary values of $i+l from t h e expressions

~ J ; + I , , = P ; + ~ A";
193

where A$ =

- ti

B1+1,, 1.
Qi+l

Then, from eq.(4.10) we c a l c u l a t e t h e preliminary value of t h e t h r u s t moment c o e f f i c i e n t r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge (mh.h)i+l pr = f(pi+lpr, Furthermore, assuming first t h a t i n t h e s e c t i o n between azimuths Qi and t h e r e i s a uniformly accelerated motion w i t h an average a c c e l e r a t i o n

-$-

(Bt

B[+lpr

) and secondly t h a t
and

can be found from eq.(4..10)

w i t h re-

spect t o (mheh ) i + l p r

t h e system of equations

e;+ 1p' + e;
e;+1=e;+

A+;

w i l l y i e l d , by t h e i t e r a t i v e method, t h e f i n a l values of B[+l and knowing and we c a l c u l a t e t h e f i n a l values of mh.hiC1 and

Then,

The c a l c u l a t i o n s showed t h a t , with this method, i n t e g r a t i o n can be performed w i t h an i n t e r v a l AQ = 1 2 ' . I n t e g r a t i o n of t h e loads p e r unit l e n g t h over t h e radius, as w e l l as f o r c e s and moments of t h e blade w i t h respect t o azimuth, i s accomplished by t h e trapez o i d a l method. For example,

Here, k i s t h e number of blade s e c t i o n s and n i s t h e number of calculated azimuths.

(Tk= 1 , Tl i s

t h e root section),

Using t h e described method, we then c a l c u l a t e one or two revolutions of t h e r o t o r and compare t h e values of p ' and B" w i t h t h o s e which had been a t this azimuth i n t h e preceding revolution. The obtained value of t, i s compared with t h a t assigned. If t h e s e values do not agree w i t h i n t h e s t i p u l a t e d accuracy, tY*,d i s used f o r r e f i n i n g t h e value of eo and then t h e d i f f e r e n c e tYObt

194

c a l c u l a t i n g another r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r . The c a l c u l a t i o n i s considered completed as soon as t, i s equal t o t h e assigned value, t o t h e required accuracy, and as soon as p and p ' i n t h e l a s t and preceding revolutions coincide

A s a result of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , we determine t h e average f o r c e s and moments p e r revolution, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e c t i o n angles of attack, t h e thrust coe f f i c i e n t , and t h e blade f l a p p i n g angle, which are represented as Fourier s e r i e s with an accuracy t o f i v e terms:
tQ =t

+ 2 (T, cos n+ + sin nci,); B =a, - 2 (a,cos nci,+6, sin nq).


n =1
5

n=l

Only t h e average induced v e l o c i t y over t h e disk, determinable by eq.(3.46'),

was taken i n t o account i n thecalculationswhose r e s u l t s a r e presented below /184. i n Subsections 4 - 7. The blade was considered t o be absolutely r i g i d i n bending
and t o r s i o n . The i n t e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l was 12", t h e number of c a l c u l a t e d r a d i i 12, and = 0.002; t h e accuracy within which t,, p ' , and p had t o coincide was A t , IAp'ImaX = 0.002; lApI,,, = 0.002.

Im.x

A t t h e blade t i p ,

dt dF

and

3 were dF

calculated f o r c y = 0 and cxp corre-

sponding t o c y = 0. A t s e c t i o n s r 0.975, the c a l c u l a t i o n was made without aqy corrections for taking t i p l o s s e s i n t o account. The c a l c u l a t i o n t h e of one f l y i n g regime on a computer performing 20,000 operations p e r second, i s 40 75 sec.

_ _ of P r o f i l e s f o r Rotor Blades 3. Aerodm c Characteristics-

Below we give t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of NACA 230 and NACA 00 prof i l e s and a l s o of a high-speed p r o f i l e s u i t a b l e f o r use a t t h e t i p of h e l i c o p t e r blades. The f i r s t two p r o f i l e s a r e taken a t a relative thickness of 12% and t h e last p r o f i l e , of 9%. The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e s were obtained from t e s t d a t a on a rectangular a i r f o i l model i n a wind tunnel, w i t h conversion t o i n f i n i t e aspect r a t i o and t o f u l l - s c a l e Reynolds numbers taken f o r each Mach by means of eq*(4*19): Re = 60.7M=20 106 M.

($>,"

The aerod namic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e s i n t h e angle of a t t a c k range 2 . 8 . from -2" t o 15;Y and Mach numbers from 0.3 t o 0.9 a r e given i n Tables 2.6

195

TABLE 2.6
PROFILE NACA 23012
2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 -0.085 -0.10 -0.085 -0.085 -0.085 -0.065 -0,065 -0.075 1.0 0.205 0.20 0.225 0.225 0.245 0.285 0.185 0.09

3.5 0.46 0,445 0.485 0,485 0.505 0.43 0.30 0.22 7 0.81 0.80 0.85 0,843 0.715 0.556 0.435 9
~

11
1.21 1.20 1.185 1 .o 0.837 0.675

12.5

14.5

15 1,525 1.42 1.245 1.05 0.915 0.77

CY

1.035 1.01 1 .o 0.94 0,785 0,625 0.490

1.365 1 .525 1.33 1.42 1.24 1.25 1.03 1.048 0.87 0.91 0.715 0.76

0.018 0.023 0.031 0.0765 0.138 0.177 0.185

0.022 0.0355 0.0575 0.128 0.181 0.121

0.029 0.043 0.083: 0.167 0.213 0.253


-

. -

~-

. . .

0.008 0,010 0.015 0.008 0.010 0.015 0.008 0.010 0.019 0.009 0.013: 0.036: 0.008 0.009 0.013 0,027: 0.09 0.0125 0.03 0,067 0.130 0.028 0,049 0.080 0.145 0.069 0.08 0.107:

0.008 0.008 0.008

0.045 0.07 0.121 0.218 0.254 0,294

0.05 0.074 0.130


0.230

0.262 0.304

TABLE 2.7
PROFILE NACA -2

0012
15
~

1
____
~

3.5 0.32 0,645 0.335 0,665 0.355 0.71 0.375 0.75 0.395 0.735 0.40 0.57 0.29 0.50 0.14 0.40 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.0105 0.0185 D .046 D . 0 6 1 D .M95 0.0125 0.0125 0.013 0.021 0.061 D.095 0 ,1065 0.118 0.835 0.85 0.915 0.91 0.81 0.65 0.61 0.56
__

~-

0.3 0.4 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 7 0.8 0.85 0.9


0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0 . 9

-0.185 -0.18 -0.215 -0.215 -0.235 -0.245 -0.19 -0.08 0.009: 0 . 0 0 9 : 0.009: 0.010 0.010 0.0245 0.0415 0.069

0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.0085 0.016 0.036 D.069

0.085 0.095 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.135 0.095 0.02

1.02 1.035 1.08 0.94 0.84 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.021 0 : 0 2 1 0.031 0.074 0.135 0.1675 0.180 0.187

1.155 1,175 1.1 0.95 0.860 0.765

1.34 1.25 1.1 0.96 0.863 0.765

1.39 1.25 1.1 0.965 0.865 0.75

- 3 . 0 3 4 1.080 1.126 1 . 1 8 6 1.221 1.236

0.0165 0.0165 D.0185 0.039 0.0955 0.131 D . 1 4 1 D.149

0.024( 0,024: 0.051 0 . 1 0 9 : 0.167: 0.195

0.029 0.061 0.106 0,171 0.211 0.2285

TABLE 2.8
HIGE-SPEED PFDF1L;E
3.5
-

12.5 14.5
-

7
.

1.1 1.05 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.945

15

CY

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9

-0.065 -0.065 -0.065 -0.065 -0.07 -0.07 -0.12 -0.165 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.012, 0.021
0.044

0.235 0.23 0.245 0.26 0 . 3 0 0 . 3 6 0.325 0.175 0.007 0,007 0.007 0.007 0.0071 0.012 0,026 0.04

0.485 0.485 0.50 0.53 0.60 0.63


0.55

0.46 0.009 0.009 0.0095 0.010 0.015 0.037 0.053 0.069

0,835 0.835 0.86 0.90 0.96 0.81 0.77 0.815 0.011 0.011 0.0125 0.025 0.061 0.092 0.11 0.131

1.035 1.035 1.015 0.98 0.96 0.87 0.86

1.18 1.165 1.115 1.10 1.09 1.06 1.015 1 .o 0.99 0.96 0.965 0.96 0.935 0.935 0.95 0.87 0.89 0.935 - 0.86

0.12 0.142 0.1765 0.195 0.195 0.212:

0.133 0.15 0.1885 0.205 0.221 0.2415

C3P

0.012 0.012 0.046 0.060 0.10 0.128 0.15

0.024: 0.055 0.093 0.110 0.143 0.165 0.19

0,065 0.0975 0.13 0.147: 0.175 0.194

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s whose r e s u l t s a r e given below, when M < 0.3 we took t h e p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r M = 0.3, whereas when M > 0.9 t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and cxp were determined by l i n e a r extrapolation with respect t o M = 0.85 and M = 0.9. If t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s varied within 72' t o 180' and 7 ' t o -180', t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l l p r o f i l e s were determined regardless A t angles of a t t a c k from 1 5 ' t o 72' and from -2' t o -7O, of M from Table 2.9. a l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n w a s made between t h e corresponding values of cy and c X p .

' a

105

170 -0.62 0.04

72

-170 0.77 0.15

-105 0.27 1.08

-85 -0.2 1.08

1--70

CY

CXP

10.35 -0.33 1.1 1.1

I I.

-0.32 -0.62 0.87 0 . 0 4

Figures 2.96 and 2.97 contain graphs of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and cxp as a f u n c t i o n of CY a t a l l t h r e e Mach values. For s e l e c t i n g a p r o f i l e a t a small p o r t i o n of t h e blade ( f o r example, a t

197

t h e t i p p o r t i o n ) , graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e s as a f u n c t i o n of angle of a t t a c k are more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c than t h e p r o f i l e polars, s i n c e t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e examined blade s e c t i o n depends l i t t l e on cy of this s e c t i o n and i s determined mainly by t h e f l i g h t regime (ty,V, a ) and t h e blade shape. Consequently, when t h e p r o f i l e i s changed, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n i s not changed (bearing i n mind t h a t a . of t h e p r o f i l e s d i f f e r by To s e l e c t t h e p r o f i l e f o r a blade as a whole, t h e ' p r o f i l e less than 1 t o 1 . 5 ' ) p o l a r s or t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r o f i l e s constructed as a f u n c t i o n of a cy, are more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

I n Figs.2.98 and 2.99 we have constructed t h e graphs of acr and a* as a f u n c t i o n of t h e Mach number (cy,, i s t h e c r i t i c a l angle of a t t a c k at which cy of t h e s e c t i o n begins t o decrease o r a previous i n c r e a s e stops; cy = cy . X , a+$i s t h e angle of a t t a c k at which a marked i n c r e a s e i n cxp begins, owing flow s e p a r a t i o n o r owing t o wave drag). Since t h e Mach number of t h e blade s e c t i o n i s approximately equal t o

10

M=MoUr=Mo (F+ V sin $)

=F M o + M , ~

sin$,

t h e graphs i n F'igs.2.98 and 2.99 give t h e value of a at which an i n c r e a s e i n p r o f i l e drag begins and separation phenomena appear as a f u n c t i o n of a combinat i o n of M,, , M,, r, and 4 f o r t h e blade section. These graphs w i l l be used i n Subsection 8.

The graphs i n Figs.2.96 and 2.97 i n d i c a t e t h a t , f o r M = 0.3, t h e NACA 23012 p r o f i l e has cy, ~x = 1.53, whereas t h e thinner high-speed p r o f i l e has cy,,, -

For t h e latter, a steep i n c r e a s e i n cxp begins as soon as = 1.18 a t acr = 1 1 ' . a > 10.5'. The NACA 0012 p r o f i l e has c y m a x= 1.4. A t M = 0.6 0.7 and a t average angles of a t t a c k , t h e p r o f i l e characterist i c s are close together, whereas a t M = 0.9 t h e high-speed p r o f i l e i s more advantageous, having t h e lowest value of c X p a t small angles of a t t a c k and a normal slope of dependence of c y o n a .
The results of c a l c u l a t i n g r o t o r p r o f i l e l o s s e s f o r d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s are A t low M,, t h e r o t o r w i t h symmetric NACA 0012 p r o f i l e described i n Section 3.4: and, i n c e r t a i n cases, r o t o r s w i t h t h e t h i n high-speed p r o f i l e on t h e blade t i p have p r o f i l e l o s s e s s e v e r a l percentages lower than r o t o r s with o t h e r p r o f i l e s ; a t high M,, t h e r o t o r w i t h t h e high-speed p r o f i l e at t h e blade t i p d e f i n i t e l y has t h e upper hand. The maximum permissible value of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , i n terms of flow separation (see Subsect.7) of a r o t o r w i t h a NACA 23012 p r o f i l e i s by a f a c t o r 0.02 l a r g e r t h a n f o r a r o t o r with a high-speed p r o f i l e a t t h e blade of 0.01 tip.

/188

The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r o f i l e s should include c o r r e c t i o n s t o account f o r t h e q u a l i t y of manufacture and design features of t h e blades. The p r o f i l e drag as w e l l as t h e quantity cyma. are influenced by t h e f l e x i b i l i t y and roughness of t h e surface ( f a b r i c s k i n o r plywood cover, spacing of ribs), by t h e presence of p r o j e c t i n g p a r t s e s p e c i a l l y near t h e nose of t h e p r o f i l e

19 8

CY

IO

---NACU 0012
--High-speed pro f i 1e

-NflCR 23012

10

Fig.2.96

Lift Coefficient of D i f f e r e n t P r o f i l e s .

10

7 5 Oco

M' 0 . 3

Fig.2 .97

P r o f i l e Drag Coefficient of D i f f e r e n t P r o f i.les

199

(de-icing system, r i v e t s ) , leakage i n t h e j o i n t s of t h e blade segments, and l o c a l deviations from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s e c t i o n p r o f i l e .

On t h e b a s i s of calculations, i t i s recommended t o increase t h e cxp values of t h e p r o f i l e , obtained from model wind-tunnel tests, by Acxp equal to: f o r blades w i t h a nose i n t h e form of a continuous s p a r of metal, p l a s t i c , o r wood and w i t h r i g i d shanks: 0.0 0.001; f o r blades of segments w i t h metal s k i n and ribs: 0.0015 - 0.0025; f o r blades w i t h veneer o r f a b r i c covering: 0.0025 0.005.

One o r another value of AcXp i s selected from t h e i n d i c a t e d i n t e r v a l , depending on t h e q u a l i t y of blade manufacture.

C r i t i c a l Angle of Attack of Fig.2.98 P r o f i l e s as a Function of M.

Angle of Attack a* a t which Fig.2.99 t h e P r o f i l e Drag Begins t o Increase, as a Function of M.

4.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Aerodynamic Forces-over t h e Rotor Disk ~

Only t h e average induced v e l o c i t y over t h e d i s k was taken i n t o account i n 7; t h e e r r o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s whose r e s u l t s are described i n Subsections 4 thus introduced i n t o t h e t o t a l -average c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r revolution a t l a r g e and average values of V i s small. The blade was considered t o be absol u t e l y r i g i d i n bending and twisting. Calculations show t h a t flexural deformat i o n s have p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e average aerodynamic per-revolution c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r whereas p a r t i a l deformations, i f t h e blade i s ins u f f i c i e n t l y r i g i d , do have a noticeable e f f e c t . Preassigned t o r s i o n a l deformat i o n s can be taken i n t o account by s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t o eq.(4.16).

The c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed f o r eight v a r i a n t s of geometric blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , given i n Table 2.10, with t h e following i n i t i a l data: CT =
= 0.091;

/190

Y = 0.9 and 1.2; t h . h = fI1 = k = 0 and 0.4; -aoJ

I2 =

0.

I n this Subsection, we Will e d n e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s 200

TABLE 2 . 1 0

Cho-rd b

No. o f
B1 ade Variant

B1 a& Shape

'

Tip

Taper Ratio

Geometric Twist from

Blade P r o f i l e From Root t o F=0.75 -From

r=O

to

r4.75 t o r-0.85

.From . r=0.85
,to

r=l -

I I
11
Trapezoidal t v n s t e d with high-speed profile

1.82

0.625

2.9

/I

23012

Tr a n s i ti on a1

High-speed,

Rectangular t w i s t e d with high-speed pro.file

1.o

1.o
1 .o

1 .o

23012

T r a n s i t i o n a1

High- s p e e d

Ill

Rectangular twisted

1.0
1 .o

1.0

7 7

NACA 23Q12

IV

Rectangular t w i s t e d with symmetric p r o f i l e

1.o

1.o

NACA
23012

0012

V
VI
VI1

Trapezoidal f l a t w i t h high-speeo profile

1.82

0.625

2.9

Transitional

High- s p e e d

R e c t a n g u l a r with h i g h - s p e e d p r o f i l e and i n c r e a s e d t w i s t Expanding w i t h high- s p e e a profile

1 .o

1.o

1.o

15

23012

Transitional

High- s p e e d

0.59

1,176

0.5

23012

Transitional

High-speed

V I 1 1

I
Rectangular with l a r g e r p o r t i o n o f h i gh- sp eed p r o f i 1e

1.o

1 .o

From r o o t to

r=0.65, 23012

From r=0.65 t o 7=0.75, T r a n s i t i o n a1

From r=0.75 t o . r=l high-speed

over t h e r o t o r disk. The assumption of constancy of induced v e l o c i t y and t h e absence of blade deformations leads t o e r r o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f o r c e s d i s t r i buted over t h e r o t o r disk; consequently, t h e d a t a i n this Subsection are only approximate

Let us examine r o t o r s with blades of v a r i a n t s I and I1 i n two h e l i c o p t e r f l y i n g regimes: one c l o s e t o h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and one c l o s e t o a u t o r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ; both regimes a r e taken at equal l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s t, = 0.16, dimensionless velocity = 0.3, and M, = 0.6. The results of r o t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s i n these regimes are given i n Table 2.11.

TABLE 2.11
t y = 0.16;

._

V = 0.3; Mo = 0.6
~-

H o r i z o n t a1 F1 i g h t

Autorotation
~

Ret t an g u l a r
B1 ade
~~ ~

---

Trapezoidal B1 ade

k=O

k=0.4
.. .

k=O

. .. -

Rectangular . Blade

rr ap e z o i dal B1 ade

k-0
~

k=O
.

k=0.4

k=O

... -~

- 1.4 -0.0048 3.530 0.0180

-9.4 -0.0610 7.820 -0.0095 0.0084 0.0168 0.0997 0.0973


0.0398

-9.4 -0.06103 9.957


-0.0101 0.008698 0.0162 0.09667 0.09535 0.003355 0.006043 -0.003146 -0.000548 -0.000263;

-9.4 -10.3 -0.061 0 -0.065 8.0320 8.45 -0.0079 0.0079 0.0181 0.0949 0. IO8 0.0408 0.0078 -0.0024 0.0005 -0,0062 0,0233 0,0377
-0.0 149
-0.01

1.4 -0.0048 3.576 0.0168 0.00047 0.0129 0.0926 0,06938 0.0367 0.00559 -0.00203 0.0003 0.00014 -0.0053 0.0289 0,0249
-0.01 20

1.4 -0.0048 5.62 0.0172 0.00036 0.01327 0,09247 0,07166 0.00857 0.00515 -0.00269 0.00045 0. oooi7, -0.0054 0.0285 0.0267

0.0069 -0.0025 0.0004 0.0001! -0,0059 0.0219 0.0309 -0.0143 0.0062 0.0033

0.0086 0.0186 0.0958 0.1096 0.0405 0.0076 -0.00276 0.00062 0.0002: 0.00017 -0.00623 0.0227 0,0364 -0.0167 0.00859 0.00407

-0.0001 5 0.0140 0,0877 0.0772 0.0.368 0.0062 -0.0012 0.0003 0.0003


-0.0058 0.0312 0,0300 -0.0138 0.0051 0,0049

0.003116 0.0249 0.03466 -0.00963 0.0062 0,0089

-0.01 53
0,00623 0.00317

0.0078 0.0055

0.00427 0.00348

202

Table 2 . 1 1 shows t h a t , i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , t h e flapping motion of t h e / 1 9 1 . b h d e i s g r e a t e r t h a n i n a u t o r o t a t i o n and t h a t it i s g r e a t e r f o r t h e trapezoidal t h a n for t h e rectangular blade. A comparison of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s w i t h rectangular and t r a p e z o i d a l blades shows t h a t , a t equal CY, t y , and V, t h e r o t o r with t r a p e z o i d a l blades has l a r g e r eo, h, al, b, and a smaller absolute propulsive c o e f f i c i e n t t,; a t equal t,, t y , V (see t h e column with CY = -10.3") t h e r o t o r with t r a p e z o i d a l b l a d e s has a more negative angle of a t t a c k , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e q u a n t i t i e s e,, h, al, bl i n c r e a s e s even more. T h i s i s responsible f o r t h e change i n balancing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a helicopter when t h e t r a p e z o i d a l blades are replaced by rectangular types (for exanple, t h e r e is a decrease i n d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l forward, owing t o a decrease i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e H and i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c,).

0.25

0.55

0.75

0,975 F

Fig.2.100

Angles of Attack of Sections as a Function of Blade Radius.

Figure 2.100 shows graphs of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n angles of a t t a c k of a r o t o r with rectangular blades w i t h respect t o blade radius a t f o u r azimuths: 0, 90, 180, and 270". The s o l i d l i n e s r e f e r t o horizontal f l i g h t and t h e dashed l i n e s t o autorotation.

I n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , t h e angles of a t t a c k are negative a t t h e blade root, a t JI = 0 and 270". A t azimuth JI = 0 when t h e f l a p i n g angle i s small, t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y component equal t o about V(CY + Bp v = V(CY + a, al) v (Fig.2.101) i s l a r g e and d i r e c t e d downward, due t o which t h e angle of a t t a c k a t I = 2.70" t h e t h e blade r o o t i s small o r negative a t this azimuth. A t azimuth ( r o o t s are c l o s e t o t h e zone of t h e backwash and are washed backward and upward. Therefore, they have l a r g e negative angles of a t t a c k .

I n t h e middle and t i p s e c t i o n s of t h e blade, t h e angles of a t t a c k are


203

II11111111-..I.11II

I m

1111111.1

111 I

Plane of.

T ; f l v p i ! & = o
-d

$6= 180"

I"igg.2.1Ol Component of Air Velocit i e s Normal t o Blade k c i s a t Azimuths $ = 0 and $ = 180'.

g r e a t l y influenced by t h e p e r i p h e r a l vel o c i t y of flapping. T h i s i n c r e a s e s t h e angles of a t t a c k a t azimuths of 270' and O', where t h e blade i s s h i f t e d downward and decreases them at azimuths of 90' and 1 8 0 ' . The geometric twist of /192 t h e blade reduces t h e increase i n angles of a t t a c k toward t h e blade t i p a t azimuths of 270' and 0 ' and decreases them even more a t azimuths of 90' and 180'. The angles of a t t a c k are negative a t t h e blade t i p a t azimuth of 90'.

In autorotation, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r i s p o s i t i v e s o t h a t t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade r o o t s e c t i o n s have a l a r g e p o s i t i v e value. A t t h e blade t i p s , t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e sect i o n s are less than i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , s i n c e i n a u t o r o t a t i o n t h e r o t o r has a small p i t c h and less flapping motion.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k over t h e e n t i r e r o t o r d i s k with twisted rectangular blades i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e graph i n Aectangu 1 ar b I ade Fig.2.102 ( h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ) . The v a r i a n t I I , a =-9.4" hatched c i r c l e i n this diagram i s t h e zone of backwash, along whose boundaries t h e s e c t i o n angle of a t t a c k i s c l o s e t o *90. Regions with negative s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k are a l s o shown by hatching. Figure 2.102 shows t h a t , i n t h e zone bounded by azimuths of 270 300' and r e l a t i v e r a d i i 0.7 - 1.0, t h e angles of a t t a c k reach a maximal value ( f o r untwisted blades, t h e angles of attack are maximum a t E; = 1.0). T h i s region, i n which flow separation-takes p l a c e on increase i n t, and V, has a noticeable e f f e c t on r o t o r operation as a whole. I n /193 a u t o r o t a t i o n t h e separation region i s located i n t h e root p o r t i o n ' o f 300'. t h e blade a t azimuths of 200

Calculations show t h a t t h e maximum angles of a t t a c k of a trapez o i d a l blade a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r t h a n those of a rectangular angles of a t t a c k blade. For a r o t o r w i t h a flapping compensator,-the maxi-" a t (r = 270' decrease somewhat.

Fig.2.102 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Angles of Attack over Rotor Disk (Horizontal Flight )

204

The l i n e a r t h r u s t i s extremely unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e r a d i u s and azimuth ( s e e Fig.2.28), which i s responsible f o r t h e occurrence of t h e l a r g e variable bending moments of t h e blade. It follows from Table 2 . l l t h a t , f o r t h e r o t o r w i t h t r a p e z o i d a l blades and f o r t h e r o t o r with a flapping compensator, t h e variable p o r t i o n of t h r u s t increases. The r o t o r with a flapping compensator has a l a r g e r f o u r t h harmonic. These p e c u l i a r i t i e s of r o t o r s must be taken i n t o account when estimating v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of helicopters. The magnitude of t h e variable thrust component depends on t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p ( o r 7 ) : t h e l a r g e r p,, t h e l a r g e r t h e variable component. A t cos JI - t,, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e first harmonic of t h r u s t i s very small; consequently, a t s m a l l spacing of t h e flapping hinges t h e aerodynamic moment of t h e r o t o r relative t o t h e transverse &s m [eq.(4.43)] need not be taken i n t o consideration.
=A

Fig.2.103 Torque Coefficient of Blade vs. Azimuth (Horizontal F l i g h t ) .

Fig.2.104 Acceleration Moment i n ec. X Blade Section dQ = dXPB s i n iP < 0. x cos iP - dY,,,.

The torque c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade m, (Fig.2.103). A t azimuths where t h e 1 1 and I V ) , m, markedly decreases. rants I

v a r i e s g r e a t l y w i t h t h e azimuth e s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k increase (quadI n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, mtQ i s

I 1 1 and I V . This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t , a t t h e s e negative i n t h e azimuths, t h e blade s e c t i o n s have l a r g e p o s i t i v e inflow angles 4 , as a result of which t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e l i f t of t h e blade s e c t i o n i s d i r e c t e d forward and Thus, it i s obvious t h a t , i n produces an a c c e l e r a t i n g moment (Fig.2.104). forward f l i g h t i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, decelerating moments are produced i n t h e 1 and a c c e l e r a t i n g moments i n quadrants I 1 1 and IV (during quadrants I and I v e r t i c a l descent of a h e l i c o p t e r i n a n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, t h e d e c e l e r a t i n g moments are produced by t h e t i p s e c t i o n s of t h e blade and t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g moments by t h e r o o t s e c t i o n s ) .

e quadrants

It should be noted t h a t a very l a r g e variable torque component, i n a r o t o r w i t h t h e usual s t a g g e r of drag hinges (rv..,< 0.05), produces a small (within 1") flapping motion relative t o t h e drag hinges, s i n c e t h e eigenfrequency of blade o s c i l l a t i o n i s by a f a c t o r of about 4 lower t h a n t h e r o t o r rpm, i.e., t h e frequency of change of m,

4-

I n Section 2, we noted t h a t , a t equal t y ,t,, and 7, t h e quantity m, does not depend on t h e amplitude of c y c l i c change of blade p i t c h , whereas a change

&&

o f mte with respect t o azimuthdoes.

Actually, as shown i n Fig.2.103,

for a

r o t o r with a flapping compensator m, d i f f e r s w i t h respect t o magnitude and Jf phase

5 . Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor
The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r are presented i n graphs i n i h e form of t h e dependence t, = f(mt) with parameters t , , a a t Mi, = const ( o r V = = const), M, = const. These graphs are convenient f o r detem&ning t h e coeffic i e n t s t,, m,, and t h e angle of a t t a c k a from values of M,, V, M , , t, known from a n aerodynamic calculation.

Fig.2.105

(Mfl = 0.0975;

Aeroaynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor = 0 . 1 5 ; M, = 0.65; 0 = 0.091).

Such graphs f o r a r o t o r with rectangular twisted blades with a high-speed 1 of blades) are shown f o r M, = 0.65 i n p r o f i l e at t h e t i p (variant I 2.109. Figs.2.105

We see from t h e graphs t h a t t h e dependence of t h e propulsive c o e f f i c i e n t t, on t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t m, i s p r a c t i c a l l y r e c t i l i n e a r , with t h e exception of near-separation values of t, a t negative t,, where t h e rate of increment of m, i n c r e a s e s owing t o a n i n c r e a s e i n p r o f i l e l o s s e s . I n t h e s e cases, c m v e s with
206

d i f f e r e n t t, become nonequidistant The i n t e r v a l between t h e curves i n c r e a s e s with increasing t,, which can a l s o be a t t r i b u t e d t o an increase i n p r o f i l e l o s s e s with increasing t,. Curves corresponding t o very small values of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t /195 0.08) c l o s e l y approach or i n t e r s e c t t h e curves corresponding t o l a r g e values of t,. This means t h a t a decrease i n r o t o r t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t ( f o r example, when using a wing on a h e l i c o p t e r ) t o t, = 0.08 and l e s s i t not recommended since, i n this case, t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r does not increase. The upward d e f l e c t i o n of t h e curves with smallt, upon a decrease i n m , shows t h a t , a t small t,, t h e r o t o r i s not i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.

(t, < 0.1

tr
0.Oj

0.02

0.01

-0.01

-0.02

-0.0;
Fig.2.106

(Mfl = 0.13;

Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor = 0.2; Mo = 0.65; B = 0 . 0 9 1 ) .

The advantages of t h e described graphs comprise: simple shape of t h e curves, f a c i l i t y of i n t e r p o l a t i o n upon v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t,, and With t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of using them f o r d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o s (see Sect.6). t h e use of t h e s e graphs f o r c a l c u l a t i n g balancing and s t a b i l i t y , we can determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t and h by means of t h e conversion formulas (3.15) and

(3.17)
To determine r o t o r p i t c h i n t h e calculation, we use t h e dependence 8 , =
= f(m,) with t h e j a r m e t e r t, a t V = const, M b = const, o r t, = f ( a ) with t h e , a t V = const, Mo = const. The graphs of t h e r e l a t i o n t, = f ( a ) a r e parameter 8

207

I I I

I I

'\I p

.'I

ZOO;

;c,

I I I I 1

I I I

-1
-1

I 1 1 I I I I

i
&

I
I

F'ig.2.107 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Rotor ( M i l = 0.195; T = 0.3; M O = 0.65; o = 0.091).

T
I
mt

I
I

>

Tz

Fi . 2 . 1 0 8 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Rotor = 0.4; M, = 0.65; o = 0.091). ?Nil = 0.26;

208

shown i n Figs.2.115

and 2.116.

The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s w i t h blades of d i f f e r e n t shapes a r e not presented here since, w i t h t h e accepted assumption that r e g a r d l e s s of blade shape t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s d i s t r i b u t e d uniforgly over t h e r o t o r disk, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t m, at given ty, t,, V, M, i s determined e n t i r e l y by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m p r . Therefore, our conclusions concerning t h e e f f e c t of blade shape obtained i n examining graphs of mPr i n Section 3.3 r e d n unchanged.

0.005

I I I I I -aooslI I I

!
i

1i
\

- 0,010 '.
-0,015

t
1
Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor

-I1

Fig.2.109

(Mfl = 0.325;

v = 0.5;

M,

0.65;

CT =

0 . 0 9 1 ) .

6. k o d y n a m i c - C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Rotor i n Autorotation Regime


The graphs of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r of t h e v a r i a n t I1 i n an autor o t a t i o n regime - p o l a r s t, = f ( t x 0 ), r o t o r performance K,, p i t c h e ,, and angle 2.U3. of a t t a c k a, - a r e shown i n Figs.2.110

The graphs i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r o t o r performance i s lower than t h a t of 5 Wing ( f o r more d e t a i l s on r o t o r performance see Sect.7 of Chapt.11). A t small V, a u t o r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r t a k e s p l a c e a t l a r g e p o s i t i v e angles of a t t a c k . Upon an i n c r e a s e i n r o t o r r p m (of M,) t h e r o t o r performance drops, t h e p i t c h decreases, and t h e angle of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e s .

It i s known that a u t o r o t a t i o n of a r o t o r i s p o s s i b l e i n t h e absence of forward speed and at any low f l y i n g speed. Therefore, t h e minimal permissible speed of an autogiro or h e l i c o p t e r on engine failure i s not determined by flow s e p a r a t i o n at t h e wing, c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y l o s s or spinning, as would be t h e case i n r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t , but by t h e permissible v e r t i c a l rate of descent. I n v e r t i c a l descent, t h e r o t o r develops approxbmtely t h e same drag as a p l a t e ( c , = = 1.28) with an area equal t o t h e r o t o r d i s k area, with t h e v e r t i c a l speed of
209

403

a04

Q05

txc
(CJ=

Fig.2.110

Polar of Rotor i n Autorotation Regime

0.091).

0 . 0 8

0.10

0.12

0.14

0 . 1 6

0.18
(0

u 1 Rotor Performance i n Autorotation Regime Fig.2 .

0.091).

210

Fig.2.1l-2

Rotor P i t c h i n Autorotation Regime.

Fig.2.113

Angle of Attack of Rotor i n Autorotation Regime ( 0 = 0.091).

descent of a n aubogiro being

vyz

1/

G
112-1.28 @OAF

I n autogiros, t h e value of p was small and t h e i r r a t e of v e r t i c a l descent

was low.
Figure 2.104 shows t h a t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n (negative) moment i n a n auto/x)o r o t a t i o n regime i s created by t h e p r o j e c t i o n of l i f t ; consequently, autorotat i o n i s not p o s s i b l e a t small r o t o r l i f t . Figure 2 . 1 & gives a graph of ft&in the m i n i " l i f t coefficient i n 0,ro ) , =, which i s a u t o r o t a t i o n ( tyc e i t h e r t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n limit or t h e value of t, a t which a u t o r o t a t i o n is qos generated at very l a r g e angles of a70 0.20 0.30 0 . 4 0 ii a t t a c k and negative p i t c h . Fig.2.1&

M i n i " Lift Coefficient i n Autorotation Regime.

I n a h e l i c o p t e r with a l a r g e wing, t h e r o t o r l i f t markedly de-

creases during autorotation, and, s i n c e t h e r o t o r cannot have a very small c o e f f i c i e n t t,, a u t o r o t a t i o n occurs a t a lower rpm t h a n i n h e l i c o p t e r regimes.

To estimate t h e influence of t h e geometric blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime of a helicopter, we p r e s e n t t h e following data. A t optimum g l i d i n g speed (7 = 0.2) when M o = 0.7 f o r a h e l i c o p t e r with a r o t o r not having a high-speed p r o f i l e a t t h e blade t i p , t h e v e r t i c a l rate of descent increases by 1 . 7 m/sec and t h e f l i g h t - p a t h angle efl., by 2'; t h e p i t c h . 8 ' while t h e p i t c k should be 0.5' smaller. The angle of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e s by 1 i n g moment i s r e t a i n e d (AS Brr + A0, l.p 0)

A t M, = 0.6, t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n a u t o r o t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s less by a f a c t o r of 2 - 3.
Change-over t o t r a p e z o i d a l b h d e s reduces t h e v e r t i c a l rate of descent by

0.65 m/sec and t h e f l i g h t - p a t h angle by 0.8'. 7 . E m i t of Permissible Helicopt-e-r FgEht--@gime.s


lFlow S a a r a t i o n W t )

As shown i n Subsection 4, a r o t o r with flapping hinges has areas with l a r g e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade sections. I n h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes (horiz o n t a l f l i g h t , g a i n i n a l t i t u d e ) t h e s e a r e located at t h e blade t i p a t azimuths 300' and i n t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, at t h e blade r o o t at azimuths of of 270 200 300'.

212

An increase i n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t t, causes formation of a zone of superc r i t i c a l angles of a t t a c k on t h e r o t o r .


Furthermore, t h e r o t o r d i s k contains zones of high and s u p e r c r i t i c a l angles of a t t a c k , a t s i t e s where t h e blade passes close t o v o r t i c e s shed by t h e preceding blades. Here t h e blade e n t e r s a region of high upward-directed l o c a l induced v e l o c i t i e s causing a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e angles of a t t a c k of i n d i v i d u a l sections.

A s soon as t h e zones of s r p e r c r i t i c a l angles of a t t a c k become large, t h e / a 1 r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s change noticeably: The dependence of t, on t h e p i t c h and upward angle of a t t a c k becomes nonlinear, and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of flapping, l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l forces, and p r o f i l e drag of t h e r o t o r all increase.
The limit of permissible regimes with respect t o flow separation conditions i s determined by t h e magnitude of t h e r o t o r l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t t, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e average level of t h e s e c t i o n angles of attack, by t h e v e l o c i t y c o e f f i c i e n t V characterizing t h e degree of nonuniformity of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k over t h e rot,or disk, by t h e r o t o r angle of a t t a c k determining t h e character of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e c t i o n angles of attack, and a l s o by t h e blade shape and t h e s e p a r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i t s p r o f i l e . From t h e e q r e s s i o n s for t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, and

i t i s obvious t h a t , on a decrease i n r o t o r rpm and a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed and a l t i t u d e , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and V Will i n c r e a s e so t n a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r may e n t e r a flow-separation regime. The phenomenon associated with flow s e p a r a t i o n
a t t h e r o t o r blades can be stopped r a p i d l y by decreasing t h e p i t c h , increasing t h e r o t o r rpm, and reducing t h e f l y i n g speed.
Deep p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e flow-separation zone sometimes ends i n catastrophe f o r t h e helicopter. One of t h e most important problems of s e l e c t i n g t h e helicopter parameters i n designing and determining i t s f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s t o ensure absence of flow s e p a r a t i o n i n a l l permitted f l y i n g regimes. Owing t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e n t e r i n g t h e flow-separation zone, t h e &mum f l y i n g speeds and a l t i t u d e are l i m i t e d on h e l i c o p t e r s and any decrease i n r o t o r r p m below a n established limit i s i m p e d s s i b l e . I n order t o avoid flow separation a t high f l y i n g speeds, a wing i s i n s t a l l e d on h e l i c o p t e r s t o reduce r o t o r l i f t . F l i g h t tests show t h a t flow s e p a r a t i o n manifests i t s e l f by a n i n c r e a s e i n blade stresses and i n blade hinge moments, i n c r e a s e i n h e l i c o p t e r vibrations, imbalance of t h e helicopter, and d e t e r i o r a t i o n . of c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y . Consequently, t h e manifestations of flow s e p a r a t i o n d i f f e r widely and are c o q l e x f o r determining t h e limit of s e p a r a t i o n by c a l c u l a t i o n . F l i g h t tests and wind-tunnel tests of r o t o r s y i e l d i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e o v e r a l l limit of

213

flow separation. Therefore, t h e l i m i t i n g values of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s t,,, obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n are given below. Calculated graphs of permissible values of t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s are given i n t h e literature ( R e f .20, &). In t h e first of t h e s e papers, t h e l i m i t i n g f l i g h t regime i s t h a t regime a t which t h e average l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade a t azimuth JI = 270' becomes equal t o t h e maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e prof i l e c y m a x . I n t h e second paper, t h e c r i t e r i o n of flow separation i n h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes i s taken as t h e e q u a l i t y of t h e angle of a t t a c k at t h e blade t i p a t azimuth $ = 270' t o some c r i t i c a l value cy,, : c y , = 12' i n a regime corresponding t o t h e start of separation phenomena, and cy,, = 16' at t h e l i m i t i n g f l i g h t regime with a l a r g e separation zone.

A shortcoming of both methods i s t h a t one does not know how t o s e l e c t cYmrx or CY,, f o r a blade w i t h a set of p r o f i l e s . Furthermore, t h e degree of nonunifo-ty of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e angles of a t t a c k over t h e r o t o r d i s k depends /202 on V; at t, = tYor and a t l a r g e t h e zone of increased angles of a t t a c k occum a l l 7. Therefore, t h e appearance p i e s a smaller p o r t i o n of t h e d i s k than at s of s u p e r c r i t i c a l angles of a t t a c k a t l a r g e V has a-less pronounced influence on t h e change i n r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a n a t small V; this i s not taken i n t o account i n t h e method presented i n t h e second paper (Ref.&).

v,

-20

-I5

Change of Coefficient t, as a Function of Fig.2.115 Angle of Attack and P i t c h of Rotor (7 = 0.2; M, = 0.7).

In t h e separation limits constructed below, i t i s assumed t h a t t h e permissible magnitude of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, i s t h e value at which t h e character of t h e dependence of t, on t h e angle of a t t a c k and p i t c h of t h e r o t o r begins t o change. Such limits are constructed f o r rotors with d i f f e r e n t geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

214.

-75
/

-70

-5

Change i n Coefficient 5 as a Function of Fig.2.116 Rotor Angle of Attack and P i t c h ( V = 0.4; M , = 0.7).

-20

-1:

-10

-5

d*

-20

-15

-10

-5

me

Dmendence of Coefficients Fig.2.ll7 of IongitudiAal and Lateral Forces h and s and o f Flapping al Snd bl on Rotor Angle of Attack ( V = 0.4; M, = 0.7; e, = 1 1 , ) .

Fig.2.U Dependence of Coefficients of Torque m, and P r o f i l e Power mpr on Rotor Angle of Attack = 0.4;

M ,

0.7; 8 ,

1 1 " ) .

(v

215

IIIIIIIII I I

on t h e basis of c a l c u l a t i o n s by t h e method presented i n Subsection 2.

Figures 2.115 and 2.116 give graphs f o r t h e dependence of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, on t h e angle of a t t a c k and p i t c h of a r o t o r w i t h blades of t h e variant 1 1 , at a Figure 2.115 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , a t flapping compensator c o e f f i c i e n t of k = 0.4. V = 0.2 when t, reaches a c e r t a i n value, t h e i n c r e a s e i n t, p r a c t i c a l l y stops. The c o e f f i c i e n t t, has a l i g i t i n g value which i t cannot exceed a t any cy and 0;. Thus, because of t h e small V, t h e flow separation extends over a l a r g e zone and t h e r e i s a marked change i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Since t h e i n c i p i e n t d e f l e c t i o n of t h e curve from t h e l i n e a r segment i s not well-defined, we w i l l use,at V = 0.2 and f o r tYc,, a value of t, less t h a n t h e maxi" by a n amount corresponding t o Acu = 2' (At, = 0.01).

A 4 7 = 0, t h e maximum p o s s i b l e value of t, i s taken f o r t,, (Sect.8). A t l a r g e V (see Fig.2.116), t h e increase i n t, w i t h respect t o cy markedly slows down a t some value of t,,. The value of t, a t which t h e curve d e v i a t e s from t h e c u = 0.5' i s taken f o r tYcr l i n e a r l a w by b
Figures 2.115 and 2.116 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e w a n t i t y t Y ca rt given depends l i t t l e on t h e r o t o r angle of a t t a c k .
and M,

tJ.,,

0.35

0.30

0.25

Figures 2.11'7 and 2.118 give graphs f o r t h e dependence of t h e coeffi/204. c i e n t s of l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l f o r c e s h and s, flapping al and bl torcpe m,, and p r o f i l e power mpr on t h e r o t o r angle of a t t a c k . These coeffic i e n t s a l s o change when t, = t,,, : The f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r and t h e flapping motion of t h e blades i n c r e a s e backward and t o t h e s i d e of t h e advancing blade (4 = 90), and t h e p r o f i l e power coeffic i e n t i n c r e a s e s markedly. The v a r i a b l e p o r t i o n of r o t o r t h r u s t , i.e., t h e second and higher harmonics, a l s o increases s u b s t a n t i a l l y .

0.20

0.15

Thus, at > 0, t h e value of t y o r i s smaller t h a n t h e maxi" p o s s i b l e values of t,; however, i t can be assumed t h a t , as soon as t, = tYcr , the.abovementioned phenomena associated with flow s e p a r a t i o n w i l l become manifest. The-curve f o r t h e dependence of on V and M , i s p l o t t e d i n fig.2.119. t ~ rc It i s obvious t h a t t h e quantity t Y cder

F'ig.2.U9 Dependence of tYcr on and M, (Rectangular Twisted Rotor w i t h Kgh-Speed P r o f i l e a t t h e Blade Tip).

creases g r e a t l y upon a n increa,se in-7. A t small and m e d i u m 7 , t,,, decreases with i n c r e a s i n g Mor whereas at l a r g e V t h e e f f e c t of M , is insignificant.

tycr

0.35

c r, a

0 . 3 0

0.25,

I1.-:
I

I0.ZOj

0.15 I 0

I0 . 1 0

Fig.2.120

Dependence of tyor on

of Rotors with

Blades of Different Shapes (M, = 0.4.).

0.3

r V of Rotors with Fig. 2 . l a Dependence of t Y con Blades of Different Shapes (M, = 0.7).

217

Figures 2.120 and 2.121 give graphs of tyc, f o r blades w i t h d i f f e r e n t geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The r o t o r w i t h rectangular blades of NACA 230 p r o f i l e (variant 1 1 1 ) has t h e l a r g e s t value of tYc,. The sane r o t o r with a high-speed p r o f i l e at t h e t i p ( v a r i a n t 1 1 ) has values of tYcr smaller by 0.01 0.02. An

i n c r e a s e i n geometric twist of t h e blade i n c r e a s e s tYc, by approximately 0.01 (variant IV). The r o t o r w i t h t r a p e z o i d a l blades ( v a r i a n t I) has t h e smallest value of t Y c r . The graphs of tYcr a re approximate and obtained by calculation, but t h e y do permit t h e h e l i c o p t e r designer t o determine t h e Limit of safe f l y i n g speeds before conducting s p e c i a l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t tests. F l i g h t tests show t h a t we can o b t a i n a s l i g h t l y l a r g e r value of t, than t h e calculated values of tYcr This i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t our accq$ed tYcr a re smaller t h a n t h e m a x i mum p o s s i b l e values of ty, and a l s o by t h e f a c t t h a t f a c t o r s t h a t increase cy,,, w e r e not taken i n t o account i n t h e calculations, namely effect of c e n t r i f u g a l /206 f o r c e s on t h e boundary l a y e r and unsteady f l o w through t h e r o t o r blades.

8. D i s t r i b u t i o n of. P r o f i l e h s s e s Over. Rotor Disk.


Dependence of P r o f i l e Losses on Aerody-wnic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Blade P r o f i l e s I n Section 3.3 we examined graphs of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of r o t o r p r o f i l e l o s s e s . Let us define t h e extent of influence of aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade p r o f i l e , p e r i p h e r a l speed, and blade shape on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r o f i l e l o s s e s over t h e r o t o r d i s k and t h e i r t o t a l magnitude. to

EtMg

The required power of t h e r o t o r , r e f e r r e d t o all-up weight, i s proportional [see eq.(5.16) i n Chapt.1111:

where

3 m, M ; =const2+mppMn .

Thus, t h e required power of a h e l i c o p t e r a t given M f l , c c s i s determined + by t h e quantity &,MZ

H, p =

G F,

c,

c a l c u l a t e d at values of CYME and C,Mg

corresponding t o t h e given q u a n t i t i e s . For example, a h e l i c o p t e r has a load p e r square meter of t h e r o t o r d i s k area of p = 35 kg/m2 and a p a r a s i t e drag coeffic i e n t of E, = 0.0075; t h e calculated (operating) f l i g h t regime i s V = 275 km/h.r a t a height of H = 1000 m. Under t h e s e conditions, t h e dimensionless coeffic i e n t s of a h e l i c o p t e r are equal t o
2 CyMo =JL =0.00545;

'/,ea2

218

Fig.2.122

Angle of Attack a t Blade Tip S e c t i o n as a Function of M, f o r Three Values of P e r i p h e r a l Rotor Speed ( G ) .

100

200

300

v*

Fig.2.123 P r o f i l e Iosses i n Blade Tip S e c t i o n as a Function of Azimuth P o s i t i o n of Blade, f o r Three Values of Rotor P e r i p h e r a l Speed (&)

Mfl

=a

=0.227;

Let us give t h e results of c a l c u l a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e t i p s e c t i o n of F'ig.2.122 i s a graph f o r t h e angle of a t t a c k change of t h e t h e blades F = 0.975. t i p s e c t i o n of a r e c t a n g u l a r blade ( v a r i a n t 1 1 , o = 0.091) with respect t o azimuth, p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of M of t h e s e c t i o n f o r three values of t h e p e r i p h e r a l speed ( G ) . We see from t h e graphs that t h e s e c t i o n has l a r g e angles of . By means of t h e s e a t t a c k at small M and small negative angles at l a r g e M graphs, i t i s easy t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n of flow s e p a r a t i o n zones a t increased p r o f i l e drag. For this, it i s necessary t o p l o t t h e curves of aor and f o r t h e p r o f i l e of t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d s e c t i o n ( s e e Figs.2.98 and 2.99) on t h e graphs i n Fig.2.122. I & i s obvious t h a t , f o r a high-speed p r o f i l e and f o r I $ , = = 0 . 7 (wR = 235 m/sec, V = 0.325, t, = 0.1228) t h e maximurn angles of a t t a c k a r e low ( 1 . 5 ' lower t h a n t h e c r i t i c a l values) but at azimuths 4 = 35 a 0 ' deep p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e region of hi h cXp t a k e s place. A t Mo = 0.655 (wR = = 2x) m/sec, V = 0.347, t, = O.l.47 t h e m a x i " angles of a t t a c k a r e close t o c r i t i c a l and t h e r e a r e two zones of high p r o f i l e drag: a t azimuths Jr = 55 120' 0 when cy = 10 5' and M = 0.41 0.62. When M , = and at azimuths I/I = 270 ' = 0.61 (wR = 205 m/sec, V = 0.373, t, = 0.161) t h e t i p s e c t i o n a t azimuths JI = = 250 350' p e n e t r a t e s i n t o t h e flow-separation zone and i n t o t h e zone of high p r o f i l e drag. There are no i n c r e a s e s of p r o f i l e l o s s e s a t l a r g e M a t azimuth /208. J, = 90'.

The p e r m i s s i b i l i t y of deeper p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e t i p s e c t i o n i n t o t h e flows e p a r a t i o n zone from t h e p o i n t of view of r o t o r behavior as a whole i s characIn conformity with this graph, a f l i g h t t e r i z e d by t h e graph i n Fig.2.119. regime w i t h M , = 0.61 i s permissible.

A s shown above, t h e required power of a h e l i c o p t e r and t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s of t h e r o t o r are determined by t h e quantity mpr@ which, f o r t h e examined sect i o n , i s equal t o

(4.53)
Figure 2.123 gives The i n t e g r a l of eq.(k.53 raphs f o r t h e product c x P p p l o t t e d a g a i n s t azimuth. i s equal t o (Table 2.12):

TABLE 2.12

220

Consequently, t h e g r e a t e s t p r o f i l e l o s s e s i n t h e s e c t i o n under study o c c w a t M, = 0.7 and t h e smallest losses, a t M, = 0.61. A t M, = 0.655, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s a r e somewhat g r e a t e r than a t M, = 0.61, but l o c a l separation phenomena a r e abserrt. N o w l e t us assume that we w e r e t o change t h e p r o f i l e i n this section. Its angles of a t t a c k would then change s l i g h t l y , w h i l e t h e zone of flow separation and high p r o f i l e losses might change s u b s t m t i a l 7 y . The curves of CY,, and CY" are a l s o p l o t t e d i n FSg.2.122 f o r t h e NACA 23012 p r o f i l e . Obviously, a t a l l M, t h e s e c t i o n would have no separation zones b u t would have a l a r g e zone of high Especially high Will be t h e 0 170'. p r o f i l e l o s s e s at azimuths Q = 280 0.2. Since cy, < CY^, a t l o s s e s at Jr = 90, where M i s g r e a t e r than Mc, by 0.1 a l l J r , t h e rpm of a r o t o r with this p r o f i l e could be reduced.

- -

Thus, t h e graph i n Fig.2.122 gives t h e optimum dependence of CY,, and M of t h e p r o f i l e , f o r t h e s e c t i o n under study a t one of t h e design f l i g h t regimes.

c y "

on

For example, t h e r o t o r p r o f i l e l o s s e s would decrease i f t h e p r o f i l e had M o r = 0.9 a t cy = 0 w h i l e retaining CY$* = 7.5 - 5.5' a t M = 0.5 - 0 . 6 . Then t h e b e s t r o t o r rpm would correThe t h i n spond t o M, = 0.7. symnetr i c high-speed p r o f i l e has a high value of Mor a t CY = 0, but a law value of cy" a t M = 0.5 - 0 . 6 .
= 0.8 a t cy 0 and = = l l + at M = 0 . 4 . 0.6

The p r o f i l e with M , , =

- 7"

0.4

0.5

0 . 6

47

0.8

Fig.2.124 Angle of Attack of Blade Tip Section a s a Function of Mach Number.

would be s u i t a b l e f o r t h e examined f l i g h t regime f o r t h e A highly case of M, = 0.61. concave p r o f i l e with a small r e l a t i v e thickness does have such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; however, i t s use would considerably increase blade t o r s i o n and cont r o l s s t r e s s of t h e helicopter.

I n s e l e c t i n g t h e p r o f i l e , it must be considered t h a t t h e dependence CY, = Figure 2.124 gives a graph f o r a regime corresponding t o f l i g h t close t o t h e dynamic c e i l i n g : M,, = = 0.122; C$lz = 0.0103, C,Mg =' -0.00012, M, = 0.7. W e see from Fig.2.124 t h a t , i n this regime, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s a r e very high. I n conformity with Fig.2.ll9, this regime l i e s a t t h e boundary of flow separation. I n hovering f l i g h t near /209 t h e ground, at a lower p e r i p h e r a l speed, t h e examined s e c t i o n W i l l have CY, = = 2.7', M = 0.65.
= f ( M ) W i l l be d i f f e r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes. By s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n of blade shape, a c e r t a i n influence can be exerted on t h e change in angles of a t t a c k at t h e blade t i p with respect t o azimuth and a b e t t e r combination can be obtained of t h e dependence CY, = f(M) with t h e p r o f i l e

221

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A s t y p i c a l example, t h e t i p s e c t i o n of blades of t h e V I (rectangular w i t h increased twist) and = -0.013, D = 0.4, Mo = 0.7.

raph of cy, = f ( M ) f o r I1 (rectangular), a t t, = 0.12, t, =

I I I I 1 I 1

II II
I I 1 1 1 I 1

I
1 I I I

I1
I.

+t
I I

I I

$ &
I1

&

iI
I

I I

71 I

A n g l e of Attack of Blade Tip Section as a Fig.2.125 Function of Mach Number, f o r Rotors with Blades of Different Shapes.
Figure 2.125 shows t h a t t h e t r a p e z o i d a l blade, f o r which a reduction of chord at t h e t i p (Etia < 1) l e a d s t o a decrease i n p r o f i l e losses, has t h e The expanding blade, a t t h e s e values 0.7. l a r g e s t angles of a t t a c k at M = 0.4 of M, has angles of a t t a c k by ' 1 lower than those of t h e rectangular blade. The blade w i t h increased twist has angles of a t t a c k by 1.7' lower a t a l l azimuths than those of o t h e r blade v a r i a n t s .

The i n t e g r a l i n eq.(4.53)

should be calculated t o o b t a i n a quantitative

estimate of t h e e f f e c t of a change of blade shape and p r o f i l e . It i s c l e a r from t h e foregoing t h a t t h e azimuthal d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r o f i l e l o s s e s i n each blade s e c t i o n depends on f l i g h t regime, p e r i p h e r a l speed, and blade p r o f i l e . Main emphasis should be placed on s e l e c t i n g a suitable p r o f i l e i n t h e blade t i p sections, where t h e l a r g e s t p r o f i l e l o s s e s OCCLW. For i l l u s t r a t i o n , ~ig.2.126 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r o f i l e l o s s e s over t h e radius of a blade of v a r i a n t I1 f o r M,, = 0.227, M, = 0.655 a t four azimuths, as w e l l as t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e average circumferential p r o f i l e l o s s e s over t h e blade radius. Figure 2.126 i n d i c a t e s t h a t about 35% of p r o f i l e l o s s e s are accounted f o r by t h e t i p p o r t i o n of t h e blade from F = 1.0 t o F = 0.9.
Section

/210

5. Vortex Theory of Rotor

1 . Problems i n Vortex Theory


The main problem i n t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y of a r o t o r l i e s i n t h e determination 222

of aerodynamic loads on t h e blade, w i t h consideration of t h e nonuniform induced velocity f i e l d . The s o l u t i o n of this problem permits:

1 . Refining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r . These refinements are less important f o r t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r and more important f o r multirotor- helicopters, where t h e mutual induced e f f e c t i s very strong and has a s u b s t a n t i a l influence on t h e i r f l i g h t characteristics.
2. Determining both t h e constant and v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads of /211 t h e blade and from t h e s e loads calcul a t i n g t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade anti i t s deformations. Without cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , any determination of t h e v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads on t h e blade i n a number of f l i g h t regimes i s quite inaccurate. Therefore, t h e r o t o r vortex theory must introduce t h e component of blade o s c i l l a t i o n s and t h e determination of variable s t r e s s e s i n t o t h e calculation, i.e., i n t o t h e stress a n a l y s i s of t h e blade.
O n l y by means of t h e vortex theory i s it p o s s i b l e t o explain such phenomena as t h e marked i n c r e a s e i n variable loads on t h e blade and v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n low-speed regimes as w e l l as t h e appearance of l o c a l flow separation zones a t medium and high speeds.

- ~ ~ e e i

.NAY 73012

profil

0.50

0.75

7 . 0 5;

I n low-speed regimes, t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y nonuniform. T h i s leads t o t h e occurrence of appreciable variable aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade. The blades begin t o vibrate at increasing amplitude. Extensive v a r i a b l e stresses are set up i n t h e blades. The v a r i a b l e f o r c e s t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e blades t o t h e hub l e a d t o increased v i b r a t i o n s of t h e e n t i r e helicopter. The explanation of this phenomenon i s p o s s i b l e only by making use of t h e vortex theory.
A t high and medium f l y i n g speeds, a phenomenon i s observed which we can c a l l induced flow separation. This phenomenon i s a consequence of l a r g e induced v e l o c i t i e s a r i s i n g i n t h e region of v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade t i p s . When t h e next blades p a s s below t h e s e v o r t i c e s , appreciable surges i n aerodynamic loads and, i n c e r t a i n regimes, even flow s a r a t i o n are created. T h i s phenomenon was p a r t i a l l y described elsewhere (Ref and has been confirmed i n f l i g h t tests.

Fig.2.126 D i s t r i b u t i o n of P r o f i l e Losses over Blade Radius.

. 1 3

223

A no less important problem of t h e vortex theory i s t h e determination of %he induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d caused by t h e r o t o r i n t h e stream flowing p a s t t h e h e l i c o p t e r and i t s i n d i v i d u a l components i n f l i g h t .
The character of flow p a s t t h e wings of a helicopter, i t s fuselage, and s t a b i l i z e r i s l a r g e l y determined by t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d induced by t h e r o t o r . The occurrence of induced v e l o c i t i e s leads t o a d d i t i o n a l d o w a s h and t o a change i n t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k of t h e l i f t i n g elements and hence i n t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on a l l o u t e r surfaces of t h e h e l i c o p t e r components. Therefore, t o study t h e flow around t h e s e p a r t s , it i s necessary t o determine t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s at various p o i n t s i n t h e space surrounding t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Thus, t h e vortex theory permits determining t h e induced d o w a s h i n t h e region of t h e h e l i c o p t e r wing and i t s s t a b i l i z e r and hence t h e aerodynamic forces a c t i n g on them. Therefore, t h e theory a l s o introduces t h e following components i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : balancing of t h e helicopter, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i t s s t a b i l i t y , and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y features i n which t h e s e f o r c e s p l a y a s u b s t a n t i a l r o l e . There are o t h e r phenomena f o r whose c a l c u l a t i o n t h e vortex theory i s used. A s u f f i c i e n t l y d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of a l l t h e s e phenomena i s p o s s i b l e only i n s p e c i a l works. Therefore, i n this Section we Will give only a brief account of t h e most important elements of the vortex theory, without d e t a i l e d substantiations.

2. Theoretical Schemes f o r t h e Vortex Theory of a Rotor with a F'inite NmBer of Blades


I n t h e vortex theory, t h e r o t o r i s replaced by a system of bound and free v o r t i c e s . T h i s system can be represented by a vortex s h e e t covered with horseshoe v o r t i c e s ( s e e Fig.2.128). The /212 s e m e n t s of t h e s e eddies located a t t h e blade are known as bound v o r t i c e s . Y L f Depending on t h e purpose of t h e calcul a t i o n , we can use schemes i n which t h e blade i s replaced e i t h e r by a bound l i f t i n g vortex ( l i f t i n g - l i n e b scheme), o r by a bound v o r t i c i t y l a y e r (scheme of a l i f t i n g - v o r t e x surface). I n t h e l a t t e r case (Fig.2.127), t h e Fig.2.127 Flow around Blade P r o f i l e blade i s replaced by a system of bound i n Scheme of Efting-Vortex Surface. v o r t i c e s d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e blade chord with some s t r e n g t h y b SO t h a t

c$-j

*c-3-

where

r = velocity

c i r c u l a t i o n over a contour encompassing t h e blade s e c t i o n

( Fig. 2.128) ;

YbO

= c i r c u l a t i o n p e r u n i t l e n g t h of t h e bound v o r t i c e s d i s t r i b u t e d over

t h e p r o f i l e chord.

22&

1 1 I

The scheme of a l i f t i n g - v o r t e x surface more accurately r e f l e c t s t h e p h y s i c a l p a t t e r n of f l a w around t h e blade but i s more complex i n calculations. Therefore, t o simplify calculations, t h e l i f t i n g - v o r t e x surface i s o f t e n replaced by a l i f t i n g - v o r t e x l i n e . I n determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a t a s u f f i c i e n t d i s t a n c e from t h e blade, this s i m p l i f i c a t i o n does not produce excess i v e e r r o r s i n t h e results and therefore i s o f t e n used i n calcul a t i o n s . The induced v e l o c i t i e s close t o t h e blade must be determined by t h e scheme of a l i f t i n g vortex surface. During operation of t h e r o t o r , t h e conditions of flow around t h e blade a t d i f f e r e n t r a d i i are dissimilar. Thus, t h e magnitude of circulat5on of t h e bound v o r t i c e s varies over t h e blade radius. A change i n c i r c u l a t i o n i s accom- /213 panied by t h e formation of socalled longitudinal vortices (see Fig.2.128). The l o n g i t u d i n a l v o r t i c e s are a continuation of t h e bound v o r t i c e s located on t h e blade and form t h e t a i l s of horseshoe v o r t i c e s extending t o infinity.

vortices

Diagram of Formation of a Fig.2.128 Vortex Sheet i n Circulation of Flow about t h e Blade.

The s t r e n g t h of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l v o r t i c e s should be equal t o t h e change i n c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e bound v o r t i c e s over t h e blade radius:

( 5 *2)
where
Y l o = s t r e n g t h of l o n g i t u d i n a l v o r t i c e s p e r u n i t length;

J?

= t o t a l c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e bound vortices.

If t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e bound vortex changes i n time, a l s o transverse v o r t i c e s Will trail from t h e blade. The c i r c u l a t i o n of t r a n s v e r s e v o r t i c e s i s equal t o t h e change i n c i r c u l a t i o n of the bound v o r t i c e s w i t h respect t o time
y
E--

fr

d r dt

(5.3)

where ytr i s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of transverse v o r t i c e s shed by t h e blade i n u n i t time. The s t r e n g t h of t h e t r a n s v e r s e v o r t i c e s p e r u n i t l e n g t h can be determined as

225

..

where U i s t h e v e l o c i t y component of r e l a t i v e flow, normal t o t h e blade axis. Transverse v o r t i c e s , j u s t as bound vortices, form p a r t of the horseshoe v o r t i c e s and merge along t h e edges with t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l vortices. A s a consequence, t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l v o r t i c e s i s variable over t h e i r l e n g t h and changes by t h e magnitude of c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e transverse v o r t i c e s merging t h e r e . Under conditions of axial flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , t h e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e blade s e c t i o n I? remains constant i n time. Therefore, a vortex sheet consisting only of longitudinal v o r t i c e s Will be shed by t h e blade. Their s t r e n g t h proves t o be constant over t h e l e n g t h of t h e free vortex.

3. Form of Free VQrtJces


Under f l y i n g conditions, t h e free v o r t i c e s shed by &he blade are c a r r i e d away from t h e r o t o r a t a r a t e equal t o t h e relative v e l o c i t y of the flow passing through t h e r o t o r . These v e l o c i t i e s , generally speaking, are d i f f e r e n t a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of this flow. Therefore, t h e f r e e v o r t i c e s t r a i l i n g from t h e blades are c a r r i e d away from t h e r o t o r a t d i f f e r e n t rates. As a r e s u l t , a r a t h e r complex vortex system will exLst downstream of t h e r o t o r , which, moreover, i s continuously being deformed due t o t h e mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e vort i c e s . A t some d i s t a n c e from t h e r o t o r , t h e vortex sheet begins t o be dislodged and f i n a l l y l o s e s i t s o r i g i n a l form.

It i s extremely d i f f i c u l t t o take i n t o account deformations of t h e system of t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s . Therefore, i n t h e o r e t i c a l methods of c a l c u l a t i o n f e w attempts have been made t o take these deformations i n t o consideration. Usually, most authors assume t h a t t h e f r e e vortex sheet i s c a r r i e d away f r o m t h e r o t o r /2uc a t a constant rate equal t o t h e mean v e l o c i t y of flow through t h e r o t o r .
The components of this v e l o c i t y with respect t o t h e coordinate axes, ref e r r e d t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l speed of t h e blade t i p wR, are usually taken as equal t o p and h o a v ( A o a , being t h e average v e l o c i t y of t h e flow of t h e stream along t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r , r e f e r r e d t o wR). The average flow v e l o c i t y hoav i s determined by t h e well-known formula:
CT

With such an a s s u q t i o n , the t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s are arranged over a downwash s p i r a l surface. The longitudinal free v o r t i c e s are located along downwash spiral l i n e s , whereas t h e transverse v o r t i c e s are arranged over t h e r a d i a l g e n e r a t r i x of this spiral surface. Therefore, as applied t o a h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r it i s preferable t o divide t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s i n t o s p i r a l and r a d i a l r a t h e r t h a n i n t o l o n g i t u d i n a l and transverse, as i s done i n t h e a i r f o i l theory.

All free v o r t i c e s t r a i l i n g f r o m t h e blades are located within a n i n c l i n e d c y l i n d r i c a l surface r e s t i n g upended on t h e circumference of t h e r o t o r . The
226

v o r t e x system enclosed w i t h i n this surface i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d a vortex column o r a vortex cylinder. Let us d e r i v e t h e equation of t h e l i n e along which are located t h e free v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade a t an a r b i t r a r y r a d i u s p . T h i s l i n e coincides w i t h t h e wake of t h e blade i n t h e flow passing through t h e r o t o r . Neglecting deviat i o n of t h e blade from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , t h e coordinates of this l i n e (see, f o r example, t h e coordinates of p o i n t A i n Fig.2.130) can be w r i t t e n as follows:

where
-0)

< 9 < $0; O<p<R;


azimuth of t h e blade a t t h e i n s t a n t of time i n question;

Q0=

9 = azimuth of t h e blade a t t h e i n s t a n t of time of shedding t h e vortex.

A l l computations given below W i l l be based only on such a form of t h e f r e e v o r t i c e s . We w i l l disregard refinements introduced by consideration of t h e i r deformation.

4.

Determination

of t h e Induced V e l o c i t i e s W t h e Biot-Savart Formula

If t h e form of t h e free v o r t i c e s i s known, t h e Biot-Savart formula can be used f o r determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s . T h i s formula permits determining + t h e elementary v e l o c i t y dv induced a t t h e p o i n t M by a vortex element of length In v e c t o r i a l form, t h e formula can be w r i t t e n as dS (Fig.2.129).

where

dv = vector of t h e elementary induced v e l o c i t y caused a t t h e p o i n t M by a vortex element of length dS; I? = c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e vortex; /215

dS = vector of t h e vortex element; -B 1 = vector proceeding from t h e p o i n t M where t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s calculated t o t h e locus of t h e vortex element dS; 1 = 11 = d i s t a n c e from t h e p o i n t M t o t h e vortex element dS.
--t

The d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e c t o r dv i s perpendicular t o t h e plane formed by t h e d + vectors dS and 1.

To determine t h e induced v e l o c i t y from t h e t o t a l vortex, eq.( 5.6) m u s t be i n t e g r a t e d with respect t o i t s length:

227

Having taken such i n t e g r a l s over t h e l e n g t h of a l l vortices, located both on t h e blade and shed by t h e rotor, we can o b t a i n t h e t o t a l induced velocity at any p o i n t of space around t h e helicopter.

5. Use of t h e Biot-Savart _ Formu& i n DeveLoping-the


Vortex Theory of a Rotor Equation (5.7) can be used as basis of t h e r o t o r vortex theory. For this, it i s necessary t o determine t h e induced downwash i n t h e r o t o r plane and take

this i n t o consideration when determining t h e t r u e angles o f . a t t a c k of t h e blade sections. After this, t h e loads on t h e blades can be determined by formulas of t h e type

T=.- I ryebU2,

(5.8)

where t h e value of cy i s taken with respect t o p r o f i l e wash, for angles of attack c a l c u l a t e d with consideration of induced downwash.

F'ig.2.129 Diagram f o r Calculating Induced Velocities by t h e BiotSavart Formula.

To determine t h e induced downwash on t h e r o t o r blade it s u f f i c e s t o c a l c w l a t e only t h e axial ( p a r a l l e l t o t h e r o t o r a x i s ) component of t h e induced vel o c i t y vy. Then t h e d o m a s h angle can be approximately determined by t h e formula

where Day i s t h e change i n angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade element due to.downwash. According t o t h e r u l e s of vector analysis, t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e product /216 X ?' onto t h e y-axis can be calculated i n t h e following manner: of t h e vectors

where dS, and dS, are p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e vector dS, w h i l e 1,


4

and 1, a r e projec-

t i o m of t h e vector 1 onto t h e x- and z-axes;

t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e

x- and z-axes

i s shown in F i g . 2 . 1 3 0 .

228

Fig.2.130

Diagram f o r Calculating Axial Components of Induced Velocities.

Correspondingly, t h e axial component of induced v e l o c i t y can be obtained by a formula analogous t o eq.(5.7):

( 5 -11)
u m of t h r e e con+ Usually, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a r e represented as t h e s ponents :
v"'vbo

fvsp

+%ad*

( 5 012)

where vbo = induced v e l o c i t y f r o m bound v o r t i c e s ; v a P = induced v e l o c i t y f r o m s p i r a l v o r t i c e s ; vr a d = induced v e l o c i t y from r a d i a l v o r t i c e s .

L e t us construct t h e general formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e axial components of induced v e l o c i t i e s , without limiting ourselves t o t h e case y = 0 (y being t h e coordinate of t h e p o i n t a t which t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s calculated).

229

I I 1 I Il1 I1 I I I1

6. Axial Component of Induced Velocity- from Bound Vortices

Bound v o r t i c e s have a c i r c u l a t i o n equal t o rN and are located along t h e r o t o r blades. The s u b s c r i p t N denotes here t h e numeral of t h e r o t o r blade. W e w i l l consider t h a t N = 0, 1 2 , zb 1 , where z b i s t h e number of blades i n t h e r o t o r (see Fig.2.130).

...,

The values of dS, and dS, e n t e r i n g eq.(5.11) equal t o

f o r t h e bound v o r t i c e s are

where JIN i s t h e azimuth of t h e blade with t h e numeral N. S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(5.13) i n t o eq.( 5.11) and t a k i n g t h e i n t e g r a l of eq.(5.ll) over t h e l e n g t h of a l l r o t o r blades, we obtain

N=O

0"

where

The values of t,,

1 ,

and t entering i n t o K, are determined by t h e formulas

(5.15)

where r i s t h e radius of t h e circumference passing through t h e p o i n t a t which t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s calculated, w h i l e

Here,

JIo i s

t h e azimuth of t h e blade w i t h t h e numeral N = 0. and t,


1

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values of 1 , KN=-

i n t o t h e formula f o r K N , we obtain
~

____. .

rsin(+-+N)
13

.-

4x

7. Axial Coniponent of Induced-Velocity 'from Spiral


(h n g i t u d i n a l ) i c G ?

In determining induced v e l o c i t i e s from s p i r a l vortices, we must sum t h e


230

I --

v e l o c i t i e s induced by v o r t i c e s t r a i l i n g from d i f f e r e n t r a d i i of t h e blade. A s i n t h e determination of v e l o c i t i e s f r m bound v o r t i c e s , we must define here t h e t o t a l v e l o c i t i e s induced by v o r t i c e s shed from a l l r o t o r blades.

To use eq.(5.ll) f o r this purpose, it i s convenient t o divide t h e vortex sheet i n t o s t r i p s joining t h e v o r t i c e s shed from a p o r t i o n of t h e blade of length dp. Then t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e v o r t i c e s enclosed i n this s t r i p , i n accordance with eq.(5.2),

i s equal t o

dp. aP
arN

To determine t h e values of dS, and dS,, we d i f f e r e n t i a t e e q ~ ~ ( 5 . 5 ) .Then (see F'ig.2.130),

Using e q. ( 5.11)

, we

obtain

/218

I,=

-HN f r cos +-- e cos 8,


h,,"

I , =r sin - e sin 8 ,

(5.19)

The value of HN, representing t h e distance along a normal t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , from t h e r o t o r t o t h e p o i n t of t h e vortex sheet ( s e e fig.2.l3O), can be expressed i n terms of t h e azimuth of t h e vortex sheet 9 by means of t h e fo r m a

where N = 0, 1 , 2,

..., zb - 1.

8 . Axial Cormonent of Induced Velocity from Radial (Transverse) Vortices


The c i r c u l a t i o n of r a d i a l v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade i n u n i t t i m e i s equal t o

ar -2 at

dt.

I n t h e vortex wake, t h e s e v o r t i c e s are located over t h e

r a d i a l generatrix.

Therefore,

Using t h e same approach as above, we obtain

where

The values of 1,

, 1, , and

1 entering i n t o

M N

a r e detemnined by eqs.(5.19).

I n t e g r a t i o n with respect t o t i n eq.(5.22) can be replaced by i n t e g r a t i o n with respect t o 9, bearing i n mind t h a t 9 = $ N + w t . Then,

N=O 0

8s-m

(5.23)

The functions

KN,

LN,

and

M N

entering i n t o eqs.(S.&),

(5.18), and (5.23) /zip

will henceforth

be c a l l e d t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e vortex element dS

and a p o i n t with t h e coordinates r, $, and y.

9 . I n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of t h e Vortex Rotor Theory


. .

To determine t h e aerodynamic load on t h e blade p r o f i l e , t h e induced downwash must be determined from a l l t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s and bound v o r t i c e s of a l l blades, with t h e exception of t h e blade i n question, s i n c e this vortex p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e formation of l i f t expressed by Joukowski*s formula:
T=pUT.

(5.24.)

I n o t h e r words, t h e downwash from t h e bound v o r t i c e s on a blade with t h e = 0 must be determined by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t y vboby a formula d i f f e r i n g from eq.(5.&) i n t h a t t h e term w i t h N = 0 i s absent:,

numeral N

232

N=z,

-1 R

W e t h e n equate t h e l i f t s determined by eqs.(5.8)

and (5.24.).

This yields

r = 2l c,bU.
If we limit ourselves t o f l i g h t regimes i n which i t can be assumed t h a t c y = c$a and U = U , and i f we represent t h e angle of a t t a c k cy as
a=@o$Aa,,

( 5 *27)

(where Q , i s t h e inflow angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e which would be present i n t h e a . , ) , and Aa, i s expressed i n conformity with absence of induced dowrrwash h eq.(5.9), t h e n eq.(5.26) can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form
f =2 C~bU,CDo+ ' -2 c;~v,.
1

( 5 =28)

S u b s t i t u t i n g here t h e value of vy determined by eqs.(5.12), (5.&), (5.18), and (5.23) and t a k i n g i n t o account t h e refinement (5.25), we a r r i v e a t t h e int e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equation analogous t o t h e b a s i c i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of f i n i t e wing theory (Ref .28):

It i s necessary t o note t h a t t h e functions U,,

4,,

rN,

arN aP
9

arN
KN,

LN, and M N entering here represent functions of t h e r a d i u s and azimuth of t h e blade. The function Go a l s o depends on t h e flapping motion of t h e blade which, i n turn, i s a function of aerodynamic loads and hence of t h e values of rN. Therefore, t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (5.29) must be solved together /220 with t h e equation of t h e f l a p p i n g motion of t h e blade.

It i s not p o s s i b l e t o suggest any general method of solving this equation. I n each i n d i v i d u a l case, t h e method of s o l u t i o n most suitable t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r case i s used i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e method of determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s . A s a n example, we mention t h e method presented i n Section 8 of Chapter I i n Vol.11.
For a solution, t h e method of successive approximations i s occasionally

233

used, which involves assuming at f i r s t t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y vy i s constant over t h e r o t o r d i s k and r, i s calculated i n t h e first approximation. I n t h a t case, t h e terms i n brackets i n e ~ ~ ( 5 . 2 9are ) calculated and t h e new value of r, i s found; t h e procedure i s continued i n this manner u n t i l t h e s o l u t i o n converges. However, it m u s t be borne i n mind t h a t convergence of this method i s ensured only i n i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c u l a r cases and t h e r e f o r e must be separately checked each time. Many authors, considering one o r another method of successive approximations and believing it p o s s i b l e t o r e s t r i c t t h e process t o t h e f i r s t approximation, o n l y give a method of c a l c u l a t i n g induced v e l o c i t i e s based on t h e values of c i r c u l a t i o n r, assuming them t o be prescribed [see, f o r example, Baskin and ShiT s u n (Ref.16, 22)1. Therefore, it o f t e n happens t h a t only t h e operation of determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s with respect t o prescribed values of r i s introduced i n t o t h e v o r t e x theory concept.
10. Constancy of C i r c u l a t i o n of T r a i l i n g Vortices Along S t r a i g h t E n e s P a r a l l e l t o t h e Axis of t h e Inclined Vortex Cylinder and Possible Simplifications

It was already noted i n Subsection 2 t h a t t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of s p i r a l vort i c e s i s variable over t h e i r l e n g t h because t h e y m e r e w i t h t h e r a d i a l v o r t i c e s . Therefore, when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l i n eq.(5.18 we must f i n d t h e dependence
. n

dl N

aP

f(9).

In l i k e manner, when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l i n eq.(5.23)

be borne i n mind t h a t

5 varies as
arN

_-

it must

over t h e - l e n g t h of t h e vortex sheet along

with t h e variable 6. T h i s circumstance complicates c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l s i n eqs.(5.18) and (5.23). Therefore, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e it i s convenient t o make use of t h e f a c t t h a t

ap

and

ar, are constant


as

along s t r a i g h t l i n e s

p a r a l l e l t o t h e g e n e r a t r i x of t h e vortex cylinder. Actually, i n t h e case of steady flm p a s t a r o t o r , v o r t i c e s of i d e n t i c a l s t r e n g t h w i l l be shed from a c e r t a i n radius of each blade a t azimuth $. These v o r t i c e s will be c a r r i e d away from t h e r o t o r along a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of t h e vortex column. Therefore, a t any d i s t a n c e from t h e rotor, at a p o i n t of t h e vortex s h e e t w i t h azimuth 8 = Q and radius p = r, t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s p i r a l and r a d i a l v o r t i c e s i s i d e n t i c a l .

For f u r t h e r computation, it i s important t o note t h a t any s t r a i g h t l i n e passing within t h e vortex column and p a r a l l e l t o i t s axis i n t e r s e c t s t h e vortex sheet a t t h e p o i n t s

where

234

n=0, 1 , 2, m; 9 = azimuth of t h e r o t o r reckoned only i n t h e range from 0 t o 2rr; = azimuth of t h e blade f o r which t h e d i f f e r e n c e (9, 8) has t h e smallest p o s i t i v e value.

...,

It follows from t h e s t r u c t u r e of eqs.(5.18) and (5.23) t h a t , t o determine /221 t h e induced v e l o c i t y at some p o i n t of space, it i s first necessary t o i n t e g r a t e , over t h e e n t i r e vortex sheet, a f u n c t i o n representing t h e product of t h e s t r e n g t h of an element of this vortex sheet and t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s L, and MN, and t h e n t o sum t h e results obtained from t h e vortex sheet of each r o t o r blade separately.
However, i n this case we need not i n t e g r a t e along t h e v o r t i c e s comprising t h e vortex sheet. A t first, we can sum t h e products of t h e s t r e n g t h of a n eleN and MN along s t r a i g h t ment of t h e vortex sheet and t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s L l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of t h e vortex column. Here, by v i r t u e of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e v o r t i c e s along t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s being constant, this operation reduces t o summation of only t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s . Therefore, t h e elementary components of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f r o m t h e s e v o r t i c e s can be represented as

where T9 i s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e bound vortex a t t h e i n s t a n t when t h e blade i s a t azimuth $ = 9. After i n t e g r a t i n g t h e s e expressions over t h e e n t i r e r o t o r disk, we o b t a i n formulas f o r determining t h e axial components of t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e form

On t h e basis of t h e s e formuhs, we can construct a computationalmethod applicable i n p r a c t i c e . T h i s method was first used by M.N.Tishchenko.

It should be pointed out that, i n t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of this method, t h e volume of computational operations i s very l a r g e .
Thus, i f f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l s i n eq.(5.32) t h e circumference of

235

Il 1 I I l I I

t h e r o t o r i s divided w i t h respect t o azimuth i n t o e+ s e c t i o n s and t h e blade i n t o z, s e c t i o n s with respect t o radius, then f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f i e l d of t h e axial induced v e l o c i t y components i n t h e r o t o r plane alone, t h e integrands i n eqs.(5.32) must be calculated (e+&,) times.

72 (A$ = 5) and er = 30, t h e n t h e quantity ( z ~ z , )w ~i l l be equal t o about 4.5 X lo6. Therefore, this method can be e f f e c t i v e l y used
If we assume
=

only on computers w i t h a speed s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n 20,000 operations p e r second.

1 1 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of- Using t h e .EftinR-Line _ _ - Scheme . and Scheme of a Vortex L i f t i n g Surface

It was pointed out above t h a t t h e scheme of a vortex l i f t i n g l i n e y i e l d s s a t i s f a c t o r y results if t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s are c a l c u l a t e d a t a s u f f i c i e n t distance from t h e blade. However, f o r determining t h e aerodynamic loads by eq.( 5.G) it i s necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s on t h e blade, i.e., where t h e bound vortex i s located according t o , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n schene.
If t h e l i f t i n g - l i n e scheme i s used, then t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s begin t o i n c r e a s e on approach t o t h e l i f t i n g vortex and vanish a t t h e vortex i t s e l f . T h i s t a k e s p l a c e i n two cases: 1 . If flow p a s t t h e blade i s unsteady and i f r a d i a l (transverse) vort i c e s are formed i n t h e vortex wake. 2. If t h e s p i r a l ( l o n g i t u d i n a l ) v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade make an angle d i f f e r i n g fromrr/2 w i t h t h e blade axis, which always t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e case of oblique f l o w through t h e r o t o r s i n c e t h e blades have s l i p flow.

/222

Consequently, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e l i f t i n g vortex w i l l not vanish only i n t h e case of axial flow p a s t t h e r o t o r . These d i f f i c u l t i e s can be overcome by neglecting t h e e f f e c t of r a d i a l vort i c e s and r o t o r s l i p . Such an approach i s widespread i n p r a c t i c e and can be used whenever permissible with respect t o t h e nature of t h e problem t o be solved. However, this renders t h e s o l u t i o n r a t h e r approfimate, which does not always suit t h e researcher. The method of c a l c u l a t i n g with t h e scheme of a vortex l i f t i n g surface i s free from this shortcoming. Therefore, when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e blade region we can use methods based on replacement of t h e blade by a vortex surface, as i s done i n t h e theory of unsteady flow p a s t an a i r f o i l ( R e f 3 0 ) . However, this renders t h e problem of determining t h e induced velocit i e s even more corrplex. Therefore, this approach i s not yet i n widespread p r a c t i c a l use f o r r o t o r calculation, although work i n this d i r e c t i o n i s i n progress (Ref e 1 9

For p r a c t i c a l purposes, we can use t h e method i n which t h e free v o r t i c e s shed by t h e blade are divided i n t o v o r t i c e s d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e blade and v o r t i c e s remote from t h e blade. After this, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s due t o

236

v o r t i c e s remote from t h e blade can be determined by t h e vortex l i f t i n g l i n e scheme w h i l e , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v e l o c i t i e s due t o v o r t i c e s adjacent t o t h e blade, a method based on t h e vortex l i f t i n g surface scheme can be developed.

12. Division of Vortices i n t o M e s Close t o and Remote from t h e Blade: Use of IISteady-Flow HYpothesislI
To f a c i l i t a t e a n analysis of t h e influence of various elements of t h e vortex sheet on t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic load on t h e blade, it i s convenient t o d i v i d e free v o r t i c e s i n t o two c l a s s e s ( R e f .17). The f i r s t c l a s s includes v o r t i c e s immediately adjoining t h e t r a i l i n g edge of t h e blade i n question and those shed from t h e blade during one revolution a t some small azimuth angle A$ (A$ = 20 3 0 " ) . Such v o r t i c e s a r e c a l l e d adjacent ( t o a given blade) and t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s caused by t h e s e v o r t i c e s are c a l l e d i n t r i n s i c . The second c l a s s includes a l l o t h e r f r e e v o r t i c e s . These v o r t i c e s are c a l l e d remote, and t h e v e l o c i t i e s induced by them a r e c a l l e d e x t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s .

Such a d i v i s i o n i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade have a noticeable influence on t h e aerodynamic load of t h e blade only w h i l e they a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y close t o it. Upon removing t h e v o r t i c e s by a d i s t a n c e of 20 30' with respect t o t h e r o t o r azimuth, t h e i r influence decreases but resumes i t s former extent when t h e blade executes one complete revolution and again approaches t h e s e v o r t i c e s . Thus, t h e blade along i t s p a t h encounters not only i t s own v o r t i c e s but a l s o t h e v o r t i c e s shed from a l l o t h e r blades of t h e r o t o r . A l l t h e s e v o r t i c e s usually f a l l i n t o t h e general group of remote v o r t i c e s . /223

I n some cases, it i s convenient i n c a l c u l a t i o n s t o determine s e p a r a t e l y t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d induced by t h e remote v o r t i c e s and t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e flow p a s t a blade moving i n this nonuniform f i e l d . With this approach, t h e flow p a s t t h e blade w i l l be similar t o a flow p a s t t h e wing of an a i r p l a n e f l y i n g under condit i o n s of turbulent a i r . I n t h e same manner as f o r an a i r p l a n e wing, when calcul a t i n g t h e v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads on a given blade, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o cons i d e r t h e e f f e c t of t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e blade by t h e soc a l l e d "steady-flow l-qrpothesisll. In this hypothesis, i t i s assumed t h a t , i n unsteady flow p a s t a p r o f i l e , t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e p r o f i l e behave as though t h e flow p a t t e r n produced a t a given i n s t a n t of time remained unchanged f o r an arbit r a r i l y long t i m e . I n t h e "steady-flow hypothesis", t h e e f f e c t of t r a i l i n g vort i c e s adjacent t o t h e blade i s disregarded. Thus, t h e flow p a t t e r n of t h e blade can be represented i n t h e following form: When t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s , t h e blade encounters t h e nonuniform f i e l d of ext r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s caused by t h e e f f e c t of t h e t o t a l vortex system of t h e r o t o r with t h e exception of t h e v o r t i c e s immediately adjoining t h e blade. U n d e r t h e e f f e c t of this v e l o c i t y f i e l d , t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade sect i o n s vary constantly, and v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads caused by t h e n o n u n i f o d t y of this f i e l d begin t o a c t on t h e blade. The magnitude of t h e variable aerodynamic loads i s a f f e c t e d a l s o by t h e fre e v o r t i c e s adjacent t o t h e blade and shed f r o m i t upon any change i n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n flow. The e f f e c t of adjacent vort i c e s i s of t h e same nature as t h a t i n unsteady flow p a s t a f i n i t e a i r p l a n e Wing.

23 7

13. Instantaneous a@ Mean Induced Velocities and Generation of Variable Aerod-ynamic l o s d s on t h e Blade
Calculation of induced v e l o c i t i e s by t h e t h e o r e t i c a l scheme with a f i n i t e number of blades makes i t p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e t r u e (instantaneous) induced v e l o c i t y at any p o i n t of space near t h e helicopter. The t r u e induced v e l o c i t i e s prove t o be variable, f l u c t u a t i n g i n time with t h e frequency of t h e v o r t i c e s passing by a given p o i n t . One can d i s t i n g u i s h t h e - i n v a r i a n t (mean) and timev a r i a n t components of induced v e l o c i t i e s . If we examine a p o i n t i n space f i x e d with respect t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r close t o i t s r o t o r , t h e n t h e time-variant induced v e l o c i t i e s a t this p o i n t w i l l be caused both by bound and free v o r t i c e s . However, i n comparing t h e i r values, it becomes obvious t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t i e s due t o bound v o r t i c e s and t o f r e e v o r t i c e s adjacent t o t h e blade are l a r g e s t i n value. These induced vel o c i t i e s f l u c t u a t e w i t h t h e frequency of t h e r o t o r blades passing by t h e p o i n t i n question. Generation of t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s i s r e l a t e d primarily with t h e format i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s on t h e blade and i s observed when t h e load on t h e blade remains constant i n time, for example, i n hovering f l i g h t . The v e l o c i t y f i e l d induced by t h e s e v o r t i c e s i n this case r o t a t e s together with t h e blade. Something similar happens i n the case of oblique flow p a s t t h e r o t o r i n forward f l i g h t . Here, we can d i s t i n g u i s h a c e r t a i n component of t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d which, r o t a t i n g t o g e t h e r with t h e blade, does not e x c i t e v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads on it. To c a l c u l a t e t h e s e loads, it i s necessary t o define t h e mode of v a r i a t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a t a p o i n t r o t a t i n g together with t h e /224. blade r a t h e r than a t a f i x e d p o i n t of t h e r o t o r d i s k area. With this approach, t h e main generator of v a r i a b l e aerodynamic f o r c e s on t h e blade i s t h e nonuniformity of t h e e x t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d caused by v o r t i c e s remote f r o m t h e blade. Therefore, i n t h e first approximation we can neglect t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d caused by v o r t i c e s d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e blade and i n v e s t i g a t e only t h e f i e l d of e x t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s .

U+.. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e E&rLns.ic.

.Indu.c.ed- V_elocity Field

A n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e e x t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d caused only by v o r t i c e s remote from t h e blade permits t h e statement t h a t t h e i r v a r i a b l e portion, a t a p o i n t i n space f i x e d with respect t o t h e helicopter, w i l l be smaller t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s e v o r t i c e s .

A n i n c r e a s e i n vortex d e n s i t y t a k e s place, i n p a r t i c u l a r , on any reduction i n forward f l y i n g speed of t h e helicopter. The d e n s i t y a l s o increases with an i n c r e a s e i n r o t o r angle o f attack, when t h e mean v e l o c i t y of flow through t h e r o t o r decreases and t h e vortex sheet i s not c a r r i e d away r a p i d l y enough from t h e plane swept by t h e blades. Such a s i t u a t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y occurs i n braking regimes of t h e h e l i c o p t e r before passing t o t h e hovering state. A s an example, Fig.2.131 gives a p l a n v i e w of t h e vortex system shed only from t h e blade t i p s The p a t t e r n shown i s incomplete, s i n c e only i n a f l y i n g regime w i t h IJ. = 0.05. t h e three spiral v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade t i p s are given w h i l e t h e v o r t i c e s shed from a l l o t h e r blade r a d i i are omitted. The r a d i a l v o r t i c e s are a l s o l e f t

out. However, even this p a t t e r n gives an i d e a of t h e extremely c l o s e spacing of v o r t i c e s i n low-speed regimes. The v a r i a b l e p o r t i o n of t h e ext r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s decreases a l s o w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of r o t o r blades. A t t h e Limit f o r a rotor w i t h a n infinite number of blades, t h e v a r i a b l e components of t h e induced vel o c i t y become equal t o zero. To c a l c u l a t e t h e e x t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t y field, it i s p o s s i b l e t o use a scheme of a r o t o r with a n i n f i n i t e numb e r of i n f i n i t e l y narrow blades. T h i s scheme y i e l d s more accurate results, /225 t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e n s i t y of t h e free vortex system of t h e r o t o r i n t h e f l i g h t regime i n question.

View of a Vortex System F'ig.2.131 Shed by t h e Blade Tip i n t h e p = = 0.05 Regime.

Upon changing from a given r o t o r t o a design with an i n f i n i t e number of blades, t h e l o c a l e f f e c t due t o v o r t i c e s h e d i a t e l y adjacent t o t h e blade i s reduced s o g r e a t l y t h a t , i n f i r s t approximation, i t can be assumed t h a t this scheme does not allow f o r t h e e f f e c t of adjacent v o r t i c e s , so t h a t t h e f i e l d determined from this scheme w i l l be c l o s e r t o t h e e x t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e n s i t y of t h e free vort i c e s . Thus, a d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of this scheme t o t h e determination of variable aerodynamic loads on a given blade i s equivalent t o t h e use of t h e "steadyflow hypothesis11. The scheme with an i n f i n i t e number of blades can a l s o be used whenever it s u f f i c e s t o determine only t h e time-average p a r t of t h e induced velocity. Use of this scheme l e a d s t o s u b s t a n t i a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e problem and eliminates many d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s i n g w i t h t h e scheme of a f i n i t e number of blades. Spec i f i c a l l y , one of t h e advantages of this scheme i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e induced vel o c i t i e s nowhere vanish.

I n determining t h e downwash a t t h e wing and s t a b i l i z e r of a helicopter, when we are usually i n t e r e s t e d only i n t h e constant p o r t i o n of t h e loads, t h e scheme w i t h an i n f i n i t e number of blades can be used i n a l l f l y i n g regimes and y i e l d s completely s a t i s f a c t o r y results. The same probably holds for determinat i o n of t h e mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e of r o t o r s , i f t h e designer i s i n t e r e s t e d only i n t h e i r i n t e g r a l characteristics.

The v o r t e x t h e o r y of a r o t o r w i t h an i n f i n i t e nmber of blades has been quite thoroughly developed. The s o l u t i o n of this problem was discussed s p e c i f i L.S.Vil*dgrube, A.N.Proskurc a l l y i n t h e works of G.I.Maykopar, A.I.Slutskiy, yakov, V.E.E!askin, Wang Shi-Tsun, and o t h e r authors. Each of them brought this

239

theory t o ever greater p e n f e d i o n . While working out t h e vortex theory af a r & o r . ~ t . h an L d r r i t e number of blades, many methods w e r e suggested a o h emplayed o e W n adatit5onal assumptions :
I , The vortex sheet t m E l i n g from a rutor i s pla-ne, Tkiis assmpt5on formed t h e basis of t h e works by L..S4Viltagrube anfl LQ,Mel~ts,a d svtbstant5alLy simplifiies the calculations. Therefore, such an approaah, a o h LSIAElTijlgrube brougM t o a form converrient for praOt5cal use, became widespread-

2 It was proposed i n a number of papers t h a t t h e illduced velocit&es can be determined r a t h e r aeourately, with considerat5on af o n l y t h e conSta& portson of t h e c i m u h t t i o n af b o d vorttioes o r d t h t h e adatitlion of one or two ftirst harmomos of this cimulattion.

Recently,, V..E.Baskin (Ref-.;L6) arid Wang SkLTsun ('FkC.222) pub'liskred papers i n whioh they discarded t h e s e additlioml assumpkkons and broughb t h e method af such caloulat5on t o a state compl&Ly c o m d e f ~o r paot5cal use.. Therefore, an account of o d y these two methods w & u be @veri belaw.

Vortex Theam of Wang SK-TsmThe vortex theaqy af a r a t o r proposed Qy W a thoroughly presented i n t h e axrbhoI*1s w o ~ k(Bef..J.. results wi1L be repeated here,

Shki-Tsun has been rather Tbmzfore, 0d.y t k m e basic

where

r = cimulatlion i n
Zb =

t.he b h d e se&kon.at the examined raaius and azj.mu&h

It i s

due t o t h e r o t o r element under study.

A s a consequence of t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e bound vortex, varying with any change i n t h e azimuth p o s i t i o n of t h e blade, r a d i a l ( t r a n s v e r s e ) v o r t i c e s with a c i r c u l a t i o n of

+Ga,j)

=-

(5.34)

are a l s o shed by t h e element i n cpestion.


The form of t h e s u r f a c e over which t h e free v o r t i c e s are arranged i s represented as a d o m a s h s p i r a l surface, j u s t as i n t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y of a r o t o r with a f i n i t e number of blades. However, now t h e vortex c y l i n d e r ' i s f i l l e d with continuous f r e e v o r t i c e s r a t h e r t h a n with d i s c r e t e l a y e r s of widely spaced vort i c e s ; a s had been t h e case i n t h e theory with a f i n i t e number of blades.

17. Determination . . . -__ ~ of Induced V e l o c i t i e s


To f i n d t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s due t o t r a i l i n g and bound v o r t i c e s we used A s noted above, t o determine t h e t o t a l int h e Biot-Savart formula [eq.(5.6)1. duced velocities., it i s necessary t o sum a l l elementary induced v e l o c i t i e s obt a i n e d from i n d i v i d u a l elements of a l l v o r t i c e s comprising t h e vortex system. For this, i n t e g r a t 5 o n i n t h e form of eq.(5.7) must be c a r r i e d out. Wang ShiTsun demonstmked t h a t there i s no need here t o i n t e g r a t e along t h e downwash s p i r a l lines along wkioh l i e t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s shed by t h e blade. It i s simpler t o i n t e g r a t e along t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e axis of t h e ins i n c e t h e v o r t i c e s have i d e n t i c a l c l i n e d vortex c y l i n d e r (AB i n Fig.2.12q), s t r e n g t h along t h e s e s t r a i g h t l i n e s . Such a method was used e a r l i e r by 1.0. Mellts f o r t h e case of a plane vortex system. Thus, i n c a l c u l a t i n g induced v e l o c i t i e s f o r t h e scheme of a r o t o r with an infinite number of blades, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y out i n t e g r a t i o n along s t r a i g h t lines p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s of t h e vortex cylinder r a t h e r t h a n sunanation of individual d i s c r e t e q u a n t i t i e s , as i s t h e case i n t h e scheme with a f i n i t e number of blades (see Subsect .lo). Using th5s f a c t , Wang Shi-Tsun was able t o c a l c u l a t e t h e above i n t e g r a l s and t o o b t a i n sur"fhciently simple formulas f o r determining a l l induced v e l o c i t y components

U . C a l o u h t i o n Formulas f o r Induced Velocity Determination


The induced v e l o c i t i e s (Ref..22) are represented as t h e sum of t h r e e types:

Where

v ,

v = t o t a l induced

velocity; = induced v e l o c i t y due t o bound v o r t i c e s ;

-Tsp
v,
ad

= induced v e l o c i t y due t o s p i r a l ( l o n g i t u d i n a l ) free v o r t i c e s ;

= induced v e l o c i t y due t o r a d i a l ( t r a n s v e r s e ) f r e e v o r t i c e s .

A l l induced v e l o c i t y components, e n t e r i n g eq.(5.35), p h e r a l speed of t h e blade t i p wR.

pertain t o t h e peri-

O f g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n are t h e &a1 components ( p a r a l l e l t o t h e r o t o r a x i s ) of t h e induced v e l o c i t y . In s e t t i n g up t h e problem of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r o t o r blade loads, axial induced v e l o c i t y components need be determined only i n i t s plane. We w i l l give t h e c a l c u l a t i o n formulas f o r determining t h e a x i a l components i n t h e rotor plane only. The formulas f o r o t h e r components, determinable outs i d e this plane, can be found elsewhere (Ref.22).
The axial induced v e l o c i t y components due t o bound v o r t i c e s a r e determined by t h e formula

where

i s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e blade s e c t i o n r e f e r r e d t o w p :

vsp =A
8nz

1
~

1/P

+ AZbY

- x

0 0

TIr&=*
~

gnz
12%

fP2

+ ,,:A

x0 JJ 0
Here,

[cos 91, +sin

w, J

d ~ .
I

where

2 4 . 2

For t h e v a r i a b l e s e n t e r i n g eqs.(5.36) and (5.38) we will use t h e following notations : p = r e l a t i v e r a d i u s of t h e blade s e c t i o n shedding t h e vortex; r = r e l a t i v e r a d i u s of t h e r o t o r at which t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s determined; 8 = azimuth of t h e r o t o r shedding t h e vortex; Jr = azimuth a t which t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s determined.

Equations (5.35), (5.36), v e l o c i t i e s if t h e c i r c u l a t i o n


'1

r(8,

(5,38), and (5.39) permit determining t h e induced


p ) i s known a t a l l azimuths 9 and r a d i i of

Fig .a.l32 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Circulat i o n over Blade Length, Used i n t h e Calculation.

t h e blade.

It should be noted t h a t , i n t h e vortex theory of a r o t o r with an i n f i n i t e number of blades, one usually determines t h e t o t a l induced v e l o c i t i e s , including t h e components due t o bound v o r t i c e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e production of blade lift.

w P
"

19. Applicationand - Evaluation -__-_ of t h e PossgbLgtisg of t h -- e WangShi-Tsun


-

Vortex Theow

In t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e Wang Shi-Tsun v o r t e x theory, j u s t as i n a number of o t h e r schemes, t h e distribut i o n of c i r c u l a t i o n I ' over t h e blade l e n g t h i s usually represented as a stepped
The quantity

l i n e , a s shown i n Fig.2.132. equal t o

ar dp aP

is taken a s approximately

where A r p i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e of c i r c u l a t i o n at t w o adjacent p o r t i o n s of t h e blade. Such an approach i s equivalent t o replacing t h e vortex sheet by a number of d i s c r e t e v o r t i c e s . A s a consequence, t h e induced v e l o c i t y approaches i n f i n i t y a t p o i n t s where t h e s e d i s c r e t e v o r t i c e s a r e shed by t h e blade. To avoid this, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s should be c a l c u l a t e d with r e s p e c t t o t h e midsection a t constant c i r c u l a t i o n . I n determining t h e c i r c u l a t i o n d e r i v a t i v e with r e s p e c t t o blade azimuth, t h e circumference of t h e r o t o r i s a l s o divided i n t o a f i n i t e number of s e c t i o n s and t h e d e r i v a t i v e

ar d8 i s taken as

a s a p p r o x h a t e l y equal t o

Thus f o r a numerical determination of t h e i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g eqs.(5.36) and ( 5.38j, we should first determine t h e values of rp Ar, and Art whose number N w i l l be equal t o

where z, = number of s e c t i o n s over t h e radius i n t o which t h e blade i s divided; A$ = p i t c h with r e s p e c t t o blade azimuth over whose l e n g t h t h e c i r c u l a , t i o n i s considered constant.

Yl'

taken over t h e r a d i u s and azimuth of

Vortex Theory of- V..E.-Baskin The theory of V.E.Baskin was c i r c u l a t e d i n a l i m i t e d e d i t i o n i n 1955 and later presented by t h e author i n a n urrpublished r e p o r t ( R e f .16); as a consequence, t h e theory of V.E.Baskin i s not very familiar t o s p e c i a l i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n this problem. For this reason, t h e theory w i l l be presented here i n consider-

able d e t a i l but w i t h c e r t a i n simplificakions which t h e author d i d not make.

244

2Q. sch-gne. o f - Rotor F l w

The v o r t e x syst;m, shown i n RigY2.L28 and c o n s i s t i n g of bound and f r e e spiral and radial v o r t i c e s , can be represented in a somewhat d i f f e r e n t form. W e can consider t h a t , d u n h g operat5on of t h e r o t o r , t h e blade continuously c losed almenkaqy vortex rings, w i t h a c i r c u l a t i o n consheds infiin3tel.y SIIELIJ~ stant over t h e contour of t h e r h g e-'l t o tihe c 5 r o u l a t i o n of t h e bound vortex r i n t h e B l a d e s e a t i o n a t t h e 5nstank a t wkiioh t h e vortex r i n g s e p a r a t e s from

ft @ig-.&T33),.

S5me t h e c i r a u l a t h n of t h e bound vortex vac5es over t h e r a d i u s and azimuth of tihe Blade, tihe v o r t e x r i n g s h d J l 5 n g from 5% W i j U have a d i f f e r e n t c5rmiki3i.on at diffferent poinks of t h e v o r t e x sheet. Consequently,. t h e f r e e vorbex sheet can be considered as cons~stj5ngof coralS.nuou&Ly d i s t r i b u t e d , in55njltely smaU vortex rings w5th d5ffTerent c 5 r c u l a t i o n r.

/230

I t 5 s known from h x d r o d y d a s b e e (IBRE.3, p.-266.).'1 that t h e induced vel o c f t S e s due t o tihe vortex r i n g contour with a c5rouhE5on r w i l l l be t h e same as t h o s e due t o t h e kyer of d i p o l e s covering t h e s u r f a c e s-bmtched over this contour, with an i n t e n s i t y p e r u3.t a r e a of

n--r

w + 4 )

and onhnked along a normal t o this surface. Here, tihe s5gns are s e l e c t e d on t h e basis t h a t t h e c 5 r a u k t i o n flow producing blade L i f t and t h e dipo:les whose vector gives a p o s i t i v e project5on onto tihe y-axis, a r e considered p o s i t i v e (IK g r2. < I % ) ,

Figw2.L34. ? ? o r

Determining

Induced Velociti5es from a DipoLe C 0 : l m .

Consequently;, %he free vortex sheet t r a i l i n g f r o m t h e Glades can be replaced by a surface covered by a dipo'le layer..

On changing t o a r o t o r with an i n f i n i t e number of blades, %,hise q u a l i t y i s somewhat modiflied. A f t of a r o t o r with an infinite number of Blades, tihe vortex sheet f i l l s t h e eni5re volume bounded by t h e downwash c y l i n d r i c a l sunface tangent t o t h e rotor c5rcumferenae. This vortex system, as already mentioned, i s c a l l e d a v o Cex c"tn. This column can be represented as fidiled wi%h d i p o l e s r a t h e r t h a n wi%h v o r t i c e s . To determine t h e i n t e n s i t y of d i p o l e d i s t i r l b u t i o n i n t h e column, a layer of heigh$ dH, f i U e d w i t h vontices during t h e thne d t , i s c u t from t h e c d m . During tihis time, vortex rings wikh a conkour bounding t h e area

dF 5Udth!Q

(5.45)

t "f;rm alll. radii.


n T h i s aontour can be replaaed by dipales wWh an 5nCensity D = -r. O changing Co a n i n f i n i t e number of Ijlades, t h e s e d i p d e s are d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e

e n t i r e r o t o r circumference of radius r with an i n t e n s i t y of

If t h e c i r c u l a t i o n r i s expressed i n terms of t h e aerodynamic load p e r u n i t l e n g t h from eq.(5.&), then

W e can determine t h e quantity d t e n t e r i n g this expression as

d t = -d ,H
V Y

where V ,

i s t h e average v e l o c i t y of flow through t h e r o t o r :

V,= CORA.
L e t us then introduce t h e concept of r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load, s o t h a t
T =1 caebo.7w2R2P.
2 0

/231

(5.49)

Then,

Thus, the problem reduces t o determining t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d caused by t h e downwash column of dipoles whose i n t e n s i t y i n a l a y e r of thickness dH i s determined by eq.( 5.50).

21. Determination of Induced V e l o c i t i e s from


t h e Dipole Column Figure 2.134 shows t h a t t h e plane of each of t h e elementary vortex r i n g s t r a i l i n g f r o m t h e blade i s i n c l i n e d at some angle Z t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e rotor:

Correspondingly, at this same angle t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n are i n c l i n e d a l s o t h e axes of t h e d i p o l e s which, i n V.E.Baskints scheme, replace t h e elementary vortex r i n g s . Henceforth we will disregard this .angle and w i l l assume t h a t t h e axes of a l l d i p o l e s a r e d i r e c t e d perpendicular t o t h e r o t o r plane. Baskin (Ref .16) d i d not use this s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i n deriving t h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s , but it i s shown t h a t i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e axial induced v e l o c i t y component this i s permissible.

246

To determine t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s , l e t us examine a flow caused by dip o l e s f i l l i n g a n element of t h e vortex cylinder of a height equal t o dH (see Fig.2.136).
S d n g t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s caused by

all elements of t h e vortex column,

we can o b t a i n t h e t o t a l induced v e l o c i t y .
22. Fluid Flow Induced

p a Disk

Covered with Dipoles

Fluid flow induced by a d i s k covered with d i p o l e s can be determined as t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e Laplace equation w i t h c e r t a i n boundary conditions, which will be discussed below.

k:*
L

h a u
w.+
Solution of eq.(5.54)

The Iaplace equation i n c y l i n d r i c a l coordinates (Fig.2.135) can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

E Y L;
du2

d2v de2

1 p

dv dQ

1
e2

d82

0,

(5.52)

where c p i s the velocity potential. The v e l o c i t y p o t e n t i a l can be expanded i n a Fourier s e r i e s . Then,


p=

Fig.2.135 For Determining t h e Vel o c i t y P o t e n t i a l by t h e &place Equation.

2 (CP,

cos mS

+T ,

sin ms).

(5.53)

m=O

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( 5.53) i n t o eq.( 5.52), we o b t a i n t h e equation f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e s i n e s and cosines e n t e r i n g eq.(5.53):

(5.54)
W i l l be sought i n t h e form

/232
(5.55)

vm=er
S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(5.55) i n t o eq.(5.54),

(e).
we o b t a i n

T h i s equation can be reduced t o a canonical form, i f we set


kQ=Q.
Then,

247

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n af this equat5on can be m i t k e n i n t h e form


x! ~ i i , = - A ~ , O + - ~ ~ ~ , ( i ! ) .

(5.58)
Therefore, i f we r e s t r i c t

The f u n c t i o n I=(F) tends t o i n f i n i t y its b -, Q. ourselves t o a f i n i t e value of t h e poten-tial, %hen

eq.(

5.54) can

If we use %he oondit?ion t h a t , be writiten ils

as u

-+

a l s o cpm -, 0, tihen t h e s o l u t i o n of

ym =Ae-"

J,

(.Re),

(.2.60)

where k 2 Q. The function (pm w i D l be t h e s o l u t i o n t o eq.(,5-.5&) a t any value of k = kl,. Consequent& t h e so:lution of eq.( 2.%) W i n a l s o be t h e sum

and tihe 5nkegral

yl

Rotor

"1

Then t h e value of t h e pot e n t i a l a t t h e boundary of t h e d i s k on t h e s i d e where u > 0, can be defined as


y=-2

D.

The boundary conditions f o r /;?33 flow induced by a disk covered by d i p o l e s of a d e n s i t y D are deterf mined from eq.(5.65) i f p s R. I p > R, t h e p o t e n t i a l i n t h e d i s k plane i s everywhere'equal t o zero
(cp =

o),.

The i r l t e n s i t y of t h e dipoles covering t h e disk can be repliesented i n form df a -Pies: Diagram of Rotor Flow Used i n Fig.2.136 t h e Calculation f o r Determination of Induced V e l o c i t i e s .

Then, using t h e boundary condibion ('5..65,) f o r de-tertnining t k e afii-brary f u n c t i o n A(k) i n eq.(5.62), we can &%e t h e so3ution orf t h e cont&nuity e q a t i o n (5.52) i n t h e form

m=O, '0

The d e r i v a t i o n of this expression i s given elsewhere (Ref-.31),.

a.Transformation of

Es.(5.67) t L t h e Rotor Axes: Use of t h e The-orem of Addition o f C y l i - + r i c a P Functions

Equation (5.67) i s w r i t t e n i n c y l i n d r i c a l coordinates with t h e u-axis going through t h e c e n t e r of t h e d i s k of thickness dH, c u t out from t h e dipole calm To transform this expression i n t o coordinates r e l a t e d with t h e (see Fig.2.136). r o t o r , we can use t h e theorem of a d d i t i o n of c y l i n d r i c a l functions ( R e f .34.). , & & It follows from this theorem that

249

sin m ~ (he) , = -(

IF

J,, (RF) J , , + (~ R I ) sin nq.

n=--

The v e l o c i t y p o t e n t i a l from t h e d i p o l e layer i s expanded i n a Fourier series :


y=

2 (~n~~~n++~nsinn+).
n=--

(5.69)

Then, using eqs.(5.68) and (5.69) and equating t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of cos I $ and s i n n$ with i d e n t i c a l n i n eq.(5.67), we o b t a i n

m=O

25. Determination of t h e T o t a l Velocity P o t e n t i a l from


t h e E n t i r e Dipole Column To determine t h e conponents of t h e t o t a l v e l o c i t y p o t e n t i a l represented as

n=-m

eqs.(5.70)

must be i n t e g r a t e d over t h e e n t i r e dipole column ( s e e ~ig.2.136).

For this, we must first-w r i t e out t h e values of

5m(p ) and

E,(p).

W e note t h a t w i t h i n t h e vortex column t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e dipoles, j u s t as t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e v o r t i c e s , i s constant along s t r a i g h t l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e column a x i s . Therefore, t h e dipole i n t e n s i t y D(p 8 ) i n any layer c u t out from t h e vortex column w i l l be equal t o t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e dipoles t r a i l i n g from t h e r o t o r a t a p o i n t where r = p and $ = 9.

If t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P [see eq.(5.50)1 i s represented i n t h e

form

/235

then we can w r i t e

Setting

and s u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(5.73) i n t o (5.70), we can i n t e g r a t e t h e obtained express i o n s w i t h respect t o H. It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t , f o r performing this operation, we must determine t h e value of t h e i n t e g r a l
f(H)

=s
0

00

e-kHf,+m (k

H)dH.
eq.(6.611.1)1,

( 5 075)
we o b t a i n

Referring t o t h e handbook by Ruzhik CRef.34, p.721,

where

r
Here p = m + n, and eq.(5.76) + n < 0, eq.(5.76) t a k e s t h e form

i s v a l i d o n l y i f p > 0.

Therefore, a t m +

(5.79)
where p = -(m + n). Let us introduce t h e new v a r i a b l e

z=kR.

( 5 080)

Then, using eqs.(5.76) and (5.80), we can w r i t e out t h e expressions f o r t h e c o q o n e n t s of t h e v e l o c i t y p o t e n t i a l from t h e e n t i r e dipole column:

/236

Here, a l l l i n e a r dimensions p e r t a i n t o t h e radius of t h e r o t o r R, including

26. Determination o f h d u s e d VelocitLes

A s already mentioned, we w i n determine only t h e axial induced velocity components. For txs, we must take t h e d e r i v a t i v e of t h e v e l o c i t y p o t e n t i a l
with respect t o y. W e see from ecp(5.81) t h a t only t h e term e-'? depends on y.. Therefore, t h e operation of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n leads t o expressions d i f f e r i n g from eq.(5.81) only i n s i g n and i n component z . Before w r i t i n g out t h e f i n a l formulas f o r determining t h e induced velocit i e s , we will present them as a Fourier s e r i e s :

n=O

Here., a l l induced velocity components a r e r e f e r r e d t o t h e t i p speed of t h e blade wR. I n determining t h e induced v e l o c i t y camponents w r i t t e n i n form of eq.( 5-82), t h e following operations must be performed:

An exception i s t h e determination of

To,
a60

which i s calculated as

&=--.I
w~

ay

A s a r e s u l t of t h e a c t i o n s provided f o r i n eqs.(5.83)
252

and (5.&!+),

we o b t a i n

0.

m=O

It i s assumed i n t h e s e expressions t h a t n > m. Therefore, i n conformity w i t h eq.(5.79), when n < m, i n p l a c e of T * " we must c a l c u l a t e (-lpm--n~m-n

When pel-forming operations with eqs-.(5..83)

we must bear i n mind t h a t

J-,(zr)=( - l ) " J , ( z r ) . Different methods can be suggested f o r calcuLtKng t h e i r l t e g r a l s enterring eqs.(5.85) and (5..&6), One such method wiU be given i n SecrtKon 8 6f Ohapter I of VoL.11, where a method uf calculat5ng e W i c viTx-atKons or a blade with conn i be disoussed-. siderat5on of a varbab2-e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d w

Smttion 6 , E h " e n t a 1 M d m t Y o n of Aerodynamic Ohwa&erri&%w a f a Rotor The most, reliable methads uf determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r h t i c s of a rotor are f w h t tests a f t h e h e l i c o p t e r with t h e r o t o r under study o r w i t h another Similar rotor whjch can be regarded as a model of t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d r o t o r , as w e l l as Wind-tunnel tests on f u l l - s c a l e r o t o r s o r large-scale models.

253

I n this Section, we Will present c e r t a i n results of f l i g h t tests and windtunnel tests and give a brief d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t e s t i n g procedure. The tests /238 w e r e c a r r i e d out at research i n s t i t u t e s by M.K.Speranskiy, A.I.Aldmov, and others.

1 . F l i g h t TestsAr Determinim t h e Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a He&capter


The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a h e l i c o p t e r i n a system of Wind axes (F'igs.2.105 - 2.109), i.e., i n t h e form i n which theg are used i n aerodynamic design, can be obtained from f l i g h t tests. Selecting t h e f l y i n g speed, r o t o r rpm, f l y i n g weight, and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , f l i g h t tests will f u r n i s h constant values of M i l , Mo, and t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t,, (below, p and T denote t h e pressure and temperature of t h e air): M L ,
V V =-= -=const, a 20.1)/T
W R

- {VF

'

M,=-=const,
a

-n

{F'
G

%=-I -Q (oR)2aF
2

--

=const, __, G
MiP

1 Q a2 M,aF
2

since

1 ~ a= ?1 (0.379
2
2

$)(2Q.1 V*T)'=const,p.

F u l f i l l i n g , under t h e s e conditions, various f l i g h t regimes w i t h d i f f e r e n t engine powers g l i d i n g a t a d i f f e r e n t r a t e of descent, forward f l i g h t , and climbing with a d i f f e r e n t r a t e of ascent, we can obtain a s u f f i c i e n t number of p o i n t s of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e form of t h e I n an a u t o r o t a t i o n dependence txh = f(mt) f o r constant values of V, t,, and M,. = The p o i n t txh regime of t h e rotor, we o b t a i n a p o i n t with m, = C (fig.2.137). = 0 corresponds t o a forward f l i g h t regime since, a t this point, t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r i s balanced by t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e helicopter. Gliding of t h e h e l i c o p t e r corresponds t o intermediate regimes. The regimes t,, < 0,

i.e.,

a g a i n i n a l t i t u d e a t a p o i n t where t h e engine power i s maximal (m, = - m t d i r ), are obtained from t h e r e g h e of maximum rate of ascent f o r a given
f l y i n g speed.

A s a result of tests, we will determine t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a h e l i c o p t e r which differ from t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h a t t h e aerodynamics of t h e no-lift-producing p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s taken i n t o account,
Thus, f l i g h t tests f o r determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a h e l i c o p t e r involve 'Iflying by t h e seat of t h e pants1! i n which gliding, gain i n a l t i t u d e , and forward f l i g h t are performed at constant values of V / D , n/O, P

A.

254.

I:

'

n I \

U, =const

t3/#=const

,Gliding

Level flight

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e quantities, t h e followi n g a r e measured: v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y V,; inc l i n a t i o n of t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r t o t h e horizon ( p i t c h angle of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ) 9; components of c y c l i c change (or angles of d e f l e c t i o n of of p i t c h t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l H , 'Tl and t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s ) ; s e t t i n g angle of t h e The blade 8, ; and torque of t h e r o t o r M, torque i s measured by s t r a i n gages mounted t o t h e r o t o r s h a f t or t o t h e rod of t h e reduction-gear frame.

q1, 6

The aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a h e l i c o p t e r are determined from t h e expressions derived i n Section 1 of Chapter 111:
Gain i n altitude

/239

fig.2.137 Coefficients of Forces and Torque of Rotor i n Various F l i g h t Regimes.

m
t-

4
I -@((wR)zRuF
2
'

(6.3)

The flight-path angle t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l i s

The r o t o r angle of a t t a c k and t h e equivalent angle of a t t a c k a r e found from t h e following formulas (Fig.2.138):
a=B-e
I

ar=a-ycp,=a

+D,x-DZq+ k61,
DZT
=

(6.5)

(6 e6)

where Fig.2.138 For Determining t h e Angle of Attack (Y and Equivalent Angle of Attack ( Y , i n Flight.

RH -

d e f l e c t i o n of t h e e @valent plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r from t h e design plane

of r o t a t i o n a t i n c l i n e d automatic p i t c h control; kbl = a d d i t i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n of t h e equivalent plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r 25 5

i n t h e presence of a flapping campensator.

A t a methodologically c o r r e c t conduction of tests, t h e root-mea-square i s 0.5% while, i n det,ermining mt, it i s 3.5%. e r r o r i n determining tYh
The results of f l i g h t tests with t h e h e l i c o p t e r Mi-1 a r e p l o t t e d i n fig.2.139. The h e l i c o p t e r had a three-blade r o t o r with t r a p e z o i d a l t w i s t e d blades, D = l4.3 m, CJ = 0.0504, blades with plywood planking except f o r t h e blade root (F < 0.59) where t h e shank p o r t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e was covered w it h fabric

-0.04. . . . .

. .

Coefficient of Propulsive Forces as a Function of Ftig.2.139 Coefficient of Torque ( F l i g h t Tests of M i - 1 Helicopter)

"he aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r are obtained by subtracting t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s created by t h e n o n l i f t i n g elements from t h e coeffi1 1 , c i e n t s of forces of t h e helicopter. By analogy w i t h eq.(1.3) from Chapter 1 t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r a r e equal t o

where Zyf =

cyf

and

-.

c c, F

The c o e f f i c i e n t s Fyf and Ex of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r were determined by t e s t i n g a f u l l - s c a l e fuselage i n a wind tunnel. The l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e fusel a g e Zyi i s very small and we can disregard it i n eq.(6 .").

It i s necessary t o bear i n mind that t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of & a r o t o r obtained from f l i g h t tests t a k e i n t o account t h e mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e l i f t i n g and n o n l i f t i n g elements of t h e helicopter, a f a c t t h a t increases t h e
value of these d a t a .

2. @nd-T+el-Tests
Charac_teristics of

f o r Determining t& A e r o d m a m i C a Rotor

To determine t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f u l l - s c a l e helicopter r o t o r s i n a Wind tunnel, t h e TsAGI has s p e c i a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r t e s t i n g two-, three-, and four-blade r o t o r s with a diameter up t o 15.5 m.

Fig.2.UCO

F a c i l i t y f o r Testing Full-scale i n a Wind Tunnel.

Rotors

The first f a c i l i t y f o r t e s t i n g f u l l - s c a l e r o t o r s with an engine power of on t h e basis of t h e M i - 1 . 1 1 . 1 0 gives a v i e w of t h e u n i t mounted t o t h e upper s t r u c t u r e helicopter. Figure 2 of t h e tunnel balance. The unit has a s p e c i a l damping suspension support, maint a i n i n g t h e permissible level of v i b r a t i o n s set up on t h e balance during start-

575 hp was created under t h e supervision of M.L.Milt

25'7

t a z o

4 1 s

4 1 0

FSig.2.&1 Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor ( V = 0; M , = 0.5; c j = 0.0525; eriment )

258

~ j g . a 3 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Rotor


( M f l = 0.1;

v =Experiment). 0.2; Mo = 0.5;

(5

= 0.0525;

Fig . 2 . U Aerodynamic Characteristics of Rotor = 0.25; = 0.5; r s = 0.0525; (Mf I = 0.125; Experment)

up, overspeeding, and normal o p e r a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . The aerodynamic f o r c e s and moments of t h e r o t o r i n t h e axes of t h e Wind tunnel are determined as t h e difference between t h e readings of t h e balance w i t h t h e s p e c i a l u n i t operating, as w e l l as with t h e u n i t minus r o t o r and hub ( o r w i t h a nonrotating hub). The obtained moments and f o r c e s include t h e mutual i n t e r ference of t h e r o t o r With t h e f u s e l a g e of t h e unit and t h e e f f e c t of t h e r o t o r hub. I n some cases, c o r r e c t i o n s are introduced which take i n t o account t h e eff e c t of t h e r o t o r on t h e f o r c e s created by t h e f u s e l a g e of t h e unit. I n such cases, and also when measuring w i t h a strain-gage balance placed near t h e hub, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r include r o t o r and t h e e f f e c t of t h e r o t o r hub.
0 -

t h e e f f e c t of t h e fuselage on t h e

Figures 2.&l 2.&5 show t h e test-derived aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r of t h e Mi-1 helicopter, w i t h metal blades of r e c t a n g u l a r planform. The geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade are p l o t t e d i n F i g . 2 . w : blade prof i l e NACA 230, number of blades zb = 3 , diameter D = 14.5 m, s o l i d i t y r a t i o , & & CJ = 0.0525, mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of blade y = 4.5, flapping compensator k = 0.56.

z
i

-2
-4

Fig.2.&5 Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor (Mfl = 0.15; = 0.3; M, = = 0.5; CJ = 0.0525; Experiment).

Fig.2.w

Geometric C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade.

The experiment was l a i d out so t h a t t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s included t h e e f f e c t of t h e r o t o r hub and t h e mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e between fuselage and unit; this means t h a t , i n t h e aerodynamic design of a helicopter, allowance m u s t be made f o r t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r without r o t o r hub. 260

I n this book, we use experimental d a t a p e l l t d n i n g only t o t h e a e r o d y d c design of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Therefore, t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic characteri s t i c s are given f o r components of. f o r c e s i n a s y s t e m of wind axes t, and t,. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of f o r c e s t and h can be obtained by t h e conversion formulas (3.17)l. C e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 1 5and ) The r o t o r angles of a t t a c k , p l o t t e d i n Figs.2.%2 2.%5, correspond t o t h e volume zero d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism. To reduce of this book, t h e graphs of t, = f ( a , eo, o r t, = f(m,, e o , V ) , used f o r determining r o t o r p i t c h , are not given.

v)

MEXIBDs O F CONVEFZTING THE AEXODYNAMIC CHAFLACTERISTICS O F A FOTOR


The conversion formulas presented below make it p o s s i b l e t o use experimental d a t a p e r t a i n i n g t o some s p e c i f i c r o t o r f o r determining t h e aerodynamic charact e r i s t i c s of other r o t o r s s i m i l a r . t o t h e t e s t e d r o t o r with respect t o dimensionl e s s geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . For example, t h e experimental graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown i n Figs.2.l-42 - 2.&5 can be used, with t h e help of t h e conversion formulas, f o r determining t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s with o t h e r s o l i d i t y r a t i o s i f t h e r o t o r s have rectangular blades, a t w i s t of 5 9', and a p r o f i l e c l o s e t o t h e NACA 3 0 p r o f i l e . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be extrapolated t o o t h e r r o t o r s , but with a lower degree of accuracy.

The use of t h e conversion formulas permits an appreciable reduction i n t h e nmber of graphs of aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s required f o r h e l i c o p t e r designs.

3 . Conversionof Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a
Different Rotor S o l i d i t y R a t i o

kt us compare t w o r o t o r s whose blades have i d e n t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s of


t w i s t angles and r e l a t i v e chord

=6

ba,7

over t h e radius; t h e r o t o r s a r e as-

sumed t o have e i t h e r a d i f f e r e n t number of blades o r a d i f f e r e n t chord, bOe7 a d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o . The magnitude of t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade y has only a minor influence on t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s so t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n y can be disregarded; however, f o r rigorousness we w i l l assume t h a t y of both r o t o r s i s i d e n t i c a l .

i.e.,

A t uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e d i s k of t h e s e r o t o r s , t h e flapping motion of t h e blades and a l l dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e body a x i s system.- t, h, m,, and o t h e r s a r e i d e n t i c a l i f t h e r o t o r s have equal values of t h e f l i g h t regime c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p, c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h cp, and r e l a t i v e flow noma1 t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r A :

) . =

Vsina-u

UR

=ptana

-v

=pa

-v.

(6.9) 261

It i s easy t o prove this from t h e formulas of t h e Glauert-Lock theory (Sect .2) which i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e expressions f o r a l l dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s contain f o u r q u a n t i t i e s : p, A , rp, and y o These q u a n t i t i e s f u l l y determine t h e r o t o r kinematics; i f they a r e equal, t h e v e l o c i t y polygons i n each r o t o r s e c t i o n w i l l be a l i k e , and t h e true angles of a t t a c k , cy and cXp w i l l be equal.

Air Velocity Components Normal (V s i n a v> Fig.2.u7 and P a r a l l e l ( V cos cy) t o t h e Rotor Plane at Different Values of o and a . V cos cy1 = V cos cy2; V s i n cy1 - 9 = V s i n cy2 - v2.
A t known p, A , and t, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r i s determined by t h e expression

( 6.lo)
Consequently, at equal dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s but d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o s , t h e r o t o r angles of a t t a c k d i f f e r ; t h e r o t o r with t h e l a r g e r s o l i d i t y , i.e., with a l a r g e r dimensionless induced velocity, a t equal t and a t t h e same value of A , w i l l have a l a r g e r more p o s i t i v e angle of a t t a c k . Figure 2 . u 7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e q u a l i t y of t h e air v e l o c i t y components noma1 ( V s i n cy v = = AwR) and p a r a l l e l (V cos cy = pwR) t o t h e r o t o r plane a t d i f f e r e n t mean induced v e l o c i t i e s v and d i f f e r e n t r o t o r angles of a t t a c k a.

1 1 l 1 and 11211 t o denote t h e q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o Using t h e s u b s c r i p t s 1 r o t o r s with s o l i d i t y r a t i o s of ol and 02,we can w r i t e t h e expression f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e angles of a t t a c k of both r o t o r s

or, approximately f o r p

0 . 1 5 a t h2 Q p 2 ,
Aa=a,

-a2=(a,

f - 02) -

4 B 2 p . 2

The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e angles of a t t a c k i s expressed as t h e product of t h e 262

d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s o l i d i t i e s and t h e r a t i o

t 02P2

Consequently, a t equal t

and p t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e angles of a t t a c k i s proportional t o t h e difference i n CT. Thus, at equal p and


Zfl =const V =const
'p

a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e investigated r o t o r s i n body axes are i d e n t i c a l i f t h e r o t o r s have angles of a t t a c k d i f f e r i n g by a quantity ha, which i s determined from eq.(6.11). To change over t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n a system of wind axes, we use
t h e f o m u l a s f o r converting from one system t o another. Taking i n t o account t h a t t h e difference i n t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r s ACY i s small, we o b t a i n

m t

FSg.2.&8 Reconstruction of t h e Dependence t, = = f ( m , ) on Change of t h e Rotor S o l i d i t y Ratio.

L e t us w r i t e out t h e f i n a l formulas for, converting t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s with d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o s :

"tt,=mt2;

(6.12)

Equations (6.12) i n d i c a t e t h a t , on converting t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s g , t,, and mi i s retained whereas t, and CY change by a quantity which i s constant f o r given t, and 7. T h i s means t h a t t h e reconstruct i o n of t h e aerodyrgxic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r , represented as t h e dependence t, = f(m,) at V = const and t, = const, reduces t o a displacement of each curve along t h e ordinate by a quantity A t , = a0

4.B" v2

t$

(fig.2.&8).

Reconstruction of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s need not be c a r r i e d out i n p r a c t i c e , s i n c e we can execute t h e aerodynamic design of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e basis of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a similar r o t o r with a d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o , For example, i n designing a h e l i c o p t e r with a s o l i d i t y with due regard f o r A t , . r a t i o o2 based on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with a s o l i d i t y )2 and t h e required power Nh.f2 r a t i o C T ~ , t h e required torque c o e f f i c i e n t (mthmf a r e determined i n t h e following sequence: 263

1111

a) We first determine

b) For using t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with o,, we f i n d


txl=(txh.f))2+(a1
-'2)

'2, 4w;

v,=v2;
t y1 =t y 2 .
c ) From t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r w i t h ol , we determine mtl, d) W e find (mthef
)2,
(Yh.fz,

cyl,

cp1

and t h e required power of t h e h e l i c o p t e r :

The formulas derived above w e r e obtained f o r r o t o r s with uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e disk. For r o t o r s with an i n f i n i t e number of blades and nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , no arguments o r conversion formulas would change i f at each p o i n t of t h e d i s k t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s of t h e r o t o r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o s d i f f e r e d by an i d e n t i c a l quantity equal t o VAa. I n r e a l i t y , t h e change i n s o l i d i t y r a t i o influences a l s o t h e v a r i a b l e component of t h e induced v e l o c i t y , Toe., t h e induced v e l o c i t y diagrams do not differ by t h e same quantity. However, s i n c e we a r e converting t h e average per-revolut i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ty, t,, and m,, which a r e mainly determined by t h e average p o r t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t y , t h e conversion formulas (6.12) can be used with sufficient reliability. The proposed method of converting aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s i s It i s a l s o based on determining regimes i n which t h e kinematic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o p e l l e r s with d i f f e r e n t s o l i d i t y r a t i o s a r e i d e n t i c a l . The difference i s t h a t , f o r p r o p e l l e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t o, d i f f e r e n t f l y i n g speeds ( d i f f e r e n t h, ) a r e chosen, whereas f o r r o t o r s f o r which t h e kinematics i s determined not o&y by t h e noma1 velocit y but also by t h e v e l o c i t y component i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , t h e f l y i n g speed i s r e t a i n e d but d i f f e r e n t angles of a t t a c k are chosen.

similar t o a n analogous method f o r a i r p l a n e p r o p e l l e r s .

4.

Conve-rsion of A e r o d m c C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Variation

in M 3 & m t m P r o f i l e Drag Coefficient of t h e Blade


Sections

expo

If t h e blades d i f f e r i n magnitude of t h e minimum p r o f i l e drag c o e f f i c i e n t [different q u a l i t y of manufacture of t h e p r o f i l e (see Sect.4.3), d i f f e r e n t /2k8 p r o f i l e s d i f f e r i n g mainly i n t h e following formulas can be used f o r conv e r t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r s .

The increments i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of torque and l o n g i t u d i n a l force, accordi n g t o t h e Glauert-Lock theory, W i l l be equal to Mfz =const v =const ACXP Am;=--(1 P2h (6 *I31 Mo= const
ty

=const

Ah =where AcXp =

ACXP

P,
(cxp0)l

(6

*ue>

(expo 12. -

The remaining c o e f f i c i e n t s i n The t, increases by an amount equal t o Thus, t h e conversion formulas W i l l


a x i s system remain unchanged.
I
-

t h e body coefficient about Ah.


be

v,=Y,;
Yl

t y2 = t
Fig.2.q9 Reconstruction of t h e Dependence t, = f(m,) on Variations i n the M i n i m u m P r o f i l e Drag Coefficient of t h e Blade Sections.

tx 2 = t

x1

+-1

ACxpv;

*tz=mtl
a,=al;
YZ"p1.

1 ' +T Acxp(l +v2);

The v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s upon conversion i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.2.=9. Conversion can a l s o be performed, provided t h e r e i s constancy of t h e quantit y t,:

v,=V,;

ty 2 = t Y l ' t x2 = t .XI*
Under this condition, t h e increment i n torque Will be equal t o [see eq43.71) 1
4 mt=

Amp, =-1
4

AC x p ( 1

+3V2)
265

and, accordingly,

(6 -16)
By analogy w i t h eq.(3.72),
i n p l a c e of eq.(6.16)

we o b t a i n

Using eqs.(6.16)

or (6.17), we change from p o i n t 1i n Fig.2.14.9 t o p o i n t 3.

The nonrigorousness of t h e conversion formula l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t , w h i l e

it does take i n t o account t h e e f f e c t of an increment i n c x p , i t d i s r e g a r d s t h e f a c t t h a t , at p o i n t s 1 and 3, t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r s a r e not mutuall y equal (CY, = ; a j < crz ). Consequently, i n t h e s e regimes t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e t r u e angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n t induced and p r o f i l e powers a t i d e n t i c a l p r o f i l e polars. However, t h e & conversion methods a r e a p p r o x h a t e s o t h a t t h e i n d i c a t e d inaccuracy i s of no p r a c t i c a l value. If t h e p o l a r s of t h e p r o f i l e s d i f f e r not only i n t h e quantity cxpo but a l s o i n t h e i r slope, t h e proposed method w i l l not be v a l i d . Therefore, it i s unsuita b l e for converting aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o o t h e r Re and M, numbers. In t h e s e cases, t h e quantity Am, should be determined with consideration of t h e real values of ar and c x p a t each p o i n t of t h e r o t o r d i s k .

5. Conversion of A e r o d e c C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Variation
in t h e P e r i p h e r a l Speed of t
n r
Figures 2.80 2.88 i n Section 3 give graphs f o r t h e increment i n torque c o e f f i c i e n t a t Mach numbers g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 4 . . The graphs show t h a t at moderate values of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s t h e compressibility of air has a noticeable Therefore, upon a e f f e c t on t h e quantity m, at & g r e a t e r t h a n 0.55 - 0.6. change i n M, beyond t h e s e limits (and at near-separation values of ty a t lower M , ) c o r r e c t i o n s must be introduced i n t o t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 2.88 as r o t o r . These c o r r e c t i o n s a r e determined from t h e graphs i n Figs.2.80 t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e values of Am,, a t t h e Mach numbers i n question.

For example, i f t h e experiment was c a r r i e d out at M, equal t o Mq, and t h e e q e r i m e n t a l d a t a a r e used a t M, equal t o Moz t h e n t h e value of mtexp = m,(Ti,

ty, t,, Mol) found from t h e experimental graphs, must be supplemented by

where Am,,

a r e determined at corresponding M,

numbers and a t t h e same values of

v,

ty,

tx

Thus,

A t 7 > 0.3 when M, changes, we must introduce a c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r and, accordingly, t o t h e blade p i t c h . These corrections are introduced analogously:

The blade p i t c h i s determined i n r e l a t i o n t o 7, t y , and CY from t h e graphs of t, = f(a, eo, V) on t h e a s s m p t i o n t h a t this dependence does not change with respect t o M , .

A s shown i n Section 2, a change i n t h e slope of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and t h e flapping compensator will not cause a change i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ty,t,, and m, p r o d d e d t h a t t h e equivalent r o t o r angle of a t t a c k cy, = cy - cpl remams as before. Consequently, conversion of t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s reduces t o findi n g t h e new r o t o r angle of a t t a c k by means of t h e expression

where

i s determined by t h e formula

/250

The c o e f f i c i e n t s ale and means of eqs.(2.273), (2.274), verted by t h e formula

h e are

found from known values of a1 and bl by The r o t o r p i t c h i s co(2.&9), and (2.250).

~O~=~~+~zao=~o1--a,(~,--~).

(6.23)

On v a r i a t i o n i n t h e quantity

Y it am '

can be considered t h a t t h e coeffi-

c i e n t s a, and b b e n t e r i n g eqs.(6.22) t h e r a t i o of t h e new and old values of

and (6.23) vary i n d i r e c t proportion t o

2, i.e., a m

267

I n comparing experimental d a t a with each o t h e r or with calculated data, one m u s t a l s o account f o r t h e e f f e c t of t h e r o t o r hub, as i s done i n t h e examples given below.

7. E "les of U s i n g t h e Conversion Formulas


Comparison of calculated aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with emerimental. The calculated aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with rectangular blades CJ = 0.0525 w e r e obtained by t h e method presented i n Section 4. The only difference between c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment, which should be taken i n t o account when making a comparison, i s t h e e f f e c t of t h e r o t o r hub on t h e experimental charact e r i s t i c s . Taking ZXhub= 0.0015, a reduction of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o t h e experimental conditions r e q u i r e s t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e following increment t o t h e calcul a t e d propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r :

or, i n dimensionless form,

Thus, t h e experimental curves can be compared with t h e quantity

'"cl,

0.0015+V2=t 0,0525

xcaZc

+O.O286W.

I n F'ig.2.150, experimental curves and converted calculated curves ( t i ) are The diagram i n d i c a t e s t h a t , i n powered f l i g h t regimes p l o t t e d f o r 7 = 0.3. (t, = -0.01 -0.02), t h e difference i n m, i s n e g l i g i b l e whereas, i n a u t o r o t a , d i f f e r by 5 15%. The convergence of t h e experit i o n regime, t h e values of tXc mental and calculated curves i s b e t t e r a t lower

v.

Using t h e experiComparison of e m e r h e n t a l aerodyn&rqic c h a x a c t e r i s t i c p mental aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with t r a p e z o i d a l b l a d e s of /251 NACA 230 p r o f i l e , plywood planking, CJ = 0.0$65, and M , = 0.4, t h e conversion formulas w i l l y i e l d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with rectangular metal blades with NACA 230 p r o f i l e , 0 = 0.0525, and M , = 0.5, which can then be compared with t h e experimentally obtained c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown i n Figs .2.&l 2.w5.

The difference i n t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o i s taken i n t o account by eq.(6.12):

268

tr

0.01

txB
rr

PO1

-R01

-u-o'l 1 I Il l
- 0.021

0 . 0 : Fig.2.151 Camparison of Experimental and Converted Aerodynamic Characterist i c s of Rotor (Mfl = 0.15; V = 0.3; M, = 0.5; CJ = 0.0525).

Fig.2.150 Comparison of Experimental and Calculated Aerodynamic Character. 1 5 ; V = 0.3; i s t i c s of Rotor (Mfl = 0 M, = 0.5; CJ = 0.0525).

The difference i n t h e p r o f i l e puwer of t h e r o t o r s , with consideration of t h e difference i n blade planform, i s found from t h e following expressions:

(6-25)

Admitting f o r t h e t r a p e z o i d a l blade P = 0.92, cXp,, = 0.009 and i n conformity with t h e recommendations i n Section 4 . 3 , AcXp = 0.0025, we f i n d
Ampp= -[?0.92+0.009(0.924 1) (1 +5e2)=

-0.0()04(1+5ih).

So as t o make t h e conversion of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s only with respect t o one of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , namely with respect t o t, a t m, = const, we convert

/252

269

Am,,

t o At,

pr

.
while

The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e M , numbers i s taken i n t o account by eqs.(6.19), Amoo i s determined from t h e graphs i n Egs.2.80 2.88.

A t a d i f f e r e n c e i n s o l i d i t y r a t i o s , t h e hub drag results i n a d i f f e r e n t increment of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t,:

To convert t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , we must s u b t r a c t ( A t x h u b ) l from t h e coeffic i e n t of t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e experiment under conversion (ol)and add ( A t X h U b )z :

Since, i n analyzing t h e e x p e r b e n t with t r a p e z o i d a l blades, t h e drag of t h e nonrotating hub was excluded, we can t a k e 'Exhub = 0.00075 t o account f o r hub /253 r o t a t i o n . Therefore, t h e conversion f o r t h e e f f e c t of t h e hub i s performed by means of t h e expression

Thus, t h e f i n a l expression f o r converting t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, has t h e form

-0.0004'+5P+O.O2V2+%. V

For comparison purposes, Fig.2.151 gives t h e experimentally obtained and converted (t:) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . For t h e most p a r t , t h e agreement of t h e curves is satisfactory.
Section 7. Perf ornance and Propulsive Efficiency Coefficient of a Rotor The h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r produces l i f t and simultaneously a c t s a s t h e prime 270

mover of t h e helicopter. Therefore, it i s natural t o characterize i t s l i f t i n g and propulsive p r o p e r t i e s i n t h e same manner as a Wing i s characterized by t h e These concepts performance K, and a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r by t h e efficiency permit d e f i n i t i o n of t h e degree of s u i t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r as a means f o r produci n g l i f t and propulsive force, as well as a r a p i d performance, i n general form, of appro-te c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e required power of a single-rotor helicopter, a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a wing and t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s , or a m u l t i r o t o r helicopter, and proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e regime of m m u m performance (ma.ximum range). Knowing t h e performance and efficiency, one can estimate d i r e c t l y t h e expediency of installing a wing and t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s on a helicopter, determine what p a r t of t h e t o t a l drag of a h e l i c o p t e r i s made up by p a r a s i t e drag and how much t h e required power can be reduced when t h e p a r a s i t e drag i s reduced, and f i n d t h e r a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of power between t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s and r o t o r
A determination of r o t o r performance i n a n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime i s c a r r i e d out i n t h e same manner as f o r a Wing. The concept of r o t o r performance has been widely used i n aerodynamic designs of autogiros. The r o t o r performance, together w i t h a c o e f f i c i e n t which we Will c a l l t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t , can be used a l s o f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a helicopter, as we Will demonstrate below.

Unlike i n a n a i r p l a n e , where t h e Wing and p r o p e l l e r are d i f f e r e n t units and K, and TtaP can be examined independently of each other, i n a helicopter t h e r o t o r performance K and t h e e f f i c i e n c y 7 are i n t e r r e l a t e d and t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r i n any regime i s determined by t h e value of t h e product KT.

L e t us first d i s c u s s t h e concepts of performance and efficiency, described i n i n d i v i d u a l works on h e l i c o p t e r aerodynamics (K.Khokhenemzer and other authors).
1 . Performance - - - _ a@ Efficiency of Rotor Prmosed by K .Khokhenemzer

Rotor performance can be determined on t h e assumption t h a t t h e a c t u a l prop u l s i v e f o r c e of t h e r o t o r (-X)

i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r a t i o
=

7 5N and V

some arbitrary drag of t h e r o t o r X.,,(-X t h e arbitrary drag of t h e r o t o r :

-75N V

X a r b ) , from which we determine

Correspondingly, t h e r o t o r performance i s

K=-- Y
xa~6

Y __-

75N I V

'

The r a t i o

75N would be equal t o t h e propulsive V

f o r c e i f t h e e n t i r e power Since t h e a c t u a l propulsive

w e r e converted Without l o s s e s i n t o propulsive force.

271

f o r c e i s equal t o

75N 7 - X a r b , ,it i s

obvious that a l l l o s s e s belong t o

Xarb.

Thus, t h e r o t o r is represented as a c e r t a i n mechanism c r e a t i n g f o r c e s Y and X,,b; t h e power supplied t o it c r e a t e s , without l o s s e s , a propulsive f o r c e equal t o

so that t h e t o t a l ( a c t u a l ) propulsive f o r c e i s equal t o

75N V

Xarb.

The a r b i t r a r y drag of t h e r o t o r i s comparable w i t h t h e drag of a wing p l u s t h e power l o s s e s of t h e t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r , i.e.,

w h i l e t h e t o t a l propulsive f o r c e of t h e system %ing

+ t r a c t o r propeller" i s

As a second version i t i s proposed t o consider t h a t t h e l i f t of a r o t o r i s produced without loss (without drag) and t h a t a l l l o s s e s a r e accounted f o r by t h e generation of a propulsive f o r c e . The r o t o r i s represented as some mechanism producing l i f t Y, w h i l e t h e power s q p l i e d t o it i s converted i n t o propulsive force

-X=- 75 Nq
Hence,

v '

It i s obvious t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y
v

17

cannot be compared w i t h

rJtep

but with

/255

t h e difference

Ttep -

,75Nt.

*W

-,s i n c e
p

t h e t h r u s t of t h e p r o p e l l e r minus t h e

wing drag i s equal t o

The d e s c r i p t i o n of both versions of representing t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r shows t h a t t h e y are both a r t i f i c i a l and comparable only with combined c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e wing and t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r . T h i s i s t h e adverse s i d e of t h e proposed concepts. Their favorable s i d e i s t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are des c r i b e d only by one quantity: e i t h e r by performance o r by e f f i c i e n c y . The concepts of r o t o r performance (or e f f i c i e n c y ) examined above a r e convenient f o r c a l c u l a t i o n , s i n c e they r e l a t e f l y i n g speed V and h e l i c o p t e r weight G ( o r propulsive f o r c e ) w i t h t h e required power. Actually, having set i n eq(7.1) G = Y and Qpar = -X, we o b t a i n

272

(7.3) However, t h e sense of applying t h e s e concepts i s predicated upon t h e convenience of use i n c a l c u l a t i o n and i n determining optimal parameters. O u r conc e p t s presented below a l s o sinrplify t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s and, furthermore, w h i l e ret a i n i n g t h e sense and value of analogous COG cepts f o r airplanes, f a c i l i t a t e an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of composite rotary-wing a i r c r a f t . 2. Determination of Perf ormanse- and Prapulsive EXficiency of a Rotor

Fig.2.152 For Determining t h e Concepts of Performance and Efficiency of a Rotor.

L e t t h e r o t o r operate i n t h e regime llatl (Fig.2.152) with a propulsive f o r c e X,, requiri n g a power N , . To i n c r e a s e t h e propulsive f o r c e t o x b w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e l i f t Y, t h e r o t o r m u s t be t i l t e d forward and t h e power must The e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r as be r a i s e d t o N,. a propulsion u n i t on changing from t h e regime llalt t o t h e regime 11b11 i s defined a s t h e r a t i o of t h e power increment of t h e r o t o r a s a prime mover -hxv t o t h e increment of power supplied t o t h e rotor:

If, t o i n c r e a s e t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r we were t o i n s t a l l a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r and supply it with a power equal i n magnitude t o t h e d i f f e r N, = AN, t h e n it would c r e a t e a t h r u s t of ence Nb

A comparison of this expression w i t h eq.(7.4) shows that t h e inwement i n propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r -AX i s characterized by i t s propulsive e f f i c i e n c y r\ j u s t as t h e t h r u s t of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r i s characterized by i t s e f f i /256 ciency

vtep.

I n a c r a f t with a r o t o r i n s t a l l e d t o produce l i f t , t h e power can be supplied o r t o the e i t h e r t o t h e r o t o r ( h e l i c o p t e r : NtmP = 0, Nrot = Nb, see Fig.2.152), t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r (autogiro: NrOt = 0, Ntap = Nb), or d i s t r i b u t e d between t h e N,) A comparison of q with TIt.? first (Nro = N,) and second (NtaP = Nb shows which of t h e s e versions i s b e t t e r , i.e., whether it i s expedient t o i n s t a l l a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r f o r increasing t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e c r a f t or whether it i s more advantageous t o transmit t h e e n t i r e power t o t h e r o t o r : if TI > Tit.

then

lXbl

'

IxaI

-k pt.p

More p r e c i s e l y , we must compare 'fl with r\t.p

St. S

273

I IIII

(the r a t i o

st-,

takes i n t o account t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l o s s e s of power trans-

mitted t o t h e r o t o r and t o t h e t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r

&=A+.p
rt
N
N=O
' D i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t
___t

Thus, i n order t o o b t a i n f o r a r o t o r , which i s a lift-producing component as w e l l as a propulsion unit, a coeffic i e n t analogous t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r , i t i s necessary t o
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e increment i n propulsive f o r c e (or drag) of t h e r o t o r when power i s supplied t o it. Therefore, we def i n e d t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r as t h e r a t i o of t h e increments of u s e f u l and expended work, although such a r a t i o i s not a c t u a l l y t h e e f f i c i e n c y but only perfomns i t s r o l e f o r c r a f t with a r o t o r .

Y KS XC

?==
75N

Fig.2.153 Model Representing a Lifting Rotor as Two Elements and Propelling.

s e l e c t here t h e point

Ilall).

To determine t h e propulsive e f f i ciency with respect t o eq.(7.4) we m u s t s e l e c t some regime as t h e i n i t i a l (we The drag of t h e r o t o r i n this regime X, determines

i t s performance.
It i s expedient t o take, as i n i t i a l regime, an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime (point I n this regime, no power i s supplied t o t h e r o t o r which, i n n Fig.2.152). producing l i f t , a l s o c r e a t e s drag l i k e a wing.
1 1 ~ 1 1i

Thus, t h e work done by a r o t o r can be i n t e r p r e t e d as follows: The l i f t i s generated by t h e r o t o r i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime without t h e expenditure of engine power, j u s t as f o r a wing; i n regimes with a supply of power t h e r o t o r c r e a t e s a propulsive f o r c e which p a r t i a l l y compensates ( a t N < N h ) or overcornpensates (at N > Nh) t h e r o t o r drag i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime. The propulsive efficiency characterizes t h e power l o s s e s of a r o t o r when changing t o an engine (propulsion u n i t ) regime. The r o t o r i s replaced by t h e model shown i n Fig.2.153, f o r which, i n conformity with t h e foregoing, t h e expressions f o r 71 and K have t h e form

In eqs.(7.6), (7.7) and below t h e s u b s c r i p t IlcII means that t h e indicated quantity r e f e r s t o an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.
u m of I n l e v e l f l i g h t , t h e propulsive force of t h e r o t o r i s equal t o t h e s t h e r o t o r drag tx0 and t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r tXo t, h - f = t x o

+m

a ,

V2

Consequently, t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y and performance of a heli-

copter i n horizontal f l i g h t a r e ecpal t o 274

or

) represents t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e a r b i t r a r y propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and i s equal t o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e drag counteracted by t h e t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r of an autogiro o r h e l i c o p t e r f o r which, i n horizontal f l i g h t , t h e r o t o r operates i n a n autorota-

W e note t h a t t h e quantity ( G c

t,

h.f

t i o n regime.
= c o n s t , M, -const
6 =const

t, =const

v=canst M,,=const

Fig.2.154 Determination of Rotor Efficiency a t Linear Dependence of t, on m,. I n eqs.(7.7), (7.9), and (".lo), those used i n autogiro c a l c u l a t i o n s .

Fig.2.155 For Estimating t h e Ehpediency of I n s t a l l i n g a Tractor Prop e l l e r on a Helicopter. t h e q u a n t i t i e s K and Kh are t h e same as

U s e of t h e concepts of performance and propulsive e f f i c i e n c y f o r c a l c u h Here, t i o n i s highly convenient i n t h e case of l i n e a r dependence of t, on m,.

t h e quantity

does not depend on m, or t,, s i n c e t h e r a t i o


=

1 V is

equal t o t h e

angle of slope of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s t,

f(m,) (Fig.2.154.).

I n p l a c e of t h e aggregate of t h e graphs (see Figs.2.105 - 2.109) constructed f o r s e v e r a l V, t h e aerodynamic c & a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be represented as two graphs: K and I) as a function of t, and V (see Fig.2.158), by means of which t, i s

275

determined from eqs.(7.7) and (7.6) at h o h values of ty, V, m,, determined at known ty, 7, t,.

or e l s e m, i s

I n t h e case of a nonlinear dependence of t, on m,, when 17 depends on m,, t h e use of K and 11 i n c a l c u l a t i o n s o f f e r s no s u b s t a n t i a l advantages. Here, it i s of i n t e r e s t t o determine t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y with respect t o t h e angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e tangent t o t h e curve t, = f ( m t ) at t h e p o i n t ' i n question

A comparison of Ill with

7t.p

permits determining whether t h e propul-

s i v e f o r c e of a c r a f t can be increased by i n s t a l l i n g a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r .
71 = T t . p
b

kt

=D

a t the point

llal1

(Fig.2.155).

It i s obvious t h a t , i f
7 1

m, < mt,,

we have

'

7t.p

-and
5

use

I n t h e case of a nonlinear dependence of t, on m,, it i s preferable, f o r approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h t h e concept of performance and efficiency, t o replace t h e nonlinear dependence of t, on m, by a l i n e a r dependence. Such an appro*t i o n i s made i n t h e segment of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s from a! = -20' and sometimes from a! = - 1 5 O a t = 0.15 ( p o i n t F i n ~ig.2.156) t o t h e minimum value of m, (point H i n Fig.2.156) a t which t h e g r e a t e s t d e v i a t i o n of m, from exact values (approximately a horizontal f l i g h t does not exceed 3%of m t G at t, =-0.1 regime of h e l i c o p t e r s )

For Determining t h e Fig.2.156 Performance and Efficiency, a t Nonlinear Dependence of t, on m,.

of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r i s not advantageous. If t h e r o t o r operates i n a regime w i t h m g r e a t e r than m,. , t h e i n s t a l l a a y increase t i o n of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r m t h e propulsive force, t h e m a x i " gain being obtained when a power corresponding t o m t a i s transmitted t o t h e r o t o r and t o t h e t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r (mt - m,,).

v2

The value of 11 and K, determined from t h e appro-ting calculated by t h e formulas

segment H F ' , is

276

The e f f i c i e n c determined by t h e angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e linearized dependence t, = f ( m t y must be regarded as t h e propulsive efficiency, on t h e average, f o r t h e curve.

3. Pe-rmance.

a n h E f f iciencg of a Rot or. Obtained from E k p e r a e n t a l Data

The graphs f o r t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r i n t h e form of t h e dependence t, = f(m,) obtained from experiments i n a full-scale wind tunnel are given i n Section.6 i n Figs.2.l42 2 . l 4 5 . They p e r t a i n t o a three-blade metal r o t o r With rectangular twisted blades, cr = 0.0525, and include t h e drag of t h e r o t o r hub. From these graphs and using eqs.(7.6), (7.7), we determine t h e dependence of K and 7 on t, shown i n Figs.2.157 and 2.158.

0.10

0.15

0.20 t,

0.70

0.w t ,

Fig.2.157 Rotor Performance according t o Experimental Data (M, = 0.5; 0 = 0.0525).

Fig.2.158 Rotor Efficiency according t o w e r i m e n t a l Data (M, = 0.5; CY = 0.0525).

To define t h e character of t h e slope of t h e curves of K, l e t us examine t h e approsmate expressions f o r K. According t o t h e energy method of calculat i o n (Sect .3), we have

mtc=O=tyvc-tt,cP+m,c;

(7.W

(7.16)

277

li

The i n c r e a s e i n performance w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n V can be a t t r i b u t e d t o a decrease i n induced and p r o f i l e drags w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n V. A t average values of t,, t h e performance depends l i t t l e on t, s i n c e t h e induced p a r t of t h e rec i p r o c a l performance i n c r e a s e s w i t h increasing t, whereas t h e p r o f i l e p a r t decreases (up t o i n c i p i e n t f l o w separation). A t small t,, t h e performance decreases owing t o a n i n c r e a s e i n

-. l

KPF

The m&um magnitude of r o t o r performance depends on 7, %, 0, q u a l i t y of blade manufacture, and geometric blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Optimum performance was not obtained i n t h e experiments, owing to t h e low value of The l a r g e s t of t h e obtained values i s K , , , = 9.7 a t V = 0.3, t, = 0.17.

vmax .

Rotor performance i s lower i n magnitude t h a n wing performance. T h i s i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t a r o t o r has g r e a t e r p r o f i l e l o s s e s than a n a i r p l a n e wing since, at equal f l y i n g speed, t h e flow across t h e blades has a much g r e a t e r v e l o c i t y U. I n t h e case of undeflected mechanisms, t h e p r o f i l e drag of a wing i s by a f a c t o r of 2 2.7 less t h a n t h a t of a r o t o r . Upon d e f l e c t i o n of t h e mechanisms, t h e p r o f i l e drag of a wing i n c r e a s e s appreciably and approaches t h e p r o f i l e drag of a r o t o r .

A r o t o r and wing are c l o s e l y adjacent i n value of induced drag ( a t 1 , = D and a t uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e induced drag i s t h e same). A decrease i n performance a t small i s i n e v i t a b l e both f o r a r o t o r and /260 f o r a wing, owing t o a n i n c r e a s e i n induced drag. However, t h e wing cannot have as low a performance as a r o t o r , s i n c e t h e wing cannot have as high a cy as a r o t o r a t V < 0.15 [see eq.(.!+..37), Chapt.1111.
The propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r varies w i t h i n t h e limits of 0.99 t o The curves of 7 i n t e r s e c t one another, and i n some cases t h e r e i s an ap0.9. p r e c i a b l e s c a t t e r i n g of t h e t e s t p o i n t s . The f a c t i s t h a t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine accurately t h e quantity 7 , s i n c e t h e scattering of t h e t e s t p o i n t s on graphs of t, = f(mt) c r e a t e s some indeterminacy i n t h e angle of slope of t h e 5%) e f f e c t on t h e quantity s t r a i g h t l i n e s , which has a noticeable (within 3

Q.

The inaccuracy i n determining 7 , and a l s o K, shows t h a t when representing t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r i n t h e form of l i f t i n g and propelling elements it i s impossible t o estimate them s e p a r a t e l y w i t h high accuracy. However, this does not mean t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n s performed w i t h t h e use of K and il have a l o w accuracy, s i n c e when determining m i by t h e formula

(7.17)
t h e e r r o r s i n determining 7 and K are compensated.

Eigure 2.158 shows t h a t , even i f t h e low accuracy of determining t h e r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y i s taken i n t o consideration, this efficiency i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of a t r a c t o r p r a p e l l e r . Since ll i s defined as t h e r a t i o of t h e increments of useful t o expended work, i t need not be less t h a n 1.0. We W i l l explain this. Let

us s u b s t i t u t e i n t o eq.(7.6) t h e expression f o r r o t o r power taken from t h e energy method of c a l c u l a t i o n

Then eq.(7.6)

t a k e s t h e form

It i s c l e a r from eq.(7.19) t h a t , i f t h e induced and p r o f i l e powers of t h e r o t o r which depend mainly on l i f t w e r e not t o change on a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e prop u l s i v e force, then t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y would be equal t o 1.0. Actually, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s of N i n d and Npr are small, s i n c e we are examining t h e change of propulsive f o r c e a t constant l i f t and f l y i n g speed, ?.e., a t approximately i d e n t i c a l average values of induced v e l o c i t y and t r u e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade sections. We can show t h a t , f o r an i d e n t i c a l propulsive force, t h e s e d i f ferences are r e s p e c t i v e l y smaller t h a n t h e induced and p r o f i l e powers of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r , as a result of which 1 > 'lit.*

Thus, i n t e d n e d that accounted f o r mines t h e l o w

examining t h e l i f t i n g and propulsive p r o p e r t i e s of a r o t o r , we deand Npr i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n r e g i m e ) i s t h e bulk of power l o s s e s (N,,, by energy l o s s e s r e l a t e d w i t h t h e production of l i f t , which deterperformance of a r o t o r .

The propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r d i f f e r s from 1.0, owing t o t h e s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e i n induced and p r o f i l e l o s s e s i n regimes with power supply t o t h e r o t o r and i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regimes; it i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a t r a c t o r propeller.

It should be borne i n m i n d t h a t t h e values of K and ll, whose dependence on t, i s shown i n Figs.2.157 and 2.158, are v a l i d f o r regimes w i t h i n limits i n which t h e experiments are c a r r i e d out. T h i s means t h a t mt, calculated by eq.(7.17), can be c o r r e c t l y determined, i f i t i s not g r e a t e r than t h e m a x i values of m, u t o which t h e experimental curves w e r e p l o t t e d (mtaaX = = 0.01 0.0137.

/261

4.

Performance and Efficiency from Calculated Graphs

of

a R o t o r . Obtained

The performance and e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r w i t h rectangular twisted blades r = 0.091, were determined from graphs of t h e aerc( v a r i a n t I1 i n Table 2.10), c dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n . I n t h e case of nonlinear dependence t, = f ( m , ) , t h e q u a n t i t i e s K and ll were found from eqs.(7.12) and (7.13). The graphs of K and 7 are shown i n Figs.2.159 and 2.160.

Mo

Rotor performance begins t o decrease at M, > 0.6, e s p e c i a l l y a t l a r g e 7; a t K diminishes by 1.5, and-at V = 0.4 by 3.5. At M , = 0.7, t h e performance at B = 0.3 i s g r e a t e r t h a n a t V = 0.4, and t h e maxi performance i s equal t o about 7.5.
= 0.7 and V = 0.3,

279

The e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r , f o r M , = .0.6 0.7 a t average and small values A t near-separation values of ty, of ty, has a higher value (more than 0.95). t h e e f f i c i e n c y begins t o drop markedly, but does not decrease when t, = tYor

less than 0.75

- 0.85.
K
10

8
7 6
5

3
2

008

QIO

urz

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

a22

ant,

F'ig.2.159

Rotor Performance (Calculation, cr = 0.091).

The values of K and ll obtained as a result of l i n e a r i z a t i o n of t h e curves of t, = f ( m t ) hold t r u e w i t h i n c e r t a i n limits. The upper l i m i t of a p p l i c a b i l i t y
of t h e graphs of K and given i n Table 2.13.

are t h e values of t h e r a t i o

mtmax

tJ

( y)
m ax

Fcig.2.160

Rotor Efficiency (Calculation, cr = O.09l).

280

If t h e r a t i o

75N obtained from c a l c u l a t i o n i s less t h a t that given i n Yv

Table 2.13, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l not d i f f e r by more t h a n 3% from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n made from graphs of aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Furthermore we note t h a t t h e
values of

7 w given i n Table 2.13 Yv

correspond t o f l i g h t regimes w i t h

cy =

2 0 '

/262

( sametimes 1 5 ' at

7 = 0.15)

The lower U t of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e graphs i n Figs.2.159 and 2.160 i s t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime or a powered g l i d e . More accurately, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s for an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime are performed from t h e graphs of K, shown i n . Fig.2.111, s i n c e t h e values of K found fran t h e l i n e a r i z e d curves may differ somewhat from K,.

TABLE 2.13

A comparison of t h e performance and e f f i c i e n c y of r o t o r s having blades with , = 0.4 0 . 5 , t h e blade d i f f e r e n t geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shows t h a t , a t M p r o f i l e influences t h e value of K t o w i t h i n s e v e r a l percents whereas 17 depends l i t t l e on t h e blade p r o f i l e . T h i s means t h a t r o t o r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s require a power d i f f e r i n g by AN, where AN i s independent of t h e type of operating regime of t h e r o t o r , namely a t e i t h e r l a r g e o r small propulsive f o r c e ( i n g l i d i n g or climbing).

For t r a p e z o i d a l blades ( E r i a n t I of t h e blades i n Table 2.10), K i s g r e a t e r by 0.5 ( a t = 0.2) 1.5 ( a t V = 0.4), and T l i s lower by 0.01 ( a t = 0.2) = 0.4) t h a n f o r rectangular blades. T h i s means t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t 0.03 (at decrease i n required power f o r a r o t o r w i t h t r a p e z o i d a l blades occurs a t small propulsive forces. A t l a r g e propulsive forces, t h e r o t o r with rectangular /263 blades having a l a r g e r 7 may prove t o be better.

Comparative graphs of K and r\ a t M, = 0.7 are shown i n Figs.2.161 2.164. The diagrams show t h a t , f o r a r o t o r without a high-speed p r o f i l e at-the blade 1.7 ( a t V = 0.4) t h a n V ) , K i s smaller by 0.7 ( a t = 0.2) t i p ( v a r i a n t s 111, I f o r a r o t o r with a high-speed p r o f i l e . For t r a p e z o i d a l blades, K i s higher by 0.5 - 1.0 and 7 lower by 0.02 - 0.08, respectively, t h a n f o r a r o t o r w i t h rectangular blades.

For a r o t o r w i t h blades of increased geometric twist ( v a r i a n t VI) and with = 0.4, t h e performance i s blades expanding toward t h e t i p ( v a r i a n t VII) at l l 0 . 5 0.7 lower and t h e e f f i c i e n c y 0.05 - 0 . 1 5 higher. The very high value of '

281

f o r a r o t o r w i t h increased twist i s a consequence of t h e s u b s t a n t i a l decrease


i n p r o f i l e l o s s e s upon an i n c r e a s e i n propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r ( s e e F i g s . 2 . 7 5 and 2 . 7 6 ) .
' I
095

a90
K

6
5
4

0.85

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

ty

a mala

0 . 7 2

0.14

016

0 . 7 8

ty

F i g . 2 . 1 6 1

Performance of Rotors w i t h Blades of Different Shape = 0 . 2 ;

Mo

0 . 7 ) .

(v

~ig.2.162 Efficiency of Rotors with = 0 . 2 ; Blades of Different Shape

Mo
' I
1.1

(v

= 0.7).

1.0

0 . 9 0

~ig.2.163 Performance of Rotors with


Blades of Different Shape

Mo = 0 . 7 ) .

(v = 0.4.;

F i g . 2 . 1 6 4

Efficiency of Rotors with Blades of Different Shape = 0 . 4 . ;

Mo

0.7).

(v

5. Conversion of Pexfo-pgEce and Efficiency on


Variations in-Rotor

Parameters -

I n conformity with t h e formulas derived i n Section 6, t h e performance of a r o t o r on v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o and p r o f i l e power c o e f f i c i e n t i s converted by t h e expression

282

III

A change i n p r o f i l e power c o e f f i c i e n t should take i n t o account a change /264. of t h e p r o f i l e ( o r AcXp, owing t o t h e difference i n t h e q u a l i t y of blade manufacture) and a change i n mpr from t h e wave drag:

in

expo

The propulsive e f f i c i e n c y i s independent of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n cs and AcXp The quantity 6mco depends on t, so t h a t a l s o +ll depends on t,.. However, f o r t h e sake of s i m p l i c i t y we need not convert 7, and we s u b s t i t u t e 6mco i n t o eq.(7.21) a t an average value of t,.

6. General Coments on Rotor Efficiency and Performance


Figures 2.165 - 2.167 show t h e generalized graphs of K and ll, which can be used f o r estimate c a l c u l a t i o n s . Figure 2.165 gives the graph of K f o r cs = = 0.091, which i s v&d f o r average and-large t,. A t small ( t , = O . l ) , K i s Figure 2.166 contains t h e smaller by 0.2 ( a t V = 0.15) - 1.5 ( a t V = 0.4). For M, > 0.55, t h e e f f i c i e n c y must be graph of ll used f o r a l l t, a t M, < 0.55. corrected by a quantity AT, which i s p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.167 as a f u n c t i o n of t,,

M , ,

v*
M,c0.5
M0-0.6

TI
1.b L

M,-0.7

I
U.91

I---0.I

Trapezoidal b l a d e

0.2

0.3

~ i g . 2 . 1 6 5 Generalized Graph of Rotor Performance (cs = 0.091).

Fig.2.166

Generalized Graph of Rotor Efficiency (M, < 0 . 5 ) .

Thus, as shown i n Figs.2.165 2.167, t h e r o t o r performance i s lower than t h e wing performance, and t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r i s higher t h a n t h a t of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r . T h i s i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e bulk of t h e power l o s s e s p e r t a i n t o l o s s e s r e l a t e d w i t h t h e production of l i f t , whereas t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y d i f f e r s from unity owing t o t h e small d i f f e r e n c e i n induced and p r o f i l e l o s s e s i n regimes with power supply t o t h e r o t o r and i n autor o t a t i o n regimes. Thus, it i s obvious that t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of a wing with a performance higher t h a n t h a t of a r o t o r w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e performance of t h e l i f t i n g system of a helicopter. The i n s t a l l a t i o n of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r of an e f f i c i e n c y lower than t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of a r o t o r w i l l lead t o some i n c r e a s e i n required

283

Arl
U

power.. Therefore, a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r on a h e l i c o p t e r can be u s e f u l when t h e relief of t h e r o t o r load by t h e wing o r t h e /265 reserve of a v a i l a b l e power render t h e ratio

-0 . 7
-0. i

75N g r e a t e r Yv

t h a n t h a t shown i n

Table 2.13, s i n c e then t h e negative angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r becomes g r e a t e r t h a n 20' (which i s undesirable f o r design considerations, s i n c e t h e range of p i t c h angles of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and i t s p a r a s i t e drag will i n c r e a s e ) . Furthermore, a t
larger

~ i g . 2 . 1 6 7 Correction f o r Rotor Efficiency as-a Function of t y ,

Mo,

v*

75N , Yv

t h e values of ll may become

smaller t h a n Tt.p A t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r or another p r o p e l l e r may be required f o r


G

r e a l i z a t i o n of a l a r g e power excess (approximately >0 . 4 5 - 0.5 f o r a h e l i c o p t e r .

> 0.35) when V,,

>

&uantitatively, t h e change i n required power of a helicopter, on i n s t a l l a t i o n of a wing o r t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r , i s small. Such an estimate w i l l be made i n Section 4, Chapter 1 1 1 . Section 8. Calculation of Rotor C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n Hovering and V e r t i c a l Ascent (Moments-Theory o f - r o p e l l e r s ) The theory of a r o t o r i n hovering and v e r t i c a l ascent has been thoroughly presented i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on h e l i c o p t e r and p r o p e l l e r aerodymmics. I n this Section, we w i l l give some d a t a p e r t a i n i n g t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of r o t o r s with p e r i p h e r a l speeds as they are i n use a t present. The c a l c u l a t i o n s w e r e performed w i t h regard t o momentum theory of a r o t o r . T h i s theory was s e l e c t e d because of t h e f a c t t h a t i n t r o d u c t i o n of l i n e a r i z e d aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n can be replaced by i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e a c t u a l dependence of cy and cXp on a and M y obtained from wind-tunnel tests of t h e p r o f i l e .

1 . B r i e f R e v i e w of t h e Momentup Theom of P r m e l l e r s
Figure 2.168 shows t h e v e l o c i t y polygon i n a blade s e c t i o n a t a r e l a t i v e r a d i u s F; i n t h e regime of v e r t i c a l climb. The r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y of flow i n t h e blade s e c t i o n U r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u m of t h e vectors: f l y i n g speed V,, p e r i p h e r a l v e l o c i t y w r , and induced v e l o c i t y U. Since t h e vector of t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodyt

namic force of t h e s e c t i o n dR i s d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e momentum vector, t h e induced v e l o c i t y v e c t o r 2 i s p a r a l l e l t o dR.


4

28L

dY

dR &--$

---- 4dT

The mass flow through a c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n a t a radius r of width d r i s equal t o

/266

I
I

d m = ~ 2 n r d r I V ,1,
I -

(8.1)

L
C

where V, i s t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y c o q o n e n t U. Applging t h e momentum theorem t o t h e r i n g and using t h e theorem of doubling t h e induced v e l o c i t y far aft of t h e r o t o r , we obtain t h e e quation (8.2)

~'ig.2.168 Velocity of Polygon i n a Blade Section i n V e r t i c a l Climb-Regime.

2dmu = zbdR,

where z,dR i s t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e elementary aerodynamic f o r c e s created by a l l blades a t r a d i u s r. S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.($.l) i n t o eq.(8.2) and expressing dR i n terms of t h e force c o e f f i c i e n t c R ,e =., we o b t a i n t h e equation

Equation (8.3) can be represented i n t h e form

T h i s equation determines t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of aerodynamic f o r c e i n t h e blade s e c t i o n ( t h e so-called tlcoupling equationll)

Equation (8.4) holds f o r a stream flow through t h e r o t o r d i s k but i s inapplicable i n t h e region of t h e 11vortex ring*#. Ekpressing t h e v e l o c i t i e s e n t e r i n g eq.(8.4) i n terms of trigonometric funct i o n s of t h e angles of t h e v e l o c i t y polygon, we can write eq.(8.4) i n t h e trigonometric form:
sin p.sin (Bo
cos (Bo

- p)

-p + ppr)

-_ a ;

c'zsac.

(8.5)

where f3 i s t h e inflow angle. The q u a n t i t i e s ppr and Bo are equal t o

Po =

V Y r

(8.7)

On t h e left-hand and right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations, Bo i s a known quantity at a given F; p, cy,, and ppr are unknown. However, i f we a s s i g n CY,, then t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o f i l e will y i e l d ppr and cRse0-, w h i l e eq.(8.8) w i l l f u r n i s h f~:
p=a, -y = a ,

--(e, - Ra,

+BY).

(8.8)

The problem c o n s i s t s i n d e t e m i n i n g cy, a t which eq.(8.5) i s s a t i s f i e d . T h i s value of CY, i s found by successive approximations. Simultaneously with deterwe f i n d p, vp,, and C R , ~ ~ , . mining CY,

The loads p e r unit l e n g t h i n t h e t h r u s t plane and i n t h e plane of rotat i o n as w e l l as t h e torque p e r unit l e n g t h are determined from t h e following formulas :

/267

( 8 .lo)
(8.11)
The c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h r u s t and power of t h e r o t o r are determined by n m e r i e a 1 i n t e g r a t i o n of eqs.(8.9) and ( 8 . l l ) .

For an approximate consideration of t h e t i p l o s s e s , t h e loads p e r unit l e n g t h i n t h e t h r u s t plane are not i n t e g r a t e d up t o t h e blade t i p ('F = 1) but up t o F = B whereby, according t o another paper (Ref .2), we have

(8.12)
Equation (8.12) can be used when zb 2 3; at be taken i n t o account by more accurate methods.
zb =

2, t h e t i p l o s s e s should

The coning angle and p r o f i l e power c o e f f i c i e n t are found from t h e expressions

ao=L
a,

1B
70

dtdr

r dr;

(8.13)
(8.l.4)

2. Results of CalculatinP t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a-Rotor The aerody-mdc c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r w i t h rectangular twisted blades

286

having a Mgh-speed p r o f i l e at t h e t i p (variant I1 i n Table 2.10) f o r s o l i d i t y r a t i o s of t h e r o t o r 0 = 0.0525; 0.069; 0.091; 0.11 ( t h e number of blades is, reSpeCtiVely,
z b

3; 4.; 5; 6), k

0.4,

'

1.28",

and f o r two values of M,

and 2.170. Such graphs are used i n check c a l c u l a t i o n s of h e l i c o p t e r s i n order t o determine t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i n a hovering regime, when power, f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , and t h e r o t o r parameters F, o, wR are known. The sequence of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s as follows: Having calculated m, and M,

are shown i n Figs.2.169

M,=$,

(8.16)

t h e graphs can be used f o r f i n d i n g t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t - t and f o r determining the rotor thrust

The e f f e c t of t h e geometric /268 blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e graph i n Fig.2.171, which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e trapez o i d a l blade ( v a r i a n t I) and t h e rectangular blade with an increased t w i s t ( v a r i a n t VI) a t t = = 0.12 0.15 require 3 - 4 % less power t h a n a rectangular blade with moderate t w i s t ( v a r i a n t 11). Thus, an increase i n geometric blade t w i s t improves t h e r o t o r charact e r i s t i c s i n hovering and i n forward f l i g h t (with t h e exception of t h e regime of a u t o r o t a t i o n )

Fig 2.169 Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Rotor i n Hovering Regime (M, =


=

0.6).

Figure 2.172 shows t h e r a d i a l 7 and d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e axial 7 t a n g e n t i a l G components of induced v e l o c i t y . The slope of 'Fi and G with respect t o F has a d i f f e r e n t character f o r blades of t h e examined shapes. For a rectangular blade w i t h a geometric twist of 7' ( v a r i a n t 11), 7 i n c r e a s e s from t h e r o o t t o t h e t i p of t h e blade; f o r a t r a p e z o i d a l twisted blade and

For o t h e r values of k and y, t h e r o t o r p i t c h should be converted by eq.(6.23).

287

F'ig.2.170

Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor i n Hovering Regime (M, = 0.7).

Aerodynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Rotor w i t h F'ig.2.171 Blades of Different Shape i n Hovering Regime (0 = 0.091; M, = 0.7).

288

b
i

f o r a rectangular blade with increased twist, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of T i n t h e t i p p o r t i o n of t h e blade i s close t o uniform, so that t h e s e blades have smaller i m duced l o s s e s . A s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig.2.172, t h e slipstream v e l o c i t y W of t h e helicopter r o t o r i s by one order of magnitude less than t h e axial induced v e l o c i t y v. For rectangular blades, t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e sections CY,(Fig.2.173) decrease toward t h e blade t i p , and t h e d m u m angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s are a t F = 0.3 0.5. The t r a p e z o i d a l twisted blade has a more uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of a, over t h e outside half of t h e blade; this angle of a t t a c k d i s t r i b u t i o n , compared to t h e rectangular blade, l e a d s t o earlier attainment of c r i t i c a l angles of a t t a c k and t o a marked i n c r e a s e i n cXp a t t h e e f f e c t i v e blade portion.

ar

/270

0,Z

0 . 4

0 . 6

0.8

\.OF

Fig.2.172 Radial D i s t r i b u t i o n of Axial T and Tangential 7 Components of Induced Velocity ( t = 0.15).

Fig.2.173 Radial Angle of Attack D i s t r i b u t i o n of Sections ( t = 0.15).

Figure 2.174. shows t h e dependence of p r o f i l e power on t h e t h r u s t coeffi1 . A s we see from t h e graph, t h e efc i e n t t and M, f o r a blade of t h e v a r i a n t 1 The graph i n f e c t of a i r compressibility becomes appreciable a t t > 0.15. Fig.2.175 shows t h e e f f e c t of t h e geometric blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t h e p r o f i l e 1 1 ; blade without a high-speed power. A t M, = 0.7, t h e blade p r o f i l e ( v a r i a n t 1 p r o f i l e a t t h e t i p ) has t h e main e f f e c t w h i l e t h e blade shape has a smaller effect. A n i n c r e a s e i n geometric blade twist ( v a r i a n t V I ) reduces t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s of t h e blade at l a r g e t . To determine t h e e f f e c t of air compressibility, Fig.2.176 shows t h e graph m , , ( M , ) = m,(M,) m,(M, = 0.4.) f o r a blade of t h e v a r i a n t 1 1 ; f o r other of A The campressibility graphs permit blade shapes, this i s shown i n Fig.2.177. converting t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o o t h e r M, numbers and a r e a l s o used i n an approximate c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s when mpr i s determined by eq.(8.28). W e see from Fig.2.177 t h a t , f o r t h e examined p r o f i l e s , t h e blade without t h e high-speed p r o f i l e , a t M, > 0.6, shows a s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r increment i n mpr than t h e blade w i t h t h e high-speed p r o f i l e a t t h e t i p .

"ally permissible i n v i e w of The values of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s t o r t h e flow s e p a r a t i o n a t t h e r o t o r blade (see Sect.4.7) w e r e determined i n hovering from t h e p l o t of t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t versus r o t o r p i t c h eo. T h i s dependence

289

Fig.2.17k P r o f i l e Power Coefficient as a Function of Thrust Coefficient t and M,.

Fig.2.175 P r o f i l e Power Coefficient as a Function of Thrust Coefficient t f o r Rotors with Blades of Different Shape

(M,

0.7).

84

45

d6

47

M,

Fig.2.176
290

Increment i n P r o f i l e Power Coefficient of t h e Rotor Owing t o Air Compressibility.

0.5

0 . 6

0 . 7

Mu

Fi~z.2.177 Increment i n P r o f i l e Power Coefficient owine: t o Air Compressibility, f o r Rotors with Blades
v

of Different Shape.

0.30

0.25

0 .' I

0.5

0 06

007

hlo

Fig.2.178

t,,, as a Function of M,, f o r Rotors w i t h Blades of Different Shape.

i s linear up t o some value of t, after which t h e l i n e a r i t y is disturbed; t h e increase i n t with i n c r e a s i n g 0, decreases, after which t reaches a maximum t,,,, which i s taken as t,, when constructing t h e l i m i t of s e p a r a t i o n (Egs.2.119 to 2 . 1 2 1 ) .
Figure 2.178 gives t h e graph of t,,, as a f u n c t i o n of M, The diagram shows t h a t , i n hovering, t,,, decreases appreciably w i t h i n c r e a s i n g M, For a t r a p e z o i d a l blade, t,,, i s smaller t h a n f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r type. An i n c r e a s e i n geometric blade twist w i l l i n c r e a s e t,,, The blade without a high-speed prof i l e a t t h e t i p has a l a r g e r t,,, ; however, as soon as M, i n c r e a s e s t h e d i f f e r ence i n t,,, w i l l lessen.

According t o t h e momentum theory and w i t h a n approximate consideration of t i p l o s s e s , t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o does not a f f e c t t h e angle of a t t a c k d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r a d i u s or t h e magnitude of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s m p r , Am,, t a; x consequent2.178, constructed f o r o = 0.091, are v a l i d f o r l y , t h e graphs i n Figs.2.173

a l l o.

3. A m r o x h a t e Method of .Determieng t h e Dependence of mt on t

/273

For v e r t i c a l f l i g h t regimes of a helicopter, we can o b t a i n an expression f o r mt analogous t o eq.(3.67) derived i n Section 3 f o r f l i g h t with a h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y of

I n this expression, V , < 0 at a g a i n i n a l t i t u d e .


Introducing t h e designations f o r t h e terms representing t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of induced and p r o f i l e l o s s e s of t'he r o t o r ,

(8.20)

we can represent t h e expression

f o r m, i n t h e form of
mt=m,nd

mpr

-tv,.

(8.21)

L e t us d e r i v e t h e approximate expressions f o r t h e components of m, i n


hovering.

To determine mind, l e t us first assume t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y v i s dist r i b u t e d uniformly over t h e blade r a d i u s and t h a t w = 0.
Multiplying t h e l e f t and r i g h t s i d e s of eq.(8.4)

by cos (ppr

- p)

and using

292'

eq.(8.9),

we o b t a i n
8V2r dr= dCT.

--

(8.22)

The average induced v e l o c i t y over t h e d i s k Yav i s found a f t e r i n t e g r a t i n g e q ( 8 . 2 2 ) with r e s p e c t t o t h e blade r a d i u s from F = 0 t o F = B:

According t o eqs.(8.22) and (8.23), at constant induced v e l o c i t y t h e elementary t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t i s d i s t r i b u t e d l i n e a r l y over t h e blade radius and i s equal t o

dCT=2 A Fd;,
E2

(8.24.)

Conse quent l y

To t a k e v and of t h e

account of t h e nonuniformity of axial induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n term d@ (power l o s s e s due t o t w i s t i n g of t h e flow passing through t h e r o t o r ) , we will introduce i n t o eq.(8.25) t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Q: (8.26)

The c o e f f i c i e n t P depends on t h e planform of t h e blade and on i t s geometric t w i s t , on t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o , and a l s o on t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t . Calculations have shown t h a t we can t a k e t h e following average values of P: f o r a rectangular blade with a t w i s t of 5 - 9', a value of P = 1.05; f o r a blade with a t w i s t /274. of 1 2 P j ' , Q = 1 . 0 3 . For a t r a p e z o i d a l blade with t a p e r r( = 3 and twist of 5 9', CP = 1.03. The t i p - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t B f o r r o t o r s with (5 = 0.0525 - 0.11 can be taken a s equal t o 0.98.

Thus, f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r blade with a geometric twist of 5 termined by t h e formula

- 9',

m i n d i s de-

The p r o f i l e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t of a r o t o r mpr i s most r e l i a b l y determined by t h e graphs of mpr = f ( t , & ) ( s e e Figs.2.174 and 2.175) which were calculated f o r a r o t o r w i t h similar geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . If t h e r e are no such graphs, t h e n mpr i s found from

(8-28)

293

The first term determines t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s a t small &, w h i l e t h e second term takes account of t h e increment i n t h e p r o f i l e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t owing t o .wave drag. An estimate of Am,, can be made on t h e basis of t h e graphs i n Figs.2.176 and 2.177. The average p r o f i l e drag c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade cxp,, i s determined by t h e p r o f i l e p o l a r a t t h e s e c t i o n 7 = 0.7, f o r an average l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t cyo :
Cuo

=3t.

(8.29)

The c o e f f i c i e n t P which depends on t h e blade shapeg i t s s o l i d i t y , and on t h e coeff i c i e n t t can be taken as approximately equal t o u n i t y f o r a rectangular blade and f o r a t r a p e z o i d a l blade with t a p e r 1 = 3 , p = 0.91 (see Table 2.5).

F'ig.2.179 Graph of t h e Increment i n Torque Coefficient of t h e Rotor i n Ascent.

D u r i n g a v e r t i c a l ascent or descent, t h e magnitude of t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r and thus a l s o mind y i l l vary. There, # 0, it i s not f o r e , t o determine mi a t V p o s s i b l e t o add t h e term t V Y t o mt i n hoveri n g f l i g h t without considering t h e v a r i a t i o n The graph of t h e increase i n i n mind torque c o e f f i c i e n t of a r o t o r during ascent Am,,, as a f u n c t i o n of and t has been cor& s t r u c t e d f o r use i n approximate calculations. T h i s graph, shown i n Fig.2.179, i s obtained from results of c a l c u l a t i o n s made by t h e momentum theory. The graph of t h e p i t c h increment heo during climb i s given i n Fig.2.180.

vy

Fig.2.180 Graph of Increment i n Rotor P i t c h i n Ascent.

The approximate expressions f o r deter/a75 mining Am,,, and LOo can be obtained from t h e following considerations. During an ascent at low t h e average induced velocity, according t o t h e momentum theory (Ref.2), i s equal t o ( r e c a l l i n g t h a t , with our adopted rule of signs, V , < o i n ascent)

vy

Consequently, i n a climb m t and

eo change by an amount of

or
A%
0

-41 V,.

The Amaso calculated by t h e a p p r o x b a t i o n formula i s somewhat smaller t h a n i n Fig.2.179. Thus, t h e f i n a 1 , e q r e s s i o n f o r an a p p r o x b a t e determination of t h e r o t o r torque c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t and r e l a t i v e v e r t i c a l speed has t h e form

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Variation the- Rot-or S o l i d i t y R a t i o To determine t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r i n hovering f l i g h t , t h e method of conversion of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be used. T h i s method should be employed i f r e l i a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of another r o t o r , c l o s e i n r e l a t i v e geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a r e available. The method of conversion of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n f l i g h t regimes with forward speed, presented i n Section 6, i s based on a determination of t h e angle of att a c k of t h e r o t o r at which t h e v e l o c i t y polygons, angles of a t t a c k of t h e sect i o n s , and elementary f o r c e are r e t a i n e d for a r o t o r w i t h another cs i n a l l blade sections, i.e., when t h e r e is s i m i l a r i t y of regimes. I n hovering, t h e r e are no similar regimes f o r r o t o r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t 0 ; therefore, t h e method of conversion of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s based on t h e assumption t h a t , a t an i d e n t i c a l t h r u s t coeff i c i e n t t, t h e induced power c o e f f i c i e n t i n conformity w i t h eq.(8.25) i s proportionalto

fi and t h e p r o f i l e power B3

coefficient i s identical.

Thus, i f t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r of a s o l i d i t y r a t i o csl

ql

i s known, then f o r a blade of a s o l i d i t y r a t i o

52

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t mt2 f o r t h e

same value of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t i s determined by t h e formula

The values of

mpr and B are found from e q ~ ~ ( 8 . 2 8and ) (8=12).


0,

A t a n i d e n t i c a l value of t f o r r o t o r s w i t h different

t h e angle of

/276
295

a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s should be p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same; consequently, t h e r o t o r p i t c h v a r i e s by a quantity Alo p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e average induced v e l o c i t i e s .

We o b t a i n t h e formu.la f o r determining Al0 :

Thus, t h e p i t c h of a r o t o r with a s o l i d i t y r a t i o

0 ,

i s equal t o

5. Determination of k t i m l Aerodgnamic Parameters of a


Rotor w i t h Conside&ion C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on- M, of- t h e Dependence of

To s e l e c t t h e optimal parameters of a r o t o r , it i s convenient t o use eq.(8.34) which c o r r e l a t e s t h e r o t o r t h r u s t , i t s diameter, and required power
T =(33.25 ~ X T ~ D N ) ~ ' ~ .

(8.34)

Equation (8.34) includes t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r charact e r i z i n g t h e relation,between t h e power of an i d e a l r o t o r and t h e a c t u a l power consumed by t h e rotor":

v0,

It i s obvious t h a t , at given N, D, and A (i.e., f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ) , t h e g r e a t e s t t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r i s achieved a t a maximum value of To; therefore, Usually, t h e graphs of yo t h e designer w i l l s t r i v e t o approach a maxi" are constructed as a function of t and o f o r a value of M, correspondi t o the From average proposed values of t h e p e r i p h e r a l speed of t h e r o t o r (Fig.2.181 this graph w e ' s e l e c t a reference p o i n t (i.e., values of t, a ) with a sufficientl y l a r g e To. W e can a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t t h e reference p o i n t regardless of t h e r o t o r diameter, since an inexact agreement of t h e value of M, obtained a t t h e chosen t, o, D . w i t h t h a t f o r which t h e graph of 7, was constructed, i s considered permissible.

v0.

7.

The power of an i d e a l r o t o r is equal t o t h e minimum p o s s i b l e power l o s s e s of a r o t o r which are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d with t h e generation of force, w h i l e t h e a c t u a l power i s equal t o t h e sum of a l l power l o s s e s .
46

296

I , ) ,

For a more accurate c a l c u l a t i o n (with consideration of t h e e f f e c t of M, on t h e use of graphs 7 , = f ( t , o) constructed f o r d i f f e r e n t M, i s inconvenient, s i n c e we cannot a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t a reference point on these graphs. Actually, eq.(8.l5) can be represented in t h e form

Consequently, a t . given N, D , H t h e product m,oMz should have .a d e f i n i t e value, and on each curve of 7 , corresponding t o d e f i n i t e values of 0, Mo, only one p o i n t (one m, and, respectively, one t ) satisfies eq.(8.36). Two broken curves a r e p l o t t e d i n Fig.2.181 f o r two values of t h e product m p M g : t h e smaller value of m,oMz p e r t a i n s t o t h e l a r g e r r o t o r diameter. These curves show t h a t , a t /277 given r o t o r diameter and M,, only t h e maxi" 7 , on t h e broken c w v e can be seUpon an i* l e c t e d and t h a t it i s impossible t o r e a l i z e l a r g e r values of ll,. crease i n r o t o r diameter (lower broken curve) t h e maximum .possible values of 7 , a r e s t i l l smaller and it i s not apparent from t h e graph whether t h e r o t o r t h r u s t determined by t h e product T0D increases. Therefore, t h e graphs of yo, cons t r u c t e d as a function of t, o, and M, (or reconstructed as a function of m,oMg, o, M,), a r e not s u i t a b l e f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e optimal parameters of a r o t o r , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e r o t o r diameter v a r i e s .

4
I I I I I I I I

I
0.10

0.15

0 . 2 5

Fig.2.181

Relative Efficiency of Rotor as a Function of t and 0 (M, = 0.65).

W e will f i n d a more convenient form of t h e graphs f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e optimal parameters of a r o t o r with consideration of t h e dependence of t h e characterist i c s on &. For this we make use of eqs.(8.36) and (8.37); t h e latter i s obtained from eqs.(8.153 and (8.17):

297

W e can show t h a t t h e r a t i o
proportional t o meter D:

(ToDF.

right-hand s i d e of eq.(8.37) i s mtMo Actually, from eq.(8.36) we determine t h e r o t o r dia-

-on t h e

and t h e product ToD:

It i s obvious from this expression, j u s t as from eq.(8.37), t h a t at given N and H t h e maxi t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r T,,, i s achieved a t r o t o r parameters at which

/278

t -has mtMo

a maximum.

Therefore, t o f i n d t h e optimal r o t o r

parameters we must construct graphs of t h e dependence of t h e r a t i o

t mtMo

25

225

20

tz5

. . -6 I
a

1 s
t=Lyo
x

T I I I

I 11.1 I I I I
0.12 0 1 1 4
0.16

c
A

I (
0

aia

-1 -1 I
-

azo

1 - I-SI I I I I I I

I 5

am/
Ratio

0.0004

3
I

F i g . 2 . 1 8 2

t as a mtM0

Function of mto@

at o

0.091.

298

on m t o g .

These dependencies are shown a t

(T

= const i n Fig.2.182

and a t M,

= const i n Fig.2.183. t h e s e curves.

The m e u m values of

lie mtM0

on t h e envelopes of

0,

W e see from Figs.2.182 and 2.183 t h a t , a t given D (i.e., q o M , = const)and t h e r e exists an optimal value of Md and a t given D and wR t h e r e exists o o p t . Lf only D i s given, then i t follows from t h e s e graphs f o r a number of values of o and M, t h a t t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g (T and decreasing wR ( i n t h e range of l a r g e r o t h a n t h a t shown i n Fig.2.183, it may happen t h a t , i f only D i s given,' a l s o o o p t and Moo exist). A n i n c r e a s e i n ' r o t o r diameter corresponds t o a decrease i n mpM; an8 this, as we see from t h e graphs, w i l l lead t o a n increase i n r o t o r t h r u s t , e s p e c i a l l y on a decrease i n o and M,.

Fig.2.183

Ratio

t as a Function of mtMo
a t M, = 0.65.

A l l curves a r e c l o s e l y spaced near t h e optimum of o and M,, s o t h a t any deviation from optimum values s l i g h t l y changes t h e r o t o r t h r u s t . For example,
Fig.2.182
mtMo m a x = 1 9 . 1 f o r MOOpt = 0.55 and t o p t = 0.21, whereas with a '10%i n c r e a s e i n r o t o r t rpm, i.e., f o r M, = 0.6 and t =S 0.176 we have = 18.8; consequently, t h e m mtM0

shows t h a t , a t mtoMz = 0.0003 and o = 0 . 0 9 1 , we have

(A) =

299

1
b

r o t o r t h r u s t decreases by
'

1 . 6 % . We f i n d from Fig.2.183 t h a t , at t h e same value


=

of mtaMz and M, = 0.65, we have


=

18.65 f o r a , , ,
I

= 0.08,

tpt =
%.e., t h e

0.165, whereas at

CJ =

0.091 and t = 0.&5,

we have

m tM0

= 23.5,

t h r u s t diminishes by 0.8%

To take account of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e t a i l r o t o r l o s s e s q o n a change i n t h e parameters of t h e main r o t o r , t h e graphs of s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s should be constructed i n t h e form of t h e dependence

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t reads

The c o e f f i c i e n t kbl which takes i n t o account blanketing of t h e t a i l r o t o r by t h e t a i l boom, i s taken t o be equal t o 1 . 0 3 1.06.

CHAPTER 1 1 1

AJiTDDYNAMIC DESIGN OF A HELICOPTER Section 1 . Basic Equations f o r Aerodynamic Design of a Helicopter

1 . Aerodynamic Design PrinciDle of a Helicopter


The p r i n c i p l e of aerodynamic design of a h e l i c o p t e r i s c a l c u l a t i n g stable r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t regimes i n a v e r t i c a l plane i n order t o determine engine power, f u e l constmrption, angles of attack, s e t t i n g angles, and o t h e r characteri s t i c s of a r o t o r during f l i g h t a t d i f f e r e n t speeds and a l l p o s s i b l e a l t i t u d e s . These d a t a permit determining v e r t i c a l speeds, range, and.duration under d i f f e r e n t f l y i n g conditions, and a l s o represent necessary material f o r studying t h e equilibrium conditions of moments (balancing and s t a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ) and f o r stress analyses.
O f primary i n t e r e s t i s t h e determination of t h e performance d a t a of a helicopter, i.e., t h e l i m i t i n g f l i g h t regimes: maximum and minimum horizontal f l y i n g speeds a t a l l a l t i t u d e s , c e i l i n g , "um rate of climb and range, m i n i m u m power of horizontal f l i g h t , and v e r t i c a l rate of descent on engine failure.

2. Equation of Motion of a Helicopter

The f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a helicopter are determined by solving equat i o n s of stable r e c t i l i n e a r motion of t h e c r a f t i n a v e r t i c a l plane. u m of forces, equated t o zero and d i r e c t e d The equation expressing t h e s along t h e f l i g h t p a t h as w e l l as along a normal t o it, as shown i n Fig.3.1, has t h e form

where
X and Y = components of t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r d i r e c t e d along t h e f l i g h t p a t h and along a normal t o it; a t X < 0, t h e r o t o r c r e a t e s a propulsive f o r c e w h i l e a t X > 0 it produces drag; QLp = p a r a s i t e drag of t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; h.p = angle of f l i g h t p a t h of t h e helicopter t o t h e horizontal.

It follows from Fig.3.l and eqs.(l.l) and (1.2) t h a t , i n horizontal f l i g h t = 0), t h e l i f t of t h e r o t o r balances i t s drag. I n flight &g regimes (8, regimes along a n i n c l i n e d path, t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r compensates t h e d r a g ' p l u s t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o motion formed by t h e weight component d i r e c t e d

301

along t h e path, G s i n

.p

To determine t h e engine power i n different f l i g h t regimes and t o f i n d regimes i n which t h e mad." power of t h e engines should be u t i l i z e d , t h e equations of motion must be sqplemented by a n equation exp r e s s i n g t h e condition of e q u a l i t y of t h e power absorbed by t h e r o t o r N f o t and t h e engine power transrmtted t o t h e r o t o r s h a f t

N,ot=NE.
Fig.3.1 Forces Acting on a Helicopter i n Steady R e c t i l i n e a r F l i g h t . and t h e power t o $P(WR)~OF:

(1.3)

To reduce e q s . ( l . l ) (1.3) t o a dimensionless form, l e t us refer t h e f o r c e s t o t h e product &(WRYOF,

G
~

-2 e

1
(wR)2uF

COS

erLp=t,;

75N'

p ( 0 4 3 aF 2
Equation

(1.4)

can be t h e n represented as

or

In eq.(1.8) and i n what follows, t h e s u b s c r i p t llh.f.11 ref e r r i n g t o h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t .

denotes q u a n t i t i e s

The given q u a n t i t i e s i n t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n are as follows: /zs2 flying weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r G; geometric r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( t w i s t , planform), s o l i d i t y r a t i o D and radius R; p e r i p h e r a l r o t o r speed mR; a i r d e n s i t y p and v e l o c i t y of sound I t a l l a t design f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ; c c,s drag c o e f f i c i e n t of n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ZX = F ' engine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : power N = N(H) and hourly f u e l consumption G,, =
- 0

G(N, H);

engine power u t i l i z a t i o n f a c t o r 5 . I n l e v e l f l i g h t (0, 1 . = 0), t h e number of given quantities i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r determining t h e r o t o r c o e f f i c i e n t by eq.(1.5). The problem of calcul a t i n g l e v e l - f l i g h t regimes of a h e l i c o p t e r c o n s i s t s i n determining, by means of t h e required c o e f f i c i e n t of propulsive eq.(1.7) and for d i f f e r e n t v e l o c i t i e s f in , d i n g t h e values of mk., from t h e aerodynamic r o t o r characterf o r c e t x h ef

Lft

v,

i s t i c s a t known M,,

tYh.and txh., and determining N , , .

, from eq.(1.6).

In &mum nonlevel f l i g h t regimes, m, i s known ( N = N , , i n climbing and N = 0 i n autorotation). t h e problem amounts t o determining t h e values of t, and t, s a t i s f y i n g eqs.(l.5) and (1.7) from t h e r o t o r aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t d i f f e r e n t f l y i n g speeds a t known M , and m,; t h e flight-path angle 0, i s obtained simultaneously.

A s indicated the interrelation f o r a range of M, copter, should be

i n Subsection 2, t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , namely m, , of t h e f o u r dimensionless r o t o r c o e f f i c i e n t s 7, t y , t a x corresponding t o t h e rpm and f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s of t h e heliknown i n t h e aerodynamic design.

I n c e r t a i n methods of aerodynamic design, t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are determined by an approximate theory i n order t o o b t a i n simple formulas permitting a d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r performance d a t a . Because of t h e approximate nature of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n methods, they are r a r e l y used a t present. To increase t h e accuracy of aerodynamic calculations, i t i s expedient t o separate t h e problems of determining t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from those of determining t h e h e l i c o p t e r performance data. With this approach, t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be found beforehand and p l o t t e d on s p e c i a l graphs. T h i s eliminates t h e need f o r introducing s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n t o t h e calcul a t i o n of aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n t h e Milt-Yaroshenko method, presented i n Section 2, t h e following form of graphs i s adopted: The angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t aerodynamic f o r c e of t h e r o t o r t o t h e normal of t h e f l i g h t p a t h 6 , t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t m,, and t h e angle of a t t a c k (Y are p l o t t e d as a function of t h e p i t c h c p f o r a series of values of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t t (see Fig.2.15). and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e f l i g h t regime
A f u r t h e r development of t h e Milt-Yaroshenko method r e s u l t e d i n a more convenient form of t h e graphs: dependence of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of propulsive r o t o r f o r c e t, on m, f o r various values of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t t, a t = const and M , = const. The graphs a l s o give curves of' constant values f o r t h e r o t o r angles of a t t a c k by means of which t h e l a t t e r can be defined ( t h e angle of a t t a c k must be known f o r r e f i n i n g t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and f o r calculati n g a wing-type h e l i c o p t e r or o t h e r composites).

The graphs f o r t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be p l o t t e d from

303

experiment o r constructed from any r o t o r theory; t h e methods of determining t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are presented i n Sections 2, 4, 5, and 6 of Chapt.11. The method of aerodynamic design i n which graphs of t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are used, i s presented i n a very general form i n Section 3.

It was shown i n Section 7 of Chapter I1 t h a t t h e aerodynamic r o t o r charact e r i s t i c s can be determined by using t h e concepts of performance and propulsive e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r of t h e r o t o r . The method of aerodynamic design based on t h e use of t h e s e concepts i s described i n Section 4.
I n many methods of aerodynamic design, t h e expression
1 1 - - +mpr mr =tyvy- t,(v-v,)
82
8 2

=A-

t2a

4B4v

t,V+

mpr,

derived i n Section 3 of Chapter 1 1 , i s used. These represent r a t h e r simple but q p r o h t e c a l c u l a t i o n methods. such method i s described i n Section 5. One

4.

Calculation of Composite and Multirotor Craft

For t h e aerodynamic design of composite and m u l t i r o t o r c r a f t by t h e methods described i n Sections 2 and 3, we w i l l construct graphs of t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e l i f t i n g and advancing systems of a composite c r a f t : tXe (or be) as a function of m

tc

for t

y e

= const.

The t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s are found experimental-

l y or can be obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n with respect t o known aerodynamic charact e r i s t i c s of i s o l a t e d elements of t h e l i f t i n g system of t h e c r a f t . The design formulas f o r determining t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e given below, f o r c e r t a i n s p e c i a l cases These formulas are a l s o used i n aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n s based on t h e methods described i n Sections 4 and 5, i n which t h e lift d i s t r i b u t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l elements of t h e l i f t i n g system of t h e c r a f t must be known. One of t h e possible methods of determining t h e lift d i s t r i b u t i o n between r o t o r s and w i n g i s given i n Section 4. In this case, t h e formulas derived below are used f o r determining t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e . l i f t i n g system of t h e c r a f t . Single-rotor helicopter with

wiw. The

sMrmarg c o e f f i c i e n t s

tyz,t?, and

mtc a r e

determined by t h e following expressions (Fig.3.2):


" v 2 t = ( f , c o ~ A a , ~ - t ~ s i n A a , ~ ~ )S + - -- X
yz

(C YW COS Aa,

- cIw sin Aa ,

),

t -5= ( t , C O s A a ~ + t y s i n A a , t )

+-s,F

V'

i!
I
I
I

-x a

(1.9)

304

X (C.,

COS

Aa,

+cy,

sill

A a w ),

mtz = mt
or, approximately, by

/2&

I
Figure 3.2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e angle between t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r and t h e p a t h v e l o c i t y ( o r v e l o c i t y of undisturbed f l a w ) , which we w i l l , , i s equal t o c a l l t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a

ah= a+ A a d .

The angle of a t t a c k of t h e wing i s c o r r e l a t e d with t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r by


a,-a,-Aa,
+E,

= a f - ~ a , o ~ - A a ,+E,,,..

( 1 . 1 0 )

In t h e s e

t y , t,, q, CY, cy,, cxw , cy, = c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i s o l a t e d r o t o r and Wing;


A c Y ~ ~=, mean downwash angle i n t h e r o t o r region, induced by t h e wing; Acyw = mean'downwash angle i n t h e wing region, induced by t h e r o t o r ; S , and e , = a r e a and Wing s e t t i n g angle.

e q r e s s i o n s we denote:

. V and VN i n The s l i p s t r e a m s o f r o t o r and wing a r e denoted by t h e vectors ' Fig .3.2. Considering t h a t t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i s many times g r e a t e r than t h e a d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s of i n t e r f e r e n c e Av, t h e v e l o c i t i e s V' and v" a r e equal t o

1%

The sequence of determining t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s a t known S,, and e, i s as follows: For s e l e c t e d G, and t

v,

Fig . 3 . 2 Velocities, Angles of Attack, and Forces of a Single-Rotor H e l i copter with Wing.

a s s i g n cy, arid f i n d t, from t h e first equation i n t h e syst e m (1.9'). From t h e wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

yc'

305

= f(a,

>, f i n d CY,,

Determine t h e d o m a s h angles and Aa,, (see below, Subsect.5). From eq.(l.lO), determine t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r and from /285 t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i s o l a t e d r o t o r , f i n d t, and m,. Note t h a t eq.(l_.lO) includes t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e plane of rotat i o n which, at (pl # 0, d i f f e r s from t h e equivalent angle of a t t a c k (see Chapt .II, Sect .2). Calculate txz0

After carrying out such c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r s e v e r a l values of cy , f i n d t h e dependence of t, on mt f o r given values of 7, M , , and t Perform

these c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r a series of values of t

V,

&, and t h e n con-

s t r u c t graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l i f t i n g system of t h e c r a f t .

Fig.3.3

Forces Created by Rotor and Tractor Propeller.

It i s obvious t h a t , i f t h e lift of t h e fuselage ( n o n l i f t i n g components) of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o r a v a r i a t i o n i n i t s drag r e l a t i v e t o t h e angles of a t t a c k must be t a k e n i n t o consideration, then t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the L i f t i n g system together with t h e fuselage of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be determined i n t h e same sequence.
Helicopter with t r a c t o r pyapellers. The additions t o t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s system a r e expressed by t h e f o l l k n g formulas, which are evident of t h e l i f t i i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s with o t h e r elements of t h e from Fig.3.3 system i s disregarded) :

I n t h e s e expressions P t a P and N t m P are t h e thrust and power of t h e t r a c t o r propeller, c o r r e l a t e d by t h e r a t i o 75 N t m P = P t . P V

Nt. p When using a c r u i s e j e t engine with a t h r u s t of P t e P on a helicopter, A& and A t , W i l l be determined by eqs.(l.l2), and we W n i have Amt = 0.

Two-rotoy _ _h e l i c o p t e r -of sAde-by-side configuration with a wing. For this helicopter t yc, txZ, and m, a r e d e t e r m i n e d by the following expressions:

&

= .
YE

2 ( t , cos Aamt - t, sin AUrot)


X(c
Y W

+-s,F
sw
F

F.

X a
82 x

COSAU,,,

--C

W ,

sin Aa,,,),
a

t X c = 2 ( t , cos

AU,,~+~,

sin Aapot)+-

X (cxw cos A U w +cy& sin Aa,,, ),

. mtB=2m,,

a,,, =u+Aa,,,t-Aa,

+sly.

Unlike eqs.(1.9), here brat and Acu, a r e t h e t o t a l angles of downwash induced both by mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e r o t o r s and i n t e r f e r e n c e between r o t o r s and wing. The sequence of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s i s the same as f o r a single-rotor helicopter. Equations (1.12) are added t o eqs.(l.l3) Two-rotor h e l i c m t e r of fore-andzaft
i f t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s are present.

configuration.

Disregarding downwash

i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e f r o n t r o t o r caused by t h e t a i l r o t o r , we can o b t a i n t h e f o n o w i n g r e l a t i o n s ( Fig .3 -4) :

307

In these
AcY,,,,
be,,,,

e q r e s s i o n s , we denote: = mean downwash angle i n t h e region of t h e t a i l rotor, induced by t h e f r o n t r o t o r ; = e f f e c t i v e a l e of advance of t h e t a i l r o t o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e f r o n t r o t o r y w i t h consideration of t h e difference i n d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic r o t o r p i t c h c o n t r o l ) :
A%tC =AEmt(D,x)l $(Dlx)?.

(1015)

The subscript 1 1 1 " denotes c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e f r o n t r o t o r and t h e subscript 1 1 2 1 1 , of t h e t a i l rotor.

/287

The performance d a t a of a helicopter of fore-and-aft configuration can be Uniquely determined i f and only if t h e conditions of j o i n t operation of f r o n t and t a i l r o t o r s a r e known. Usually, such a condition i s t h e . r e l a t i o n between t h e t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r s determined by l o n g i t u d i n a l balancing of t h e helicopter. Knowing this r e l a t i o n f o r selected 8, Mor and t it i s possible Fig.3.4 Velocities, Angles of Attack, and Forces f o r a Helicopter of Side-by-Side Configuration.

t o f i n d tyl and ty2from t h e first equation of t h e system (l.l-4). After assigning cy1 and calculating AcY,,,,, we

YC'

can determine c y 2 . From t h e characterist i c s of t h e i s o l a t e d rotor, knowing 7, M,, t y , and CY we then f i n d t, and m, f o r both r o t o r s . Furthermore, t are calculated and graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e system a r e plotted.

5. Induction Coeffici.e.nts of _%?-Rotgr Helicopters


and Helicopters w i t h a W i r g Determination of t h e l i f t and drag of t h e system of l i f t i n g elements i s a complex problem f o r whose s o l u t i o n t h e induced v e l o c i t y and loads p e r u n i t length i n each s e c t i o n of t h e l i f t i n g elements should be found, with considerat i o n of t h e e f f e c t of a l l v o r t i c e s entering t h e system. When using high-speed computers, s o l u t i o n of this problem i s possible i n c e r t a i n cases. However, usually i n aerodynamic designing, t h e computation i s limited t o determining t h e average downwash angles llcv of each of t h e elements of t h e l i f t i n g s shown i n Subsection 4, t h e dowrrwash angles permit finding t h e prosystem. A j e c t i o n of f o r c e s of a l l elements of t h e l i f t i n g system onto t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion and normal t o it. Equations (1.9) (1.13) show t h a t , f o r A c t > 0 ( i . e e 9 f o r t h e v e r t i c a l induced v e l o c i t y component caused by other elements of t h e l i f t i n g system, A v is directed from t h e top downward), t h e drag of t h e c r a f t increases by an amount

Vortex sheet

Y''7
"0

"i.

F'ig.3.5

Induced Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n of Wing ' , 2 ' , 3' a r e above and below (Points 1 , 2, 3, l t h e Vortex Sheet)

F'ig.3.6

Induced Velocity D i s t r i b u t i o n along Wing Span a t Different Distances from Vortex Sheet

309

YAcv w h i l e , at Act c 0, t h e drag of t h e c r a f t decreases.


The daimwash angle of t h e i - t h element of t h e l i f t i n g system induced by t h e n-th element i s determined by t h e expression

(1.16)
where Av, i s t h e v e r t i c a l induced v e l o c i t y component created by t h e n-th element a t t h e focus of t h e i - t h element, averaged over t h e a r e a of t h e 5-th element; Avi i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mean induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e n - t h element:

The p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r n, is c a l l e d t h e i n d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . T h i s depends on t h e mutual arrangement and dimensions of t h e i - t h and n 4 h elements of t h e l i f t i n g system.

L e t us r e c a l l how t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e wing ( o r r o t o r ) i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n space. A t p o i n t s downstream of t h e wing, t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s and An i n c r e a s e i n inr a t h e r r a p i d l y reaches double i t s i n i t i a l value (Fig.3.5). duced r o t o r v e l o c i t y w i l l t h e n t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e r o t o r d i s k (Fig.2.3).
A t p o i n t s upstream of t h e wing, t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s v i r t u a l l y equal t o , zero, while it decreases at p o i n t s above o r below t h e vortex sheet ( p o i n t s 1 I n cross section, t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e l ' , 2, 2', 3, 3' i n F'ig.3.5). wing with an e l l i p t i c c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n has t h e form shown i n Fig.3.6:
Within t h e span of t h e wing o r r o t o r

(5 =

,ec l . O ) ,
2

t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s

d i r e c t e d downward while a t t h e periphery (Z

LO), it i s d i r e c t e d upward.

Let us determine t h e magnitude of t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s .


The c o e f f i c i e n t s of mutual induction depend on t h e f l i g h t v e l o c i t y (7) and on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r s ; our values of n are averaged with respect t o y, approximate, and applicable t o a l l f l i g h t regimes a t 5 0.15.

The r o t o r s of a h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration, a s i s obvious from Fig.3.6, are located i n t h e region where t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s caused by t h e adjacent r o t o r are d i r e c t e d from t h e bottom up. I n this configuration, t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e reduces t h e induced drag of t h e system. Here, t h e value of t h e mutual induction c o e f f i c i e n t s H ~ . was taken from B.N.Yur'yevts book ( R e f .2) t o which c o r r e c t i o n s were applied f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s a t azimuth $ = 90' a r e g r e a t e r than at azimuth $ = 27@. Therefore, t h e mutual induct i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s depend on t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r s : When t h e azimuth $ = 90' i s between t h e r o t o r s , t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s are approximately 25% higher t h a n t h e mean values obtained elsewhere (Ref .2), w h i l e they are about 25% lower i n another d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n .

XSS

-0.5

Zco

7.0

-0.4

09

0 .J
0 .2
-0.1

0.8

0.7
0.6

1.5

2.0

0.5 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5~7

Fig.3.7 Coefficient of Mutual Induct i o n of Rotors for Helicopters of Side-by-Side Configuration.

F'ig.3.8 Coefficient of Mutual Induct i o n of Rotors for Helicopters of Coaxial and Fore-and-Aft Configuration.

The graph of n, .I

as a f u n c t i o n of t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e r o t o r axes

i s shown i n Fig.3.7. It i s obvious t h a t t h e optimum distance between R r o t o r s , a t which t h e least induced drag i n forward f l i g h t occurs, i s equal t o z = 1 . 8 .
z = -

I f , i n h e l i c o p t e r s of c o a x i a l configuration, t h e r e i s no v e r t i c a l separat i o n of t h e r o t o r s , then t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of mutual induction nco obviously Will be equal t o u n i t y (Av = v , , ) . When t h e r e i s v e r t i c a l separation, t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n t h e plane of t h e second r o t o r av W i l l decrease (Av c viv) so t h a t w,, < 1 . The graph of z o o as a f u n c t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l separation of t h e

rotors y =

7 R '

taken from another paper ( R e f . 2 ) ,

i s shown i n F'ig.3.8.

According t o t h e general theory of induction, t h e mean induced v e l o c i t y of t h e system of l i f t i n g elements does not depend on t h e i r stagger i n t h e direc- /zso t i o n of p a t h velocity; consequently, f o r a h e l i c o p t e r of fore-and-aft configurat i o n t h e mean magnitude of t h e a d d i t i o n a l induced v e l o c i t y Av i s t h e same as f o r Since t h e t a i l r o t o r does not influence t h e a c o a x i a l h e l i c o p t e r ( a t equal y) f r o n t r o t o r , we have n r O t = 0; consequently, f o r t h e t a i l r o t o r located behind t h e f r o n t rotor, Av = 2AvaV so t h a t t t r O t Z = 2zO0". Thus, t h e mutual induction

c o e f f i c i e n t s i n h e l i c o p t e r s of fore-and-aft i n accordance with Fig.3.8.

configuration are a l s o determined

I n terms of t h e general induction theory, a decrease i n induced drag f o r


;C

I n Chapter I, i n eq.(3.22),

we had n = 2n,,.

w 222
Side- by- side configuration Fore-and-aft 'confieuration

h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configuration ( w , , > 0 ) a d an i n c r e a s e i n induced drag f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of fore-and-aft and coaxial configurations ( w o o > 0) i s explained i n t h e following manner: It i s known that t h e induced drag of t h e system of l i f t i n g elements i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e square of l i f t and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mass of a i r p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n produci n g l i f t , o r t o t h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s sectLon of t h e air stream (see Fig.2.56). In the i d e a l case (uniform induced v e l o c i t y dist r i b u t i o n over t h e e n t i r e span), t h e effect i v e cross s e c t i o n of t h e air stream i s equal t o a circumference whose diameter i s equal t o t h e span of t h e l i f t i n g system.

The e f f e c t i v e stream cross s e c t i o n F,, f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side and foreFig.3.9 E f f e c t i v e Cross Section and-aft configurations i s given i n Fig .3.9. The sketch shows t h a t , f o r t h e side-byof Air Stream f o r Helicopters of Side-by-Side and Fore-and-Aft side helicopter, F , i s r e a t e r than t h e a r e a of t h e two r o tors fwa. < 0); a t Configurations. z, > 2, a gap e f f e c t appears and F, decreases. I n t h e fore-and-aft configuration without v e r t i c a l s e p a r a t i o n of t h e r o t o r s ( y = 0 ) , t h e e f f e c t i v e stream cross s e c t i o n i s t h e same as f o r a s i n g l e r o t o r ( w o o = 1);i n t h e presence of v e r t i c a l separation, F , increases (xeo < 1 ) .

-.

N o w l e t us examine t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e between r o t o r and wing f o r single-rotor and fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r s (Figs.3.10 and 3.11). It i s obvious t h a t , i f t h e wing of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r i s very close t o t h e r o t o r (F = 0) and t h e
= 2.0), t h e n w, = w r O t = 1 . 0 . R Upon an i n c r e a s e i n in, due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s d i r e c t e d upward outside t h e r o t o r , t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r averaged over t h e wing span w i l l decrease ( w , < l . O ) , while t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e wing averaged over t h e r o t o r a r e a w i l l change l i t t l e . Correspondingly, upon a dew i l l decrease. A t T, < 1.0, crease i n l , , w, w i l l change l i t t l e whereas w, when t h e wing i s underneath t h e i n e f f e c t i v e blade sections, w, w i l l decrease. The graphs i n Figs.3.10 and 3.11 are v a l i d f o r a h e l i c o p t e r of fore-and-aft conf i g u r a t i o n , but must be taken w i t h consideration of t h e mutual l o n g i t u d i n a l displacement of both r o t o r s and Wings; f o r elements located aft, w i s doubled, /291 whereas f o r elements located forward, w decreases t o zero.

spans of both r o t o r and wing a r e equal

(T,

1 w

For a h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration, l e t us examine one of t h e r o t o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g w . A t Z = 2.0, half of t h e wing i s underneath t h e r o t o r and h a l f is outside t h e r o t o r (Figs.3.12 and 3.13); t h e r e f o r e , w, and w r O t a r e smaller t h a n 0.5 ( t h e y would be equal to' 0.5, i f t h e induced v e l o c i t y were equal t o zero outside t h e r o t o r d i s k or wing span and w e r e uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d withi n t h e i r confines). Upon a decrease i n 8, a l l l a r g e r components of t h e wing

Induction Coefficient of Rotor f o r a Wing on Fig.3.10 Helicopters of Single-Rotor and Fore-and-Aft Configurations. and r o t o r w i l l be within t h e f i e l d of induced downward v e l o c i t i e s , so t h a t both

n, and x r o t w i l l increase.
The numerLca1 values of H, and x r O t p l o t t e d i n t h e graphs (Figs.3.10-3.13) are given f o r y = 0. A decrease i n n a t y # 0 can be determined from t h e graph of H,, = f ( y ) i n fig.3.8, i.e.,
Xf ( i l l > = %

(Y=O)%o

(id.

(1.18)

Thus, i n accordance with eqs.(l.l6) termined by t h e formulas

and (1.17), t h e downwash angles are de-

The d o m a s h angle of t h e r o t o r induced by t h e wing can a l s o be found from t h e expression


AQPOt = x,t

--%rot m.
ZXW

tYw=

1,

"

(1.20)

1.0

2 . 0

3 . 0

r-

Fig.3.U Induction Coefficient of Wing f o r a Rotor on Helicopters of Single-Rotor and Fore-and-Aft Configurations

Fig.3.12

Induction Coefficient of Rotor

f o r a Wing on Tandem Helicopter.

Fig.3.13 Induction Coefficient of W i n g f o r Rotor on Tandem Helicopter.

ad

Section 2. Aerodynamic H e l i c m t e r Design by t h e Milt -~ -Yaroshenko Met hod

/293

Let us examine steady regimes of r e c t i l i n e a r motion of a helicopter with low flight-path angles t o t h e horizontal.
Assuming t h e thrust of t h e r o t o r t o be approximately equal t o t h e weight arid considering t h e revolutions of t h e r o t o r 50 be given, f l i g h t should always t a k e p l a c e at a constant thrust c o e f f i c i e n t t. I n this case, t h e magnitude of t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t onto t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion can be varied only after having changed t h e angle of a t t a c k ; a t t h e same time, a l s o t h e r o t o r p i t c h must be changed and hence t h e power transmitted t o t h e r o t o r , so as t o maintain balance of f o r c e s with respect t o t h e v e r t i c a l . The method proposed below f o r designing a h e l i c o p t e r assumes, f o r each poss i b l e value of r o t o r p i t c h , t h a t t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( t h r u s t , l o n g i t u d i n a l force, and t o r s i o n ) are known.

1 .. Equations . . of Motion and Dgsian P r i n c i p l e


Figure 3 . q shows t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on a h e l i c o p t e r i n steady r e c t i l i n e a r motion.

Lift

Horizontal f l i g h t

Fig.3.q

Forces Acting on a Helicopter i n Steady R e c t i l i n e a r Motion.

The equations of motion of a h e l i c o p t e r can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

R sin 6 G sin +, , ,e R COS 6 -G COS =,le ,


reads
&=a+

Qm,=

0;

0.

I
(2.2)

The angle between t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t and t h e normal t o t h e path


H t-n-/--=u+ tan+ T
h -.. t

315

Eg.3.15

Aerodynamic Characteristics of Rotor


(p = 0 . 1 5 ; t = 0.13; cs = 0 . 0 6 5 ) .

U
Fig.3.16

0.20

Required and Disposable Characteristics of Helicopter.

Below, we w i l l assume t h a t t h e angles 6 and Bf owing t o t h e smallness of

.~are s m a l l .

Furthermore,

H i n f l i g h t regimes, T

we can assume the r e s u l t a n t Then e q ~ ~ ( 2 . lcan ) be re-

f o r c e of t h e r o t o r as equal. t o t h e t h r u s t (R = T). w r i t t e n i n t h e form

(2.3) The angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e forward r e s u l t a n t 6 , . z o n t a l f l i g h t i s found from eqs.(2.3), s e t t i n g O f l . p - 0: required f o r hori- 1295

(2-4) The flight-path angle f o r any given regime wTll be determined then from eqs ( 2.3) :

Thus, t h e problem c o n s i s t s i n determining t h e possible angles of inclinat i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t 6 f o r each given regime. and t h e torque coefFigure 3.15 shows t h e angle 6 , t h e angle of a t t a c k CY, f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r m, r e l a t i v e t o t h e condition of constancy of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t t, as a function of t h e blade p i t c h p f o r a s p e c i f i c f l i g h t regime p . The l a r g e r t h e s e t t i n g angle cp, t h e more n e g a t i w must be t h e angle of a t t a c k CY of t h e e n t i r e helicopter, so as t o maintain balance of f o r c e s with respect t o t h e vertica1,and t h e l a r g e r must be t h e angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e forward r e s u l t a n t . The graphs i n Fig.3.15 show t h a t l a r g e s e t t i n g angles o f t e n require a l a r g e r torque, i.e., a g r e a t e r expenditure of power. Hence it i s c l e a r t h a t , a f t e r def o r example, from the termining t h e magnitude of t h e torque, it i s possible t o obtain t h e maximum (disposable) t o t a l engine power as shown i n Fig.3.15 p i t c h cpdis f o r a given regime and hence t h e corresponding magnitudes of t h e angles of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t a n t 6 d i s and angle of a t t a c k a d i s Conversef o r exanple, from t h e condition of horizontal l y , on assigning t h e value of 6 by means of eq.(2.4), it i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e required blade setflight t i n g angle cp, t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t mt, and t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r a.

Figure 3.16 gives t h e r e s u l t a n t values of 6 d 1 8 and t j h e f as a function of p a The graphs i n Fig.3.16 a r e a l s o t h e main graphs f o r t h e calculation, by means of which a l l necessary f l i g h t d a t a can be determined. The i n t e r c e p t of t h e curves determines

v,,, =P,BPR.
The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s as a f u n c t i o n of p o r V can be found from t h e
f om*

V,= - ve*,

4.
I

where t h e quantity

Qil.p

= 4 6

i s taken from t h e graph i n Fig.3.16.

2.. Determination of. A e r o d x d c Rotpr C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s


The q u a n t i t i e s m,, 6, and cy as a f u n c t i o n of t h e p i t c h cp and at a given value of t h e thrust c o e f f i c i e n t t - f o r example, similar t o those shown i n Fig.3.15 which are necessary for calculation, can be determined experimentally o r theoretically.

Within c e r t a i n limits, t h e Glauert-Lock theory gives r e s u l t s close t o These limits are bounded by a c e r t a i n regime p and r e a l i t y (Sect.2, Chapt.11). by t h e magnitude of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t t, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e value of t h e average working l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade s e c t i o n cy and t h u s determining t h e admissibility of assumptions made i n t h e theory f o r t h e l i n e a r dependence of c y on t h e angle of a t t a c k and f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of adopting an average , & & value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of p r o f i l e drag cxp,, = const which does not depend

t4
0.20

on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e section.

0 . 70

0.10

0.20

0 . 3 0

I n t h e aerodynamic design of a h e l i c o p t e r it i s convenient t o define t h e flow c o e f f i c i e n t h on t h e basis of eq.( 2.50) f o r t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t For this, we make use (seeChapt.11). of t h e second equation of t h e above system (2.3) which expresses t h e condit i o n t h a t , f o r any r e c t i l i n e a r motion, t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i s approximately equal t o t h e weight of t h e c r a f t . Thus-, t h e thrust c o e f f i c i e n t i n h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t a t a given r p m i n a l l r e c t i l i n e a r regimes i s constant, and i t s value i s determined from t h e condition T = G. Then h , at given values of p, and cp, will be determined from t h e equation
2t
a- 8
2

Fig. 3.17 A u x i l i a r y Graphs f o r Calculation of Rotor Characterist i c s (p = 0 . 1 ) .

(2.8)

If now we s u b s t i t u t e t h e value of h i n t o t h e expression f o r h (2.68), m (2.4.7), and CY (2.53) i n Chapter I1 and p l o t t h e i r dependence on cp (see Fig.3.15j, t h e n each p o i n t of t h e s e curves W i l l correspond t o one of t h e p o s s i b l e regimes of r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t .

To simplify t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , l e t u s p l o t graphs of t h e q u a n t i t i e s

and

as a f u n c t i o n of t, where c p i s a parameter.

/297 Figures 3.17 3.20 show t h e s e graphs, p l o t t e d on t h e assumption t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t i p l o s s e s i s B = 1and t h a t t h e m a s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade i s y = 5. On a change in f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , y W i l l vary i n d i r e c t proport i o n t o t h e v a r i a t i o n i n air density. A s a consequence of a v a r i a t i o n i n y ,
also h' and m$ W i l l v a r y , b u t t h e changes i n t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s are small f o r

values p s 0.3.

"

0.20

0.10

PI0

0.20

0.30

0.10

0 . 2 0

a30

Fig.3.18 Auxiliary Graphs f o r Calculat i o n of Rotor C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s


(p = 0 . 1 5 ) .

Fig.3.19 A u x i l i a r y Graphs f o r Calcul a t i o n of Rotor C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (p = 0.2). components of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of

The q u a n t i t i e s m$ and

h' represent t

/298

torque and l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e due only t o l i f t and induced drag of t h e blades; t h e components of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s due t o t h e p r o f i l e drag of t h e . s e c t i o n s do For values of p Within limits from 0.1 t o 0.3 and f o r not e n t e r i n t o eqs.(2.9). t h e usual p r o f i l e surface finish, a value of c x P a y= 0.012 gives s a t i s f a c t o r y results

319

3. Calculation of F l i g h t Data
A s e l e c t i o n of b a s i c parameters u s u a l l y precedes t h e aerodpam5.c design. Let us assume t h e r o t o r diameter as given.
Obtainment of optimum f l i g h t d a t a i n v e r t i c a l regimes requires m i n i " loads on t h e d i s k area; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r o t o r diameter i s s e l e c t e d a s l a r g e as poss i b l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o design and weight considerations. Also t h e magnitude of t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o o i s mostly predicated on design considerations. The magnitude of blade loading which determines t h e working cy of t h e s e c t i o n t h u s depends l a r g e l y on t h e r o t o r rpm. For a r a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n of t h e rpm it i s t h e r e f o r e suggested t o a s s i g n 3 o r 4 values of t h e angular r o t o r v e l o c i t y and t o perform a complete c a l c u l a t i o n f o r these.

A s regards a v a i l a b l e power transmitted t o t h e r o t o r , i n t h e case of twoor m u l t i r o t o r configurations it, i s necessary t o account f o r t h e e f f i c i e n c y of transmission and f o r l o s s e s due t o cooling; i n t h e case of a single-rotor configuration, t h e power expended f o r d r i v i n g t h e t a i l r o t o r must a l s o be taken i n t o account. I n first approximation, Fig.3.20 Auxiliary Graphs f o r this power can be found for hovering Calculation of Rotor Characterisf l i g h t and i s taken as unchanged i n t i c s ( p = 0.3). forward f l i g h t , which W i l l y i e l d smaller values f o r t h e performance d a t a i n /;299 forward f l i g h t t h a n can be expected i n r e a l i t y .
The sequence of w, a s e r i e s of angle of a t t a c k cy used for d e f i n i n g of c a l c u l a t i o n i s as follows: After assigning s e v e r a l values values of t i s derived; f o r given values of p and y, t h e r o t o r and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s h and mt are determined, and eq.(2.2) i s t h e corresponding values of 6.

The found values of 6 and m, a r e p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n of cp i n t h e form of graphs similar t o t h o s e i n Fig.3.15, each of which i s constructed f o r a d e f i n i t e value of p . Then, p l o t t i n g on t h e y-axis t h e values of t h e a v a i l a b l e torque coefficient

tdis

=
ae

7 5 " t
2

nR2 ( w R ) 3

(2.10)
a r e obtained. The

t h e corresponding values of disposable 6,

, ck?d$ , and y d

320

VY m/.ec

next s t e p i s t o determine t h e
Of
mth
f
sh

a h . f 9 (Ph. f 9

required f o r horizontal

ad

Z
1

f l i g h t and t o construct a graph of t h e s e values l o t t e d against IJ, (see Fig.3.167 i n t h e same manner as presented above. The power required f o r horiz o n t a l f l i g h t Nh. i s fourad i n terms of t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t by means of eq.( 2.10).

U
hr

5 I . f

Having determined, by eq.(2.7), t h e values of Vy as a Fig.3.21 Rate of C l i m b of Helicopter function of V, we t h e n construct as a Function of F l i g h t Velocity. t h e graphs shown i n Fig.3.2. From t h e s e graphs, we f i n d t h e Of v~ and V , and t h e opti rate of climb V, f o r each f l i g h t a l t i t u d e and r o t o r rpm. Data corresponding t o o t h e r a l t i t u d e s can be determined i n t h e same manner as t h a t given above; t h e graphs, shown i n Fig.3.15, should be constructed f o r values of tH corresponding t o a c e r t a i n height on t h e basis of t h e r e l a t i o n

To o b t a i n f l i g h t d a t a f o r a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h respect t o height above ground, it i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o use t h e following method which does not reguire constructing t h e graphs A change t o shown i n Fig.3.16. another a l t i t u d e i s characterized by a change i n p. The graphs /300 w i l l remain unchanged i f t h e value of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t i s retained. Since

Fig.3.22

then, f o r constancy of t, we must r e t a i n t h e e q u a l i t y pow: = pHw$. Hence, we determine t h e value of wH a t which t and t h u s a l s o a l l o t h e r c o e f f i c i e n t s remain constant. The curve of 6 h . f = f ( p ) i n Fig.3.16 remains t h e same, s i n c e t h e drag Qpar depends on pw2, and this product does not change w i t h height. The available torque c o e f f i c i e n t must be.calculated f o r power at a m a l t i t u d e , w i t h consideration of t h e new value of angular velocity. If t h e power a t a l t i t u d e NH = AN,, t h e n

Graph of Helicopter F l i g h t Data ( n = 240 rpm)

Having (mtdr ) H , t h e described process of obtaining 6,, (pd and ad1 i s repeated; t h e r e s u l t a n t values are p l o t t e d on graphs as shown i n Fig.3.16. After.determining A6, graphs of Vy = f ( V ) are p l o t t e d , f i n d i n g Vy and VmaX as
m
ax

a f u n c t i o n of r o t o r r p m f o r various heights taking f o r each height nH = n,

These c a l c u l a t i o n s must be c a r r i e d out f o r a t least three values of r o t o r rpm. Then, recording from t h e graphs t h e values Vy m a x and Vmax w i t h respect t o a l t i t u d e s f o r given revolutions, a which we can determine t h e c e i l i n g a l t i t u d e s , at given revolutions.

1 -. A

/301

raph as shown i n Fig.3.22 i s p l o t t e d , from dynamic) and a l s o t h e v a r i a t i o n i n Vmax w i t h

cpc"

5
4 3
2

50

100

I50

Fig.3.23

Rotor P i t c h i n Autorotation Regime.

Fig.3.24.

Rotor Rpm i n Autorotation Regime.

The c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r any weight can be made j u s t as f o r any a l t i t u d e , ?.e., using t h e graphs shown i n Fig.3.15 and changing only t h e value of n i n conformit y w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n i n weight. From t h e condition mt = 0, t h e p i t c h cp mined. After constructing graphs (Eg.3.23) ber of revolutions of t h e r o t o r m, f o r each T m i n a n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime as a - f u n c t i o n value of (po. The dependences n, = f(V) f o r p l o t t e d i n Fig.3.24. f o r an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime i s deterof t h e dependence of c p , on t h e numvalue of p, we can f i n d t h e r o t o r of f l y i n g speed and f o r any constant d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s are

4.

Limits of Applicability of. t h e Memod The presented method permits analyzing t h e influence of numerous parameters

t h a t determine t h e f l i g h t regime of a helicopter. Moreover, t h e degree of accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of performance data, based on this method, i s f u l l y determined by t h e extent t o which t h e theory underlying t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r o t o r aerodynamics y i e l d s results c l o s e t o reality.

I n regimes p w i t h i n t h e lim_its from 0.1 t o 0.3 and w i t h thrust c o e f f i c i e n t s smaller t h a n t h e maxi" permissible, t h e s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k are w i t h i n t h e range f o r which t h e assumptions made i n t h e theory are v a l i d ( c y = "-ar; = const). cxpav
A t l a r g e values of fi and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , a t l a r g e blade s e t t i n g angles, t h e s e c t i o n angles of a t t a c k i n a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e d i s k area exceed t h e c r i t i c a l value, and f l o w s e p a r a t i o n takes place. An ultimate a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e theory i n t h e s e regimes gives values of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l force, and e s p e c i a l l y of t h e torque, t h a t are lower than r e a l i t y , and a l s o produces e r r o r s i n t h e angle of attack. Thus, t h e results of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e proposed method should give higher values of maximum speed i f this i s determined i n t h e The assumption of a uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n does region p > 0.3. In r e a l i t y , t h e induced l o s s e s are l a r g e r i n not hold a t s m a l l p (p < 0.15). t h e s e regimes owing t o nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n so t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l give l a r g e r values of t h e r a t e of climb of t h e c r a f t . These e r r o r s are small (of t h e order of 10%) f o r h e l i c o p t e r s with low d i s k area loading, but markedly increase with increasing G/F, i.e., with increasing r e l a t i v e percentage of induced l o s s e s .

A n increase i n t h e accuracy of c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t d a t a can be achieved by r e f i n i n g t h e theory o r by using d a t a obtained from wind-tunnel tests.
Section 3. General . Method of- Aerpdpanac- Design f o r Rotam-Wing A i r c r a f t
_ I

In this method of c a l c u l a t i o n , j u s t as i n t h e Mil?-Yaroshenko method, t h e f i r s t s t e p i s t o p l o t - on s p e c i a l graphs the aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Then, t h e propulsive .force c o e f f i c i e n t t, i s p l o t t e d against t h e torque coeffi, (see c i e n t m,, f o r constant values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t y ,M f l (or g ) , M 2.&5). To c a l c u l a t e a h e l i c o p t e r with a combined l i f t i n g system, Figs.2.l4.2 t h e same graphs are p l o t t e d f o r t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s ; t h e design formulas f o r . 4 . . Thus, this determining t h e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s were derived i n Section 1 /302 method of c a l c u l a t i o n encompasses a l l types of r o t a r y Wing a i r c r a f t .

I n determining t h e performance, %.e., i n solving t h e equations of motion, no simplifying assumptions are made and t h e accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s determined by t h e accuracy of t h e graphs of aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l i f t i n g system and by t h e correctness of estimating t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e engine power l o s s e s . We make only t h e assumptiol? t h a t t h e performance d a t a can be c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y from t h e balance c a l c u l a t i o n a t some average ( f o r a given centering of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ) value of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e T h i s l e a d s t o an e r r o r i n determining t h e angle of . , , . automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l w a t t a c k of t h e fuselage and Wing; t h e r e f o r e , a t great d i f f e r e n c e s betweenw. and x a Y f o r a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a l a r g e wing (S,/F > 0.05 0.07), t h e assumption i s

323

no longer v a l i d .

A shortcoming of this method i s i t s r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t expenditure of time. Consequently, it ranges among methods of f i n a l aerodynamic design. However, whenever graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l i f t i n g system a r e available, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e performance d a t a i s not excessively laborious and t h e method can be used also f o r preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n s .

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , auxiliary graphs suitable f o r a l l c r a f t with similar l i f t i n g systems and equal p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e constructed. By means of t h e s e graphs, p l o t t e d once and f o r all, numerous aerodynamic design calculat i o n s of versions of a c r a f t can be performed, including c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t conditions of h e l i c o p t e r use ( v a r i a t i o n s i n f l y i n g weight, rotor rpm, or atmospheric conditions).

1 . Construction of. A_wdliim-a&-gr Performance Data

Egcqpter

In this Subsection, we p r e s e n t a method of constructing auxiliary graphs f o r c a l c u l a t i n g h e l i c o p t e r perfmmance data. S t r i c t l y speaking, t h e s e graphs, constructed f o r a h e l i c o p t e r with a s p e c i f i c l i f t i n g system and s p e c i f i c deare a p p l i c a b l e only t o this type or t o o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r s with pendence Ex on cy, similar l i f t i n g systems and i d e n t i c a l dependences of Fx onct,. However, t h e graphs can be used with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy f o r all h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e same conf i g u r a t i o n having i d e n t i c a l values of 0, c x ( a = o ) and o t h e r dimensionless charac-

t e r i s t i c s ( f o r example, e , S, f o r a h e l i c o p t e r with wing) and M, not g r e a t e r 0.6, when t h e blade shape does not excessively influence t h e aerot h a n 0.55 0.6, t h e auxiliary dynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Therefore, a t Mo < 0.55 graphs are universal. Characterizing t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r only by i t s magnitude at cyf = 0, c ~ ( ~ = it ~ w) i l l be assumed t h a t t h e increment of C,

upon a v a r i a t i o n i n ctf can be considered i d e n t i c a l f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e same configuration. We w i l l disregard t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e of t h e n o n l i f t i n g elements.

For h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a narrow v a r i a t i o n range of M, ( f l i g h t a t constant r o t o r r p m ; dynamic c e i l i n g l e s s t h a n 5000 6000 m) and w i t h a maximum M, l e s s t h a n 0.6 0.65, t h e auxiliary graphs are constructed for a mean value of %. For h e l i c o p t e r s with higher M,, determination of t h e performance d a t a f o r t h e , l e a d s t o noticeable e r r o r s , as a r e s u l t of which t h e auxiliaqy mean value of M graphs l o s e t h e i r u n i v e r s a l i t y and can be used only f o r one value of M o o

The method of employing t h e graphs f o r determining performance d a t a of a h e l i c o p t e r i s presented i n Subsection 2.

A w d l i a r y graphs f o r required helicgpter- power. In h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of a r o t a r y wing a i r c r a f t (e, . p = 0), t h e equaxions of motion (1.6) and (1.7) t a k e t h e form

In eqs.(3.1) and (3.2), t h e index 8 2 1 1 m e a n s t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t, are t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e l i f t i n g system of a h e l i c o p t e r .


If t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l i f t i n g system are calculated with consideraof t h e helicopter, t h e n i n t h e first equation i s assumed as equal t i o n of t o zero.

z,

<

Below, we w i l l omit t h e index Til. For simplicity, we w i l l use t h e term r o t o r i n s t e a d of l i f t i n g system and h e l i c o p t e r i n s t e a d of r o t a r y wing a i r c r a f t . The geometric r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s W i l l be labeled by t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o 0. i n helicopters with It follows from eq.(3.1) t h a t , f o r a given value of i d e n t i c a l r o t o r s ( e q u a l 0 ) and equal drag c o e f f i c i e n t s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, has an i d e n t i c a l value. Since t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i.e., t h e int e r r e l a t i o n s of t h e q u a n t i t i e s t,, t, , m,, V, and M, are known (see Figs.2.l-4.2 light t o 2.L!+.5), it i s p o s s i b l e t o construct a u x i l i a r y graphs v a l i d f o r a l l f conditions of a given h e l i c o p t e r and f o r a l l h e l i c o p t e r s with-equal 5, c,, and M,, by means of which - f o r any value of t, as a function of V - we can f i n d t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t mth .i, angle of a t t a c k a h s f ,and angle of r o t o r s e t t i n g required f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t . The sequence of constructing t h e auxiliary graphs f o r c a l c u l a t i n g horizontal f l i g h t regimes will be described f o r t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r with rectangular m e t a l blades ( 0 = 0.063, ~ x ( a -- o ) = 0.009 w i t h consideration of t h e r o t o r hub, o r = 0.0075 without it). The c a l c u l a t i o n i s made on t h e basis of experia=,)
5 =

mental aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r with rectangular metal blades, When using t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e r o t o r of t h e Mi-&, t h e 0.0525. Ln this case, the conconversion formulas are u t i l i z e d ( s e e Sect .6, Chapt.11). version i s required because of differences i n t h e r o t o r s with respect t o t h e i r o differences s o l i d i t y r a t i o , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n M, must be allowed f o r . N exist i n p r o f i l e o r q u a l i t y of blade manufacture, and both blade mass characteri s t i c and flapping compensator are p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l . The p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s taken without t h e r o t o r hub ( t h e influence of t h e hub i s taken i n t o account i n t h e experimental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r ) . Thus, conversion of t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s performed by t h e formulas:

325

where tXl, cu, , mtl,

eol are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 'of t h e t e s t e d r o t o r .

The c o e f f i c i e n t s and angles without t h e s u b s c r i p t p e r t a i n t o t h e Mi-& rotor. The p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r entering eq.(3.1) was determined from t h e curve of Ex = f(aI ) obtained from f u l l - s c a l e wind-tunnel t e s t s of a h e l i c o p t e r without r o t o r (F'ig.3.25). If t h e angle of a t t a c k CY a t zero d e f l e c t i o n of t h e autopatic p i t c h c o n t r o l i s i n d i c a t e d on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r , then t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e f u s e l a e i s r e l a t e d w i t h t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r by t h e a p p r o h a t e expression fFig.3.26):

Here, ef i s t h e angle of advance of t h e fuselage a s i s t o t h e plane of rotat i o n , and D1x,, i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a l e s of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r a t K # 0 and x = 0. For t h e Mi-4 helicopter, cf = and t h e quantity qx,, i s taken t o be equal t o -3'.

Plane of rotation
ot.??+u

-z

control

Fuselage a x i s

Fig.3.25 P a r a s i t e Drag Coefficient of Mi-4 Helicopter vs. Fuselage Angle of A t tack

Fig.3.26

For Determining t h e Fuselage


Angle of Attack.

Equations (3.3) (3.7) are used i n t h e following sequence: For t h e sel e c t e d values of t, and V, p r e s c r i b e t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r CY and f i n d a t , c,, and t, Using eqs.(3.3) and (3.4) for determining tXland g from

h.f

t h e graph of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , check whether t h e values of tXl and el correspond.


If not, assign a new value of CY and again f i n d tXl and al

S e l e c t i o n of t h e value of CY can be done r a p i d l y i n p r a c t i c e . After determining t h e f i n a l value of tX1, u se t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o f i n d mtl and

eol,

and determine fjmc0 from eq.(6.l8)

of Chapter I1 by means of

t h e graphs i n Figs.2.80 2.88. In this case, a g a i n make use of eq.(3.3) t o f i n d t h e value of t:l corresponding t o o = 0 . 0 9 1 , f o r which t h e graphs of Am,, are constructed:

326

(a0 - a )

f2

t;,=tx+

4B2p2

" =t,+-

(0.091 -0.063) f i 4.0 .96v2

The c a l c u l a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out i n Table 3.1.

I n hovering f l i g h t , mt was determined a l s o from t h e experimental curve ( f i g . 2 . a l ) w i t h conversion t o (5 = 0.063 by t h e formulas:

TABLE 3.1
t,=0.14;

a=0.063; Mo=0.6
0.20

-~~-

0.15 -3.5 4.5 0.007 -0.0025 -0.00239 -0.00489 -0.98 -4.5 0.0055 7.6 0.00008 0.00558

0.25 -8.0
0

0.30 -11 .o
-3

-5.25 2.75 0.0072 -0.00457 -0.00134 -0.00591 -0.55 -5.8 0.00545 7.9 0.0001 0.00555

0.0077 -0.00765 -0.00086 -0.00851 -0.35 -8.35 0.00645 9.0 0.00015


0.0066

0.0081 -0.01155 -0.0006


-0.01 215

-0.25 -11.25 0.00875 10.2 0.0002 0.00895

Having made similar c a l c u l a t i o n s f d r a l a r g e range of t y ,we construct u n i v e r s a l auxiliary graphs f o r determining t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of h e l i c o p t e r s with (5 = 0.063, F'x(a=o)= 0.0075 (without a r o t o r hub), and M, = 0.6. These graphs are shown i n Figs.3.27

- 3.29.
shown i n

Same s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e use of t h e a d l i a r y graph of m t h . f ,

Fig.3.27, changing from p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t i e s t o dimensionless and v5ce versa i s p o s s i b l e by constructing a graph i n which t h e ordinate does not give m h a i but 327

..

'k

0.10

0.20

v
Fig.3.28 Auxiliary Graph for Calcul a t i n g Horizontal F l i g h t Regimes : S e t t i n g Angle of Rotor ( a t k =.0.55; y = 4.85) as a Function of 7 and t, (M, = 0.6; o = 0.063; ??x(a=o) = 0.0075 without Rotor Hub).

Fig.3.27 Auxiliary Graph f o r Calcul a t i n g Horizontal F l i g h t Regimes : Required Power Coefficient as a Funct, (M, =.0.6;o = 0.0630 t i o n of = 0.0075 without r o t o r hubj.

v,

a=,)

Auxiliary Graph f o r Calculating Horizontal F l i g h t Fig.3.29 Regimes: Rotor Angle of Attack as a Function of and t (M, = 0.6; o = 0.063; T x ( a = o ) = 0.0075 without Rotor Hubj

328

t h e quantity

mth*f t Y

which i s connected w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t i e s by a rela-

t i o n having a simpler form t h a n eq.(1.6):

(3.9)
Such a graph i s shown i n Fig.3.30.

In Figs.3.27 3.30 t h e curves are p l o t t e d t o values of 7 permissible f o r t h e condition of flow s e p a r a t i o n a t t h e r o t o r blades (see figs.2.120 and 2.121). The curves corresponding t o t, = 0.24 w e r e obtained by e x t r a p o l a t i o n of t h e experiment a1 graphs

A t l a r g e Mor when t h e compressibility e f f e c t i s appreciable and t h e auxiliary graphs become applicable only t o t h e value of M, f o r which they were cons t r u c t e d , it i s expedient t o p l o t , f o r h e l i c o p t e r s with a turboprop engine, a graph f o r determining N h S f i n reduced parameters: N , , . f r = f(V, ) with t h e para- /307 meter G, for M , = const (a, = const). The reduced parameters are determined by t h e formulas:

Since, i n t h e case of a turboprop engine, N, determines t h e reduced f u e l consumption p e r hour


Gh,

= Ghr
r

/?, P

it i s p o s s i b l e t o construct auxiliary

graphs f o r determining Gh,

and t h e relative f u e l consumption p e r kilometer

qr = 2 i n t h e Gr G
c-es by V , )

case of h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h turboprop engines.

a of t h e A@.liary graph f o r t h e helicopt-er dynamic c e i l i r q . Fran t h e of t h e required torque c o e f f i c i e n t s (broken curve i n Fig.3.27, designated T h i s graph, shown i n we can construct a graph of ( m t h m f = f(t,).

fig.3.31, can be used f o r determining t h e d n i m u n required power at any f l i g h t a l t i t u d e ( a t any t,) and f o r finding t h e t h e o r e t i c a l dynamic c e i l i n g o f t h e helic o p t e r HdYnt, i.e., t h e heights a t which t h e a v a i l a b l e power i s equal t o t h e minimum required power. The graph can a l s o be used f o r determining t h e a l t i t u d e up t o which h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s p o s s i b l e upon f a i l w e of some of t h e engines of a multiengine helicopter.

329

. ... . . .

0.10

0 . 2 0

a3 i7

0.10

0.15

0.20

tY

Fig .3.30

A u x i l i a r y Graph f o r Calculating mt Horizontal F l i g h t Regimes: Ratio as


Y
(5

a Function of 7 and t, (M, = 0.6; = 0.063; = 0.0075 without Rotor Hub).


a=0 1

Fig.3.31 Coefficient of Minimum Required Power of Helicopter as a Function of t, (M, = 0.6; 0 = 0.063; F x ( a = o ) = 0.0075 without Rotor Hub).
.

A u x i l i a r y graDh f o r maximum rate of c a . To c a l c u l a t e f l i g h t regimes of t e r i n which t h e f l i g h t - p a t h angle O f l . p i s not equal t o zero, eqs.(l.6) must be solved f o r Bf . p a f t e r determining t h e value of m, w i t h respect and t o t h e available engine power f o r optimum rate of climb and a f t e r s e t t i n g m, = 0 f o r g l i d i n g i n a u t o r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . T h i s problem i s solved e i t h e r w i t h (cos t h e assumption of a small value of t h e angle Of = I ) , or by successive approximations; however, it i s more convenient t o construct a u n i v e r s a l auxiliary graph.

a helic

( 1 . 8

F i r s t we determined t h e f l y i n g speed at which t h e v e r t i c a l speed i s m , Calculations show t h a t , f o r a helicopter, t h e opthum rate of climb V, t h e optimum rate of climb p r a c t i c a l l y coincides w i t h t h e rate of h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t at which t h e required power i s minimum. T h i s i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e excess of r o t o r s h a f t horsepower used f o r climbing i s maxi i n this regime ( s i n c e t h e a v a i l a b l e s h a f t horsepower of t h e r o t o r depends l i t t l e on t h e eed) and t h a t t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r ( s e e Sect.?, flying Chapt .IT, i.e., t h e e f f i c i e n c y of converting t h e excess r o t o r s h a f t horsepower t o an excess of propulsive power c r e a t i n g v e r t i c a l speed, depends very l i t t l e on t h e f l y i n g speed (with t h e exception of near-separation regimes). Therefore, t h e optimum rate of climb f o r a l l values of t, i s found i n Fig.3.27 from t h e curve connecting t h e minima of t h e required torque c o e f f i c i e n t s .

i.e.,

responds t o

It i s obvious t h a t , f o r a l l values of t y , t h e regime of optimum climb cor0.15 - 0.2.

v=

Therefore, t h e auxiliary graph f o r determining t h e v e r t i c a l speed of a 330

h e l i c o p t e r i s constructed f o r two values of V: V = 0.15 and 7 = 0.2; f o r i n t e r mediate values t h e v e r t i c a l speed can be determined by i n t e r p o l a t i o n . The awdliary graph i s constructed i n t h e following sequence: (both p o s i t i v e and negative). Assign s e v e r a l values of ef 1. From eq.(1.6), f i n d t, and determine 8, as a function of ai :
8

- -

a t =afhd - O f 1.p;

(3 .=I
ye

Assign a number of values of t, and f i n d t


tYg =t , COS of+;

(3-121

From t h e graph of aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with respect t o t, 8 and t, determine m, f o r a l l values of t,. 8 Then, determine Am, (see Fig.3 4 2 ) :

Am,=m,-

m thf

(3.131

Determine t h e v e r t i c a l component of f l y i n g speed

Construct t h e graph of i s shown i n Fig.3.33.

7,

= f(Am,) w i t h t h e parameter

t,; such a graph

It should be noted t h a t , because of t h e l i n e a r i t y of t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and because of t h e equidistant t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e curves of t, upon a v a r i a t i o n i n (J, t h e a u x i l i a r y graph shown i n Fig.3.33 i s applicable f o r c a l c u l a t i n g h e l i c o p t e r s with any c a , and (J ( f o r M, l e s s than 0.6).
mt

%
Fig.3.32 For Determining t h e Increment i n Power Coefficient i n Flight along an Inclined Path.

If t h e graph i s constructed f o r l a r g e negat i v e values of Am,, t h e n t h e v e r t i c a l rate of descent of t h e h e l i c o p t e r during g l i d i n g i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime a t a given p e r i p h e r a l r o t o r speed can be determined.

To determine t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g of a helicopter and t h e rate of climb i n v e r t i c a l ascent, l e t us w e t h e graph shown i n Fig.3.34 which i s a reconstructed graph of t h e aerodynamic r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r V = 0.

2. Determination of Helicopter _ Performance _ Data


The secpence of determining t h e performance d a t a of a h e l i c o p t e r from

Fig.3.33

A u x i l i a r y Graph f o r Determining M a x i " Rate of Climb.

0.010

0.005

0.05

0.10

0.15

Fig.3.34 and

vy f o r V = 0

Torqpe Coefficient as a Function of t (M, = 0.6; 0 = 0.063).

332

awdliary graphs i s as follows:


Select t h e design f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s and calculate, f o r each a l t i t u d e , t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and t h e available power coefficient of t h e rotor:

The design f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s are s e l e c t e d a t i n t e r v a l s of 1000 1500 m. The design a l t i t u d e s should include t h e c r i t i c a l a l t i t u d e and o t h e r s a l i e n t p o i n t s of t h e a l t i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e engine. The torque c o e f f i c i e n t m, angle of a t t a c k a h . , and angle of s e t t i n g h. f ' I o h e f required f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are found f o r calculated

t, by i n t e r p o l a t i o n from t h e a u x i l i a r y graphs i n Figs.3.27

- 3.30.

M a x i " and minimum f l y i n g meeds. These are determined from t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s of t h e curvesom, and.m, There i s no need t o construct a
h.f

s p e c i a l graph of mthmf and m,

die,

and V , , ,

di

and

7, i n

can be found by d i r e c t

i n t e r p o l a t i o n from Figs.3.27 3.30. If t h e curves of m t h e f and m, d i e at l a r g e V do not i n t e r s e c t ( a t t h e limit of separation m, h.f < m t d i # ), t h e n t h e m a x i " f l y i n g speed a t this a l t i t u d e i s not limited by t h e available engine power b u t by t h e separation of flow. M W u m v e r t i c a l rate of climb. This i s determined from t h e a w d l i a r y Here, T H and (mth,f ) are found from Fig.3.27 f o r a l l graph i n Fig.3.33. calculated f l i g h t altitudes, calculating

/ 3 1 1

After determining

Ty from t h e

graph i n Fig.3.33,

we f i n d

As a t y p i c a l example, l e t us determine &mum and m i n i m u m speed, optimum rate o f climb, and maximum v e r t i c a l speed of t h e EL-4 h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a n all-up weight of G = 7200 kg, wR = 196 m/sec, and R = 10.5 m. A l l calculations are given i n Table 3.2, and t h e results are p l o t t e d i n fig.3.35.
P r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l dynamic c e i l i n g s . These can be found from

/312
333

I Ill1 I l l I1 I

I I
0 0.138 1430

loo0 0.152 1500

1860 0.166 1550

3500 0.195 1315

5000 0..229 1380

5500 0.243 1300

0.00836 0.008775 0.297 210 0.035 25 0.170 120 0.00537 0.0034 0.024 4.7

0.00966

0.01015 0.312 220 0.033 23 0.18 127 0.00595 0.0042 0.0277 5.4

0.0115 0.325 230 0.03 21 0.18 127 0.00665 0.00485 0.0292 5.7

0,01145 0.305 215


0,09

0.0141

0.103 72 0.19 134 0.010 0.0041 0.0179 3.5

0.0141

63 0.20 141 0.00795 0.0035 0.0179 3.5

0.122 85 0.18 127 0.0109 0.0032 0.0132 2.6

= 0.5 m/sec and t h e latter, Fig.3.35: The former i s t h e a l t i t u d e a t which Vym a X t h e a l t i t u d e at which Vym a x = 0. From Fig.3.35 we can determine, by e x t r a p o h

t i o n , t h a t t h e c e i l i n g s of t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r are equal t o : Hd,, = 6400 m and , max' H d y n r = 6550 m . These d a t a can be found without constructing a graph of V For this, t h e d a t a i n Table 3.2 are using i n s t e a d t h e graph shown i n Fig.3.31. used f o r p l o t t i n g , i n Fig.3.31, t h e curves of m t d i B and m

tyTy rl
mtd i B

td i ' B

t,

0 . 5 1 WQ

a g a i n s t t, ( t h e propulsive e f f i i s deterciency of t h e r o t o r mined from t h e graphs i n Sect.", 1 1 ) . The values of t, at Chapt . which t h e s e curves i n t e r s e c t w i t h t h e curve of (mth correspond t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l dynamic c e i l i n g s . Such construct i o n s are performed i n Fig.3.36 Fig.3.35 F l i g h t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of from where we f i n d t h a t , a t t h e Helicopter. p r a c t i c a l dynamic c e i l i n g , we have t, = 0.268 and, at t h e t h e o r e t i c a l dynamic c e i l i n g , t, = 0.274.. After r e l a t i v e air d e n s i t y determining, by means of eq.(3.19), t h e

A=-

f%
fY

'

(3.19)

from t h e standard atmosphere t a b l e or from t h e formula

t h e c e i l i n g s a r e determined.

I n our example we have

which coincides with t h e values obtained above. S t a t i c c e i l i n g of helicopter-2nd r a t e L f - c - k b i n v e r t i c a l ascent. These a r e found from t h e a u x i l i a r y graph i n Fig.3.%, f o r which purpose t h e curve of m, = f(t,) w a s p l o t t e d t h e r e .
I _ _

The s t a t i c c e i l i n g of a helicopter i s determined under maxi" engine operating conditions, since t r a n s p o r t helicopters a r e generally not intended f o r prolonged hovering and usually hover b r i e f l y during takeoTf and landing, closely above t h e f i e l d i n t h e zone of influence of t h e a i r cushion. A s a t y p i c a l example, l e t us determine t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g and v e r t i c a l rate of ascent of a helicopter a t takeoff power, with wR = 212 m/sec. The calculations, made by means of t h e graph shown i n Fig.3.34, a r e given i n Table 3.3. From t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e curve of m, with t h e curve m , for
dlS

Fig.3.36 Determination of P r a c t i c a l and Theoretical Dynamic Ceilings of a Helicopter (M, = 0.6; o = 0.063; = 0.0075 without Rotor Hub) cx(a=oo)

V = 0, we f i n d t, corresponding t o t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g , and t h e s t a t i c c e i l i n g

i t s e l f : t, = 0.128; A = Oon7* 0 . 1 2 8

= 0.917;

H,,

= 890

m.

For a more complete study of h e l i c o p t e r d a t a i n hovering, a graph of maximum r o t o r t h r u s t should be p l o t t e d as a function of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e , f o r d i f with and without consideration of t h e ground f e r e n t temperature conditions t r o t e f f e c t ( t h e l a t t e r i s required f o r estimating t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of takeoff and The c a l c u l a t i o n (Table 3.3) i s landing of a h e l i c o p t e r i n mountainous t e r r a i n ) .

335

~- __ __ -

0 0.1175 1700
0.00784 0.001 0.2 0.119 7287

750 0.126 1720 0.00854 0.002 0.4 0.1285 7320

lo00

0.13 1685 0.00858 -0.0005 -0.1 0.129 7170

1500 0.136
1600

1860 0.141
1560

0.00857

0.00865

0.129 6820

0.130 6630

performed by means of the-graph i n Fig.3.34 i n terms of t h e curve f o r V , = 0: Here, m, i s determined from t h e a v a i l a b l e engine power, t i s found from t h e u " r o t o r t h r u s t Tmax i s t h e n defined. The graph of Tmax f o r graph, and t h e m t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r at takeoff power of t h e engine i s shown i n Fig.3.37. Cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e ground e f f e c t on t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i s accomplished by means of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K, which, f o r a given r o t o r , depends on t h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e Thrust w i t h consideration of t h e ground e f f e c t T g e e i s t o t h e ground h/R. equal t o

I n Fig.3.37, T p e e i s determined during hovering of t h e h e l i c o p t e r at a distance of 2 m from t h e ground, when Kh 1 . 1 2 ; this d i s t a n c e enables a h e l i c o p t e r of t h e s i z e of t h e Mi-& t o t a k e off v e r t i c a l l y and t o change t o forward f l i g h t without touching t h e ground (ground contact may t a k e p l a c e d u r i t h e takeoff run when t h e p i l o t d e f l e c t s t h e h e l i c o p t e r and it drops s l i g h t l y

7.

The maximum range of h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t horizontal f l i g h t


T ~

4.

ax

and maximum d u r a t i o n of

& I 4

. ax

a ~r e determined by t h e expressions:

I n t h e s e expressions, we denote:
= weight of t h e f u e l consumed i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of t h e h e l i 'ha*

copter;
G ,
= h o u r b f u e l c o n s q t i o n i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of a helicopter;

q = f u e l c o n s u q t i o n p e r kilometer i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of t h e helicopter :
q=-.
G

(3.23)

336

Tmax ks

8000

7000

To determine t h e minimum f u e l consumption p e r kilometer, t h e m i n i f u e l consumption p e r hour, and t h e economic and c r u i s i n g speeds, we construct a graph of t h e f u e l consumption p e r hour and kilom e t e r as a function of f w n g speed. To construct t h e graph, we first use Figs.3.27 or 3.30 t o f i n d t h e engine power required f o r horiz o n t a l f l i g h t , and t h e engine chara c t e r i s t i c s t o f i n d t h e f u e l consumption p e r hour.

The r o t o r rpm a t c r u i s i n g and economic speeds should be establ i s h e d beforehand. Usually t h e s e 6000 are equal t o t h e minimum permisZOO0 H m 0 1000 s i b l e rpm selected by t h e helicopter designer, on t h e basis of f l i g h t s a f e t y and design consideraFig.3.37 M a x i Rotor Thrust of H e l i t i o n s ; they should be combined w i t h copter i n Hovering F l i g h t . t h e c r u i s i n g regime of t h e engine. For t h e Mi-4 helicopter, t h e perip h e r a l rotor speed i n c r u i s i n g and economic regimes i s equal t o wR = 180 m/sec. Calculation of t h e graph shown i n Fig.3.38 i s accomplished i n Table 3.4. f o r an average gross weight of G,, = G h Gf = 6900 kg.

TABU3
~

3.4

v
V, km/hr

0.10 65 0.0086 985 230 3.54

0.15 97 0.00725 830 175 1.8

0.20 130 0.00685 785 163 1.25

0.225 146 0.00715 819 170 1.164

0.25 0.30 162 194 0.0078 0.01015 893 1162 195 308 1.203 1.587

It follows from t h e graph t h a t t h e m i n i f u e l consumption p e r hour and kilometer and t h e i r corresponding c r u i s i n g and economic speeds are equal t o

337

The normal f u e l load of t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r i s 600 lsg. From this amount, we must s u b t r a c t t h e f u e l consumed f o r s t a r t i n g and ground t e s t i n g of t h e engine, for t a x i i n g before takeoff, f o r t e s t hovering, climbing, descending, and landing,

/ I l l R 1 /n I I n I1
-

v .1

ill

and a l s o amount of f u e l needed f o r maneuvering i n t h e air. The remainder of t h e unconsumed f u e l i s incorporated i n t o t h e empty weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and i s disregarded i n defining t h e f u e l load.

50

"&dhr

I1 11

Fig.3.38 Fuel Consumption p e r Hour and Kilometer of Helicopter.

I n determining t h e above f u e l consumption values, it i s assumed t h a t engine t e s t i n g t a k e s 5 min a t low speed, t a x i i n g at an engine power of 0.3 of t h e r a t e d power takes 2 min ( d i s t a n c e 0.5 km), test hovering and land0.3 3 min, i n g at takeoff power takes 2 climbing a t t h e optimum r a t e t a k e s p l a c e a t r a t e d power, descent proceeds a t t h e most advantageous speed of V , = = 4 5 m/sec a t 0.3 O.5of t h e rkted power. For t r a n s p o r t helicopters, t h e f u e l needed f o r navigation i s assumed

as equal t o 5% of t h e t o t a l f u e l supply.
For t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r i n long-distance f l i g h t at an a l t i t u d e of 1000 m, t h e sum of a l l f u e l expenditures, together with t h e navigation supply, amounts t o 100 115 kg, %.e., t o about 15 20% of t h e t o t a l f u e l load. The p a t h & and f l y i n g time consumed i n climbing and descending are, respectively, equal t o 20 km and 0.2 hr. mth

M,- const,

Thus. t h e Mi-L h e l i c m t e r consumes 600 - 115-= 485 kg 'of f u e i i n horizontal

j y
~~ ~

Tangent to

f l i g h t ; t h e maximum range and endurance of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a r e Lh.f, , ,-

o ro ig in co rd i nof ate

- -485 - 485 1 . 1 6 - 418 lan, Th .f a x 3-63 = 3 hr, w h i l e t h e t e c h n i c a l range and = 418 + 20 = 438 lan, endurance a r e L,,, T,,, = 3.2 kr.

---

On t h e a s s q t i o n t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption i s independent of engine power and t h a t t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s independent of f l y i n g speed, t h e regimes corresponding t o range and endurance can be determined d i r e c t l y from t h e graphs i n Fig.3.27 i n t h e manner shown i n Fig.3.39. Fig .3.39 For Determining Cruising and Economic Speeds. Usually t h e optimum rpm i n c r u i s i n g and economic regimes i s below t h a t

338

s e l e c t e d by t h e h e l i c o p t e r designer. However, i f t h e optimum rpm i s t o be dei s performed f o r several values of wR termined, c a l c u l a t i o n of N h e f and Ghr and t h e optimum rpm i s selected from this. On t h e a s s m p t i o n t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption i s independent of both engine power and engine rpm and i f t h e power u t i l i z a t i o n f a c t o r does not depend on t h e f l s i n g speed, t h e maximum range and duration can be determined from t h e following expressions:
h.f

The f l y i n g speeds and t h e corresponding r o t o r rpm (or

'if

and t Y ) a t which

mth,

and

mth*f

tyv

reach a m i n i "

can be found from t h e graphs of t h e s e quanti-

t?
e f

t i e s p l o t t e d on t h e basis of t h e graphs shown i n Fig.3.27. mth It should be noted t h a t t h e quantity 1/-i s equal t o t h e product of

tyT

helicopter erformance and propulsive e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r Kh7) [ s e e eq.(7.10) i n Chapt.11 ; consequently,

(3.24') Minimum __- v e r t i c a l rate- of descent. T h i s r a t e , i n g l i d i n g i n an autorota- /317 t i o n regime a t a g5ven p e r i p h e r a l r o t o r speed i s determined f r o m t h e a w r i l i a r y For this, eq.(3.2) i s used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t Y h B fo fr; graph shown i n Fig.3.33. and Fig.3.33 i s used f o r determining Ty and then V , = amt = - ( m t h e p
= VYwR.

vo,

However, i n a u t o r o t a t i o n t h e v e r t i c a l rates of descent aredetermined i n t h e e n t i r e range of f l y i n g speeds, both a t constant r o t o r r p m and at constant p i t c h To solve these problems, t h e graphs of r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n autorotaQo0. t i o n , shown i n F'i .2.llO, converted by eqs. 3.3)

a r e used [ i f necessary, t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are

(3.6)1.

For constant r o t o r rpm, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed by t h e method of sue= 0.97; after cessive approximations. A s first approximation, we use cos ef 1 . c a l c u l a t i n g (tY by means of eq.(1.5), t h e quantities (txa)l Cy,1, ,

ail, cX1

f o r a s e r i e s of V a r e determined from t h e graphs of t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e equations of motion of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are used f o r finding t h e angle

339

After repeating t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s u n t i l t h e values of t h e angle Q f l m P coincide, w e f i n d t h e f l i g h t - p a t h speed and i t s v e r t i c a l and horizontal components

v =Pol?;

W e note t h a t -tan Of i . i s equal t o t h e i n v e r s e h e l i c o p t e r performance during g l i d i n g i n autorotation:

ly

log = 3

In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a u t o r o t a t i o n regime with a s e l e c t e d r o t o r s e t t i n g (usual- 5'), t h e q u a n t i t i e s t Y ot,X oand , a . are determined f o r s e v e r a l 7


Then, Bf
1.

from t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . expressions :

, wR,

and M, are obtained from t h e

If % i s l e s s than 0.6, t h e s o l u t i o n i s considered v a l i d since, i n this case, t h e e f f e c t of M, on t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be disregarded.


If Mo > 0.6, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s must be repeated, determining t,,, t X cand ,

/318

a, f o r M, obtained i n t h e preceding approximation. The successive a p p r o a t i o n s are c a r r i e d out r a p i d l y and present no d i f f i c u l t i e s . After f i n a l determination of wR, we determine V, V,, and V , by means of e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2 7 ) (3.29).

As a t y p i c a l example, l e t us c a l c u l a t e g l i d i n g i n a u t o r o t a t i o n of t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r with a gross weight of 7200 kg a t an a l t i t u d e of H = 0 f0.r wR = The experimental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r converted t o t h e = 196 m/sec. 0.063 are shown i n Figs.3.40 and 3.41. solidity ratio u
The c a l c u l a t i o n i s made i n Table 340

3.5, and t h e dependence of Vy and

Qf

l.p

on

Fig .3.40

Polars of Rotor i n Autorotation 'Regime (M, = 0.6; cr = 0.063).

Fig.3.4.1

Angle of Attack of Rotor in Autorotation Regime (M, = 0.6; cr = 0.063).

Fig.3.42

Rate of Descent and Gliding Angle of Helicopter i n Autorotation Regime

V i s p l o t t e d i n Fig.3.42. T h i s diagram i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m i n i " v e r t i c a l rate of descent of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s 7.2 m/sec a t V = 130 lan/hr, w h i l e t h e " u m g l i d i n g range, equal t o

i s obtained f o r

32

p,

= 1 0 ' ;

(Kh,)max

5.7; V

= 180 km/hr.

TABU 3.5
H=O; oR=196 m Isec; ty=0,138

0.15 106

0.20 141

0.25 176

0.30 2 11

0.0315 13 2 1

0.0202 7 1 5

0.0166 4.2 12.2

0.0150 2.6 10.6

0.00239 -0,253 1 4 ' 4 0 ' 0.967 0.1334 0.0315 -0.254 -14"42' -7.5

O.OO425 -0.183 1 0 ' 3 5 ' 0.983 0.1356


0.0206

0.00664 -0.174 -10" 0.9845 0.1358 0.0168 -0.1726 -10" -8.45

0.00957 -0.163 -10"35' 0.963 0.1356


0.0152

-0.183 -10"35' -7.2

-0,1826 -10"30' -10.7

3. Graphs f o r D-eterminiqg Optimum Helicopter


Aerodynamic Parametxs

The described method of aerodynamic design and t h e graphs of r o t o r charact e r i s t i c s used i n i t a r e convenient f o r a check c a l c u l a t i o n of a helicopter with known parameters, since s u f f i c i e n t data are a v a i l a b l e f o r determining t h e coeffi34.2

cients t

' h .

and t,

h.f

i n c a l c u l a t i n g horizontal f l i g h t regimes and t h e coeffi-

c i e n t m t d i s in c a l c u l a t i n g climbing regimes. I n designing a helicopter, a preliminary version of t h e parameters i s sel e c t e d on t h e b a s i s of p r a c t i c a l experience with previous models and on t h e basis of applicable values of p e r i p h e r a l speed, t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , load p e r square meter of r o t o r disk, e t c . The next step i s t o r e f i n e t h e h e l i c o p t e r parameters. To study t h e e f f e c t of parameters on t h e performance d a t a of a helicopter, s p e c i a l graphs should be constructed. Such graphs are necessary a l s o i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e maximum p o s s i b i l i t i e s of h e l i c o p t e r s f o r inproving t h e f l i g h t characteristics. Calculations f o r aerodynamic parameter s e l e c t i o n should be accompanied by weight c a l c u l a t i o n s and by i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e v a r i a t i o n of parameters i n a limited range within which t h e h e l i c o p t e r has a s u f f i c i e n t u s e f u l load. I n this Subsection, a graph i s described t o be used f o r defining t h e r o t o r parameters ensuri t h e m i n i " required power ( m i n i " f u e l consumption p e r hour and k i l o m e t e 3 a t given weight, Cc,S, speed, and a l t i t u d e . From this graph, t h e optimum diameter, s o l i d i t y r a t i o , and p e r i p h e r a l speed of t h e r o t o r can be determined. The equations for c a l c u l a t i n g horizontal f l i g h t regimes a r e transformed i n such a manner t h a t , i n a l l equations, t h e smallest number of sought parameters W i l l ' c o r r e l a t e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s with t h e prescribed q u a n t i t i e s . Equat i o n s (3.1) and (3.2) can be reduced t o t h e form

I n l i k e manner, we transform t h e equation f o r determining t h e reqxired power

It should be noted t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s &, Mi,,


t i o n a l t o t h e reduced parameters of t h e helicopter:
u ) ,

G Nro t ,a r e proporPa2 P a3 ,V , , G,, N,, .


t ,

It i s obvious t h a t t h e required power w i l l be lowest at a m i n i "

of t h e

343

T A B U 3.6

MO
0.12 -0.00853 0.14 -0.00995

0.61

0.16 -0.01138

0.I8
-0,0128

0.12 -0.00853

0.14 -0.00995

0.16
0 . 0 1138

0.18
-0.0128

0.00825 0,03056

0.C0957
0.03039

0.01 157
0.03214

0,0146

0.0086 0.0342

0.0098

0.01165 0.0347

0,0143
0.0379

0.0360

0.0334

0.00%8

0.OO651

0.00744

0.00837

0.00643

0.0075

0.00857

0.00965

0.00024 -0.00877 0.0084 0.0312

0.o0033 -0.01028 0.00972 0.03085

0.00043 -0.01181 0.01178 0,0327

0.00055 -0.01335 0.01483

0.00028 -0.00881 0.00872 0.03465

O.OOO38

0.00050

O.OOO63
-0.01343 0.0146 0,0387

-0,01033
0.00993

-0.01 188
0.01188

0.0366

0,0338

0.0354

0.00614

0.00715

0.00817

0.0092

0.00706

0.00824
I

0.00942

0.0106

ratio

qMc8'1

-t,

To f i n d it, a graph i n coordinates


tyM'l

) is
a t Mf,
= V/a =

p l o t t e d f o r a value of t h e r a t i o = const.

-tx

given by eq.(3.33;

/322

The sequence of constructing t h e graph i s as follows: For t h e value of Mf, s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , define t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 2.109, f o r s e v e r a l r o t o r i n t h e form of a dependence, shown i n Figs.2.105 After assigning s e v e r a l values t o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t t, and t h e values of M,.

o determine t, from eq.(3.33) and f i n d m, f o r each M 1/2 pa2 ' from t h e graphs of t h e aerodynamic c l i a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Then, c a l c u l a t e t h e r a t i o of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g eqs.(3.32) and (3.34.). When using t h e s o l i d i t y r a t i o of t h e r o t o r , t h e quantity t, i s converted by eq.(3.3) o r by t h e formula
quantity

G c c,s

I n Table 3.6 a c a l c u l a t i o n i s made f o r a flying speed of V an a l t i t u d e of H = 1000 m ( a = 336.1 m/sec, For t h e s e data, we have = 4670 kg/m2.
MI1 =0.227;

275 h / h r a t

9 pa2

= 6400 kg/m2) f o r

c %S
G -

T A B L E 3.7
Optimum Parameter

A s s i g n e d P a r am e t e r

Vr~fllll"

hP

6816 =0.00682; D,pf=37.43 m 0.0331 7117

aopt =0.095

0.0336

7224

The graph f o r determining t h e optimum aerodynamic parameters i s shown i n C u r v e 1 connects t h e m i x h a of t h e curves w i t h i d e n t i c a l 0. From Fig.3.43.

34.5

curve 1we f i n d t h e optimum r o t o r diameter at a given rpm (M,) and o. Curve 2 i s t h e envelope of t h e curves .kith i d e n t i c a l o , from which we f i n d t h e optimum rpm a t given diameter and o * Curve 3 i s t h e envelope of t h e curves with i d e n t i c a l &, from which we f i n d t h e optimum s o l i d i t y r a t i o a t given diameter and M,.
G = 35,000 kg and Cc,S =

A s an example, Table 3.7 gives t h e optimum parameters of a h e l i c o p t e r f o r 7.5 m2.

/-

Fig.3.43

Graph f o r Determining t h e Opthum Aerodynamic Para-

meters of a Helicopter (Mfl = 0.227;

+ pa2cc,S

0.73).

The above method can be used f o r finding t h e optimum aerodynamic parameters of a helicopter with a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r and Wing; however, i n this case, it i s necessary t o f i r s t determine t h e parameters of t h e p r o p e l l e r and Wing (mtt
*P

tYV/tYC, e t c . ) at which t h e dependence t,

f(mtc)

i s optimum, %.e., at which

t h e smallest values of tXC f o r a l l mtc and tYc a r e obtained. Section

4.

Aerodynamic Desian of a H e l i c m t e r Based o n C o n c a t s of Rotor Performance and Efficiencx -

The concepts of performance K and propulsive e f f i c i e n c y l l of a r o t o r a r e 1 , Section 7. There graphs are presented, obtained from exgiven i n Chapter 1 periment and c a l c u l a t i o n and u s e f u l f o r finding the values of K and T.

I n this Section, we present a method of aerodynamic design of a h e l i c o p t e r

346

w i t h t h e use of t h e concepts of performance K and e f f i c i e n c y 7 . The design formulas f o r determining required power and v e r t i c a l speed of a helicopter are completely analogous t o t h e formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g airplanes.

This i s a very simple method of calculation, e a s i l y extended t o h e l i c o p t e r s of any configuration w i t h a Wing and t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r or c r u i s e j e t engine. I n a general form, it permits making various estimate c a l c u l a t i o n s i n a simple manner: estimating t h e expediency o f i n s t a l l i n g a wing and t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s on a helicopter, f i n d i n g t h e power/weight r a t i o N/G required f o r producing a given maximum speed, and determiningthenthe amount by which t o reduce t h e required power when reducing t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e helicopter.
Since t h e performance and e f f i c i e n c y yield an approxjmate d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r , this method of c a l c u l a t i o n ranges high among t h e approximate methods of aerodynamic design.

1 . H e l i c m t e r Performance -

eq.(7.9)

The helicopter performance i n horizontal f l i g h t regime i s determined by of Chapter I1

In c a l c u l a t i o n s i t i s more convenient t o use t h e inverse quantity, namely t h e inverse performance of t h e helicopter:

Changing t o dimensional quantities, Y = G and

Qpar,

we o b t a i n

where t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s

When using t h e conversion formulas f o r determining t h e performance of a r o t o r w i t h d i f f e r i n g parameters (see Chapt .II, Sect .7.6), t h e h e l i c o p t e r performance i s found f r o m t h e expression

2. Performance of MultA.rotor a&

Composite-Helicopters -

I n t h e general case, t h e inverse performance of t h e c r a f t i s

where C Y and E X are t h e sums of l i f t s and drag of a l l l i f t i n g elements of t h e helicopter. Let us derive t h e expressions of CY and EX, f o r two types of helicopters. S i w l e - r o t o r he-l&copter with

d.w.

The l i f t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r l i f t i n g

system c o n s i s t s of t h e sum of l i f t s of t h e r o t o r and Wing

y w and Y, -. C Y C Y
Yrot

W e represent

Cy i n t h e form C Y=

G(?,

y,, )

having designated:

?=

I n horizontal f l i g h t , we have

zY=G;
tu, =tumt

cot+%=l;

+,*

The drag i s made up of t h e drags of t h e i s o l a t e d r o t o r and wing and of proj e c t i o n s of t h e r o t o r and Wing l i f t s onto t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion (see Fig.3.U)

where AarOtand Aa, are t h e averaged downwash angles of t h e r o t o r and wing. On s u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(4.8) and

(4.10)

i n t o eq.(4.6),

we obtain

348

The downwash angles are determined, as described i n Section 1 , by t h e exp r e ss i o n s

Aa, =0.26% w

7 . tya

(4.121

Two-rotor h e l i c m t e r with wing. find

After performing similar calculations, we

1 1 " and 1 1 2 " denote q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o each of t h e where t h e s u b s c r i p t s 1 rotors.


The t o t a l downwash angles due t o t h e o t h e r two elements of t h e l i f t i n g system of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are equal t o

afl/I Aak =0.26xwI T-$0.26xw, V2

a&.

For a h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration, both r o t o r s operate under 1 1 I l and 11211 are equal t o equal conditions ( a l l q u a n t i t i e s w i t h t h e s u b s c r i p t s 1 each other), and H . ~ = x2 = N,. , Therefore, f o r a h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration we obtain t h e following expressions :

For a h e l i c o p t e r of fore-and-aft configuration w i t h a wing between t h e r o t o r s , t h e f r o n t r o t o r i s v i r t u a l l y outside t h e influence of t h e t a i l r o t o r and wing, and t h e wing i s o u t s i d e t h e influence of t h e t a i l r o t o r . However, t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s H. f o r t h e t a i l r o t o r and f o r t h e wing should be doubled

349

The t o t a l required power of r o t o r s of a fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r depends T h i s i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t , i n conformity with t h e general theory of induced drag, this power does not depend on t h e l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l elements of t h e l i f t i n g system, and t h e p r o f i l e power of t h e r o t o r s does not g r e a t l y depend on t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e of t h e r o t o r s ( i n regimes not close t o flow separation). Therefore, t o determine t h e t o t a l required power of two r o t o r s we can s e t Y, = Yz. Actually, t h e l i f t s of both r o t o r s are c l o s e i n value w i t h respect t o balancing conditions of t h e helicopter.

l i t t l e on t h e r e l a t i o n of r o t o r l i f t s .

After s e t t i n g Y r o t l

-Yrotz

= Yrot

and Kl = K2 = K i n e q ~ ~ ( 4 . 1 3and )

(4.l4),

we f i n d t h a t t h e quantity K , can be determined by eqs.(4.16) and (4.17), with t h e induction c o e f f i c i e n t s not doubled. The p h y s i c a l meaning of this expression i s t h a t , t o determine t h e t o t a l power, it i s p o s s i b l e t o replace two r o t o r s by one with a double l i f t i n g f o r c e i n s e r t e d between t h e r o t o r s . The downwash of this r o t o r i s equal t o t h e half-sum of t h e downwashes of t h e f r o n t and t a i l r o t o r s , i.e., equal t o half of t h e downwash of t h e t a i l r o t o r .
The sequence of c a l c u l a t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r performance i s as follows: In a check c a l c u l a t i o n of a h e l i c o p t e r t h e gross weight, diameter, s o l i d i t y r a t i o , r o t o r rpm, and p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t are known. After assigning t h e f l y i n g speed and a l t i t u d e , f i n d t h e following dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s :

1 , find t h e r o t o r on t h e basis of which, using t h e graphs i n Section 7, Chapter 1 performance. Then, c a l c u l a t e Q p a r from eq.(4.5) and determine K,.
I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e performance of composite helicopters, i t i s necessary t o know_ t h e Qft d i s t r i b u t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l elements of t h e l i f t i n g system, For estimate calculations, we can a s s i g n Y,, and cy i.e., Y r o t l , Y r o t 2 , Y,, f o r some f l i g h t regime, bearing i n mind t h a t t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s can be obtained by r i a t e s e l e c t i o n of the s e t t i n g angle and t h e wing area. Then, using an and (4.91, we f i n d Y r o t , tYrOt from t h e r o t o r and wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e q~~(4.8 After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d o m a s h angles by eqs.(&.17), we we.dete&ne K, K,.

approp

350

find

\.

When t h e geometric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e s e t t i n g angle of t h e Wing are given, t h e following method can be used f o r determining r o t o r and wing l i f t i n horizontal f l i g h t . The angle of p i t c h of a two-rotor helicopter, measured from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ( f r o n t r o t o r f o r a h e l i c o p t e r of fore-and-aft configurat i o n ) , i s determined by t h e following expression:

Equation (4.19) i s obtaiped from t h e condition of equating t o zero t h e s u m of p r o j e c t i o n s of a l l f o r c e s onto the d i r e c t i o n of motion, on t h e assumptiont h a t t h e angle 9 = cy, = cy1 i s small, Tl = T2, Hl = H2 = He + TDln, He = 0.35 VT, Y r o t = T, X r o t = T S + H:TIS + T2 (6 + e r O t ) + H1 + H 2 + + X, = Z X = 0. From t h e angle of p i t c h of t h e helicopter, we can f i n d t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e Wing

where E, i s t h e s e t t i n g angle of t h e wing r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of the rotor.


S w , For known V, tyC, 5 1, ,

, G
Qpar

E,,

e r O t , , DIN. ( t h e desired value of

Dln i s obtained by s e l e c t i n g t h e an l e of s t a b i l i z e r s e t t i n g ) , using eqs.(4.19) and ( & . a ) , as w e l l as (4.9), (4.14-7, and (4.15), a l l q u a n t i t i e s e n tering these formulas are found by successive approximations: cy,, 6, cy,, t y rto , Y,, Y ,

W e recomend t h e following sequence of calculation: After assigning c y w , f i n d cy,, Y,, K,; by means of eq.(4.15) determine 2Yrot, and then t Y p O t , A ~ W ; f i n d 6 and, from eq.(&.S), determine cy, of t h e second approximation.

Two or three approximations must be performed. t i e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g K, can be obtained.

I n this manner a l l quanti-

& an example, Table 3.8 gives a c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r e c i p r o c a l performance of t h e Mi-4 helicopter. The i n i t i a l d a t a of this h e l i c o p t e r are given i n Sect i o n 3. Performance and e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r w e r e determined from t h e graphs i n Figs.2.159 and 2.160, w i t h conversion t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n s o l i d i t y r a t i o . The difference i n blade p r o f i l e s f o r M, = 0.6 can be disregarded.

The r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i n g

1 f o r the
Kh

e n t i r e range of t, are p l o t t e d i n

F'igL3.&, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e i n v e r s e performance of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s m i n i m a l a t V = 0.25 0.3 and a t a lift c o e f f i c i e n t c l o s e t o t h e maximum permissible owing t o flow separation.

The maximum performance i s Kh

m ax

= 6.0.

At small

v,

t h e r e c i p r o c a l per-

formance of a h e l i c o p t e r i n c r e a s e s owing t o a decrease i n r o t o r performance and at l a r g e owing t o a n i n c r e a s e i n h e l i c o p t e r drag.

v,

TABLE 3.8
1 -uh

(0.063-0.091) -k 4*0:96F ua,


~

ty
~

cxv* + 0.063ty
~

--

fy=0.14

~.-

0.15 3.5 1.011 0.286 0.063-0.&1 4-0,96vz -0.0462 0.2398 0.009 0.023 0.2628

0.20 5.4 0.980 0.1854 -0.0261 0.1593 0.009 0.0408 0.2001

0.25 6.95 0.972 0.144 -0.0167 0.1273


0.009

0.30 8.5 0.964 0.1176

0.35 9.25 0.947 0.108 -0.0085 0.0995 0.01


0.139

-0.0116 0.106 0.0095 0.0980 0.204

0.0638 0.1911

0.2385

A second example of c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h a t of t h e performance of h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t configurations: single-rotor, fore-and-aft, tandem, single-rotor with wing, and tandem with wing.
The c a l c u l a t i o n s were made under t h e following conditions: For h e l i c o p t e r s without a wing, t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r i s equal t o t, = 0.13, and rot = 0.16 and 0.32. The l a r g e r value of t f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a wing t o t

yc

C ,

f o r h e l i c o p t e r s with a wing corresponds t o two cases: a decrease i n r o t o r diameter when a wing i s i n s t a l l e d and a decrease i n p e r i p h e r a l speed without a change i n r o t o r diameter. The s o l i d i t y r a t i o of t h e r o t o r i s o = 0.091, M, =
= 0.65,

and M o = 0.65

from t h e graphs i n Figs.2.159 and 2.160 and both cy and Wing performance, from The p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e sir@e-rotor helicopter, reFig.3.45. f e r r e d t o r o t o r area, i s e c p a l t o 0.0075 and, on a decrease i n diameter, becomes
0.0075

s e t t i n g was s e l e c t e d s o t h a t r e l i e f of t h e r o t o r load was equal t o a t l e a s t 20% at M f l > 0.2. The performance and e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r were determined /329

,/=
=

0.587 i n t h e l a t t e r case.

The angle of wing

0.16 = 0.00925; 0.13

f o r two-rotor helicopters, t h e magnitude of Cc,S i s

twice t h a t of t h e s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r . The wing area of t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r , r e f e r r e d t o r o t o r area, i s equal t o 0.0325; on a decrease i n r o t o r diameter, t h e wing area d i d not change and i n r e l a t i v e values was equal t o

352

0 1 6 = 0.04. 0.0325 A

The relative wing span t,/R i s equal t o 0.85 and 0.95, 0e 1 3 respectively. For tandemhelicopters,the wing area i s determined by t h e r o t o r dimensions and i s assumed as 0.16 of t h e area of one r o t o r . The aspect r a t i o of t h e wings i s equal t o X, = 7.2.

0.5

0.15

0.20

10

Fig.3.a Reciprocal Performance of Helicopter as a Function of Eft Coeff i c i e n t and Relative Flying Speed.

Fig.3.45 Lift Coefficient and Wing Performance as a Function of Angle of Attack.

Calculation of t h e performance of h e l i c o p t e r s without a wing i s made i n Table 3.9, w h i l e t h e performance of h e l i c o p t e r s with a wing in a version with a decreased r o t o r diameter i s given i n Table 3.10.
1
0 . 3p
Kh

I II
u.zl

I I I
0 . 7

Legend : Single-rotor configuration; ---- Side-by-side configuration; -.-. - Fore-and-aft configuration; wo/w, h e l i c o p t e r without wing; I, h e l i c o p t e r with wing and reduced diameter; 1 1 , h e l i c o p t e r with wing and reduced p e r i p h e r a l speed.

Fig.3.46 Reciprocal Performance of Helicopters of Different Configurat i o n s w i t h and without a Wing as a Function of M , ,

353

TABLE 3.9
H E ~ C O F ' T E R S WITHOUT WIN2

0.15 3.5 1 .OO


0.0142
Single- rotor configuration

0.20 5.2 0.977


0.0253

0.30 7.85 0,962 0.057

0.40 8.42 0.936 0.1014


.
~

0.286 0.300
__

0.1925 0.2178

0.127 0.184

0.119 0.220
~~

Fore- a n d - a f t c o n f i g u r a t i o r
X ~ O

0.143 0.181 0.2335 0.3907

0.0962 0.102 0.1472 0.2687

0.0635 0.0454 0,0862 0.2092

0.0595 0.0255 0.0722 0,2373

= 0.65

ty,

= 0.26

~. -

Side-by- s i d e c o n f i g u r a t i o

-0.4 typ = 0.26


~

s= . ~

A ,arot 1 -+Aa,t K
1
'h

-0.0558 0.2302 0.2444

-0.0314 -0.0139: -0.00785 0.1611 0.1864 0.1130: 0.1700: 0.11075 0.21215

The r e s u l t s of t h e calculations a r e p l o t t e d i n Fig.3.46, which shows t h a t , i n t h e e n t i r e speed range, t h e r e c i p r o c a l performance of t h e h e l i c o p t e r of sideby-side configuration has a lower value and t h a t of t h e fore-and-aft configurat i o n , a higher value. The maxi" p e r f o A n c e i s equal t o : 6 f o r a side= 0.27; 5.5 f o r a s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r a t by-side h e l i c o p t e r at = 0.29; 4.8 f o r a fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r at =.0.3. A t M,, = 0.26 = 0.4), t h e performance of t h e h e l i c o p t e r s is, respectively, equal t o : 4.7; 4.55; and 4.23..

(v

The Wing, r e l i e v i n g X, 30% of t h e r o t o r load at high f l y i n g speeds, changes t h e h e l i c o p t e r performance i n t h e following manner: If, on i n s t a l l a t i o n of a wing, t h e r o t o r diameter was decreased, t h e h e l i c o p t e r performance i n c r e a s e s very l i t t l e (curve I). If t h e r o t o r diameter was not decreased but i t s r p m was r a i s e d (curve I I ) , t h e m a x i " performance of t h e h e l i c o p t e r increases by 0.5 0.9 (by 10 15%) and, at h u m speed (Mfl = 0.26), increases by 0.4 (approximately 9%). Calculations showed t h a t i f , on i n s t a l l i n g a wing, t h e r o t o r parameters a r e not changed so t h a t t h e r o t o r a t high speeds has a very low

354

TABU 3.10

0.15 -0.45
12.36 0.795 19 0.112 0.049 0.951 0.152 3.45 0.0065

0.20 -2.48 14.63 0.915 15.8 0.0595 0.10 0.90 0.144 5.3 0.0075

0.30 -7.10
12.7 0.810 18.4 0.0235 0.200 0.80 0.128 7.8 0.0066

0.40 '-12.66 8.23

0.15 -0.6 8.4 0.548 22.5 0.1276. 0.068 0.932 0.149 3.5 0.00'145 4.0640 -0.06255 0.2274 0.172
:
I
~

0.20 -2.9
9.7 0,63 21.8 0.066 0.139 0.861 0.1376 5.23 0.00167 -0.0332 -0.031 53 0.1595 0.1119 0.1373 0,0156
0.0254
0.1813

0.30 -7.62
7.22 0.48 22.8 0.b262 0.237 0.763 0.122 7.6 0.00126

0.40 -12.5 2.95 0.22 15.9 0.0155 0.195 0.805 0.1286 8.3

0.0065 0.2963 0.1644 0.282 0,00809 0.0143


0.305

0.545 23.8 , 0.0126 0.24 0.76 0.122 8.05 0.0045

'

<

O.OOO58
-0.00777 -0.007 19

'
I
i

-0.0131
-0.01184 0.1198 0.0701 0.0915 0.0166 0.0571
0 ; 1652

0.0075 0,1961 0.1228 0.176 0.0123 0.0254


0.214

0,0066 0.1348
I

0.0045

0.1287
I

0.1134
.0.0783 0.0913 0.0153
0.1015
0 " .

0.0778 0.1078 0.0156 0.0571


0.180

0.0546 0,0979 0,031


0.1015
0.212

0.212 0.0117 0.0143


0.238

wl

wl

t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e n i n s t a l l a t i o n of a wing w i l l not r e s u l t i n a decrease i n required power.

It should be noted t h a t an increase i n t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t tYC f o r a heli-

a t t h e optimum rate of climb

copter with a wing l e a d s t o a decrease i n i t s dynamic c e i l i n g . This i s so since, = 0.2, t h e wing only i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y relieves t h e r o t o r load, and t, acquires t h e maximum permissible ( i n v i e w of flow separation) value 4v a t a lower a l t i t u d e . Furthermore, a t l a r g e tyC, f low separation at t h e r o t o r may occur a t

vc

low f l y i n g speeds when t;, reduce t,


rot

is still small.

To

a t t h e s e a l t i t u d e s , a 5 - 8%increase i n r o t o r rpm can be advantageous.

It follows from Table 3.10 t h a t t h e wing performance with consideration of downwash by


the rotor
0
0.1 M,~

( z 1

+ K W

AcY,,) decreases by

On a h e l i c o p t e r without a t r a c t o r pro/332 p e l l e r , a wing without a f i x e d angle of s e t t i n g has a maximum angle of a t t a c k CY,, i n horizontal f l i g h t at = 0.3 - 0.15. A t smaller 8, t h i s angle decreases owing t o an increase i n downwash from t h e r o t o r ; a t l a r g e r values, it decreases due t o an increase i n p i t c h angle of t h e helicopter. Therefore, when a wing has a small a r e a and l a r g e angles of attack, i t s lift i n c r e a s e s at high speed d e s p i t e a decrease i n 9 but i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y (Fig.3.47, singler o t o r configuration) Conversely, i f t h e wing has a l a r g e area and small CY, (side-by-side configuration), t h e n at l a r g e speeds cyw markedly decreases and t h e lift becomes l e s s t h a n a t average speeds.

Fig.3.47 R e l a t i v e L i f t of Wing f o r Helicopters of DIifferent C o k i g u r a t ions. Legend : Single-rotor configuration; ---_ Side-by-side configuration; I Helicopter with wing and decreased diameter ; I1 - Helicopter with wing and decreased peripheral speed.

s e v e r a l u n i t s at high f l y i n g speed and even more a t low speed. The "ing, producing downwash near t h e r o t o r , somewhat reduces i t s performance. This explains t h e s l i g h t change i n h e l i c o p t e r performance when a wing i s i n s t a l l e d .

Thus, on h e l i c o p t e r s without a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r o r other propeller, t h e wing should have a small area and l a r g e CY,, o r b e provided with mechanization f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e amount of cy,.
I n a climbing regime, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e wing decreases, while it i n c r e a s e s i n gliding. A t a f i x e d angle of wing s e t t i n g i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime, flow separation from t h e wing i s i n e v i t a b l e , which can be t o l e r a t e d i n t h e presence of a small wing l i f t (small wing area and reduction i n cy, by

mechanization of t h e wing),

3. Determination o.f_ _ Helicopter -

Flight D a t a

If both h e l i c o p t e r performance and r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y are known, t h e required power of a h e l i c o p t e r i s determined by t h e expression (see Sect.7, Chapt.11):

or

The sequence of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of various configurations i s described i n Subsection 2. The r o t o r e f f i c i e n c y i s determined from t h e graphs 1 . Consequently, on assigning t h e f l y i n g speed given i n Section 7, Chapter 1 and a l t i t u d e , a graph of t h e required power of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can b e plotted. I n hovering f l i g h t , t h e required power i s determined' from aerodynamic charact e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r i n a hovering regime: N h a f i s calculated a t a l l f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s under t h e condition T = G. The maximum and minimum f l y i n g speeds a r e d e t e r d n e d from t h e points of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e curves of required and disposable power. A t a l l f l i g h t with respect t o flow a l t i t u d e s we must f i n d t h e maximum permissible speed V,,, t h e n t h e f l y i n g speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r separation conditions; i f Vmax > V,,,, i s l i m i t e d by t h e value of V,, ,

/333

Having p l o t t e d t h e curves of required power and knowing t h e engine chasact e r i s t i c s w i t h respect t o f u e l consumption, t h e f u e l consumption of t h e h e l i copter per hour and kilometer can be p l o t t e d as a function of f l y i n g speed ( s e e Fig.3.38) and, as described i n Section 3, t h e maximum range and endurance, c r u i s i n g and economic f l y i n g speeds can be determined.
If t h e h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t path i s inclined, t h e propulsive force of t h e r o t o r should balance t h e projection of helicopter weight onto t h e d i r e c t i o n of

f l i g h t , which i s equal t o G s i n

Qf

or G V Y V

- ( s e e Fig.3.1).

Therefore, t h e

expression f o r engine power t a k e s t h e form

It follows from eq.(4.23) determined by t h e formula

that the maxi"

r a t e of climb of a helicopter i s

357

Fig.3.48

Required and Available Horsepower o f .Helicopter.

Fig.3.49 Ratio N,,. /Ga f o r Helicopters of Different Configurations with and w5thout Wing, as a Function of M i l . Legend: Single-rotor configuration; ----- Side-by-side configuration; -- - Fore-and-aft configuration; wO/w Helicopter without wing; I Helicopter with wing an2 decreased diameter ; I1 Helicopter with wing and decreased peripheral speed.

The opthum r a t e of climb and mini from t h e graph of required powers. constructing t h e graph Vy, LLx
=

power consumption N h a f m i n are found

After determining V Y B a x a t a l l a l t i t u d e s and

f(H),

t h e dynamic c e i l i n g of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s

determined by graphical means (see Fig.3.35). From eq.(k.%) f o r N d i , = 0, t h e minimum r a t e of descent of a h e l i c o p t e r i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime of t h e r o t o r (Vye)m3,,i s derived. To determine t h e angles of a t t a c k
cy

and angles of s e t t i n g 00 of t h e r o t o r

it i s necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r

must b e determined from t h e graphs and, knowing t, and t,, t h e angles CY and ( s e e Figs.2.63 - 2.70 and 2.105 2.109) o r from eq.(3.95) given i n Section 3, Chapter 11.

A s an example, l e t u s carry out an aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r with rectangular m e t a l blades. The graph of helicopter performance The graph of t h e required and disposable powers i s shown i s given i n Fig.3.44. i n Fig.3.43 f o r six f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s .

At

7=
,

0, Nh.f

i s determined by t h e expression:

where m t i s found from t h e graphs shown i n Fig.3.34

for

7,

0.

The maximum v e r t i c a l r a t e s of climb and m i n i m u m r a t e s of descent i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime are calculated i n Table 3.11. Determination of t h e other f l i g h t d a t a i s accomplished by means of t h e graph i n Fig.3.U.
A comparison of N h S i calculated by t h e auxiliary graph i n Fig.3.27 with Nh. f found from h e l i c o p t e r performance and e f f i c i e n c y shows s a t i s f a c t o r y agreemerit; VYmax i s a l s o close i n magnitude.

/335

Figure 3.49 shows a graph of required power based on G a f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of various configurations. The graph i s calculated by m e a n s of t h e helicopter performance graph given i n Fig.3.46. formulas : The r a t i o

i s determined by t h e Ga
Nh. f

359

i n forward f l i g h t , and by

i n hovering f l i g h t .

5000 1380 125 0.177 0.229 0.850 970 410 3.05 -7.2
5500

0 1430 115 0.163 0.138 1.010


880

550 4.86 -7.8

1000 1500 115 0.163 0.152 1.002 865 635 5.57 -7.6

1860 1550 120 0.170 0.165 0.989 837 693 6.0 -7.4

3500 1315 125 0.177 0.195 0.953 865 450 3.75 -7.2

1300 115 0.163 0.242 0.850 1060 240 1.83 -7.9

The power u t i l i z a t i o n f a c t o r 5 w a s taken as equal t o 0.93-for two-rotor . 1 5 and as helicopters, and as 5 = 0.88 f o r a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r a t V 2 0 I n hovering f l i g h t , t h e h e l i c o p t e r wing i s swept by t h e = 0.83 at V = 0. 5 r o t o r and c r e a t e s a negative l i f t ; t h e r e f o r e , a t V = 0 t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r i n c r e a s e s by 2% f o r t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r with a wing and by 8% f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration with a wing; t h e value found from eq.( 4.28) i n c r e a s e s accordingly. W e see from t h e graph t h a t , because of a d i f f e r e n c e i n 5 i n hovering regime, t h e r a t i o N/G i s lower f o r two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r s t h a n f o r single-rotor versions

The l a r g e s t value of N/G r e f e r s t o h e l i c o p t e r s with a wing and with a reduced r o t o r diameter, while t h e smallest value refers t o h e l i c o p t e r s with a wing and with reduced r p f o r t h e single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r and f o r t h e side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r without a wing. Thus, t o ensure t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of hovering, t h e h e l i c o p t e r s i n question should have a d i f f e r e n t engine power per kilogram of gross weight. Correspond'ingly, t h e y w i l l have d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t d a t a i n forward f l i g h t . Table 3.12 gives some f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of h e l i c o p t e r s which w e r e obtained i n our example /336 at a f l y i n g a l t i t u d e H = 0 f o r t h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e engine: N t . 0 = N h o v ; NnO, = 0.85 N t . 0 ; Ne," = 0.7 N t . 0 . The m a x j . " v e r t i c a l speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r was determined by t h e formula

360

The m i n i " r a t e of descent i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime ( V y c ) m i n w a s determined f o r N d l r = 0.


TABL;E

3.12
.-

Helicopter 6 n fiyration

--

-- .

la

' 4 f .
4

m In
0

. " $ 2
6.6 6.76 2.61 1 0 . 0 3 9.02

h:

5 ,
I

Si de- by- a i d e Single- rotor Fo re- and- a f t Si de- by- s i d e w i t h wing and r e d u c e d diameter
S i d e - by- a i d e ri t h wing and r e d u c e d peripheral speed

3.253 3.284
D.253 D.306

301

304 280 332


321

0.456 0.527 ( 4 7 . 7 ) 0.694


0

0 0

- 7.66 - 9.38
-11.65

246 244 185 280 275

- ,

1.127 1.144

0.356 0.348

- 7.21

1 . 1 6 9
b.134

0.271

- 6.24 - 9.17
- 7.89

1 . 1 2 1

S i n g l e- r o t o r w i t h wing and r e d u c e d diameter S i n g 1 e- r o t o r .rit h r i n g hnd r e d u c e d p e r i p h e r s l apeed

0.315

325

0.465

7.59

268

1.145

0.281

317

0.448

7.06

261

D. 133

N
Si de- by- si d e
S i n g 1 e- r o t o r
Fore- and- a f t

for h e l i c o p t e r 8 i

identical

Si de- by- si d e ri t h
wing and r e d u c e d di m e t e r S i d e - b y - s i d e with r i n g and r e d d c e d p e r i p h e r a l speed

0.264 0.264 0.264 0.264


0.261

306 292 287 310


317

0 29.4 0 28.2
8.8

0,439 0.668 0.667 0.413 0,357

7.19 4.67

- 7.66

3.20
7.64 8.61

- 9.38 -11.65 - 7.21

252 230 203 258 272

0.129 0,141 0.160 0.126 0.119

- 6,24
- 9.11

S i n g l e - r o t o r ri t h r i n g and r e d u c e d dimeter S i n g l e - r o t o r with r i n g and r e d u c e d p e r i p h e r a l speed

0.264

300

47.7

0.655

4.88

235

0.138

0,264
b

308

23.a

0.477

6.16

7.86

i51

0.129

The f u e l supply required f o r f l i g h t over a given range at t h e c r u i s i n g power of t h e engine w a s found by t h e formula

/337

The c o e f f i c i e n t 1 . 1 i s introduced t o account f o r t h e f u e l supply f o r navigation and f u e l consumption i n t r a n s i t i o n a l regimes f o r a height of H = 0. Here,

Gf

Gf was G

calculated f o r L

, 500 km a t C

0.32 kg/hp hr.

Table 3.12 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , under equal conditions i n hovering f l i g h t ( N t e 0 = N h o v ) , t h e fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r has t h e worst f l y i n g q u a l i t i e s i n forward f l i g h t : The r a t e of climb and c r u i s i n g speed a r e appreciably smaller, t h e f u e l requirement i s g r e a t e r , t h e r a t e of descent i n an a u t o r o t a t i o n regime

i s g r e a t e r , and

- 0.69, Nt.
Nh*f
0

i.e.,

continuation of h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s pos-

s i b l e only i f not more t h a n one of t h e t h r e e engines f a i l s . To improve t h e f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e fore-and-aft have a more powerful engine: Nt. > Nhov. The side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r has t h e b e s t f l i g h t data. helicopter should

The q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e i n f l i g h t d a t a of h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t conf i g u r a t i o n s i n forward f l i g h t a l s o remains f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of equal a v a i l a b l e horsepower per unit weight ( s e e t h e second p a r t of Table 3.12), and a l s o i f we t a k e i n t o account t h a t h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t configurations have a somewhat d i f f e r i n g f l y i n g weight a t an i d e n t i c a l lift capacity. A t equal a v a i l a b l e power per u n i t weight f o r single-rotor and two-rotor helicopters, t h e former can hover only on a ground cushion, with i t s minimum speed outside t h e ground cushion being about 30 km/hr. By i n s t a l l i n g a wing on a single-rotor h e l i c o p t e r t o reduce t h e r o t o r diameter by 1 1 % and increasing t h e engine power a l s o by 1 1 % t o ensure hovering outs i d e t h e ground e f f e c t , t h e f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a h e l i c o p t e r i n forward f l i g h t a r e improved: The maximum and c r u i s i n g speeds increase by 20 km/hr and Without an i n c r e a s e i n engine power, t h e t h e . r a t e of climb by about 2 m/sec. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a h e l i c o p t e r i n hovering f l i g h t d e t e r i o r a t e , but i n forward f l i g h t t h e y change negligibly: The m a x i and c r u i s i n g speeds increase by 5 8 km/hr and t h e r e l a t i v e f u e l feed decreases by 3%. When a wing i s ins t a l l e d without changing t h e r o t o r diameter b u t with decreasing t h e peripheral speed, t h e f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r improve both i n hovering and i n forward f l i g h t : The maximum and c r u i s i n g speeds increase by 15 - x) km/hr, and t h e r e l a t i v e f u e l feed decreases by 8 - 9%.

A s noted above, t h e dynamic c e i l i n g of a h e l i c o p t e r with a d n g decreases.

362

4. Calculation of a H e l i c o a Tractor Propeller -~ -p t e r with When c a l c u l a t i n g a helicopter with a t r a c t o r propeller ( j e t engine) developing a t h r u s t Pt. p , t h e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r must b e reduced by t h e quanti-

t y P t . p , i.e.,

t h e drag w i l l be equal t o

G + K

Qpar

PteP.

The t r a c t o r propeller requires an amount of power determinable by t h e expression

Therefore, t h e required power of a h e l i c o p t e r with a t r a c t o r i s equal t o

or

I n c a l c u l a t i o n s using eqs.(4.32) o r (4.33) we must assign t h e value of P t n D o r N t e P ; i n so doing we must bear i n mind t h a t i n steady horizontal f l i g h t t h e drag of t h e h e l i c o p t e r cannot b e negative; consequently, t h e following condition should b e s a t i s f i e d :

%"++*. Q
G

(4.34)

Accordingly, i n a climbing o r descending regime t h i s condition t a k e s t h e form

(4.35)
Such an a d d i t i o n a l term i n formulas f o r N h a f as i n eq.(4.33) appears whenever t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s are i n s t a l l e d on h e l i c o p t e r s of any configuration. The f l i g h t d a t a of a helicopter with a t r a c t o r propeller a r e determined i n t h e same sequence a s one without t r a c t o r propellers. Let us estimate how much t h e required power and m u m vary when a t r a c t o r propeller i s i n s t a l l e d on a helicopter. r a t e of climb may

= 0.35), For M g = 0.60 and average values of t, at high f l y i n g speeds Having taken t h e efficiency ' l l of t h e r o t o r can b e considered equal t o 0.87.

(v

0.91 f o r a two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r and q t m p= 0.78, S t . P

0.97 f o r t h e t r a c t o r
0.91
-

propeller, we f i n d t h e value i n .parentheses i n eq.(4.33): = 0 . 0 5 .

X
X

0.97

0.87 0.78

363

I f t h e t r a c t o r propeller completely overcomes t h e h e l i c o p t e r drag, i.e.,

if

t h e n t h e increase i n reauired power amounts t o 5%, b u t i f it overcomes t h i s drag only by ha1-f, t h e n t h e Tncrease i n required power amounts t o 2.5%. Consequently, t h e l o s s e s are s m a l l .
1

- 3% gain

For Me

0.7 and = 0.35 0.4, when ll = 0.85 0.8, t h e r e can b e a i n required power when a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r i s used.

I n a mum rate-of-climb regime f o r Me u 0.6 0.7, = 0.2, and at average values of t y , t h e e f f i c i e n c y can be considered equal t o at least 7 = Consequently, i f it i s possible t o o b t a i n a very high value of t r a c t o r = 0.87. propeller e f f i c i e n c y (lltaP= 0.78) i n a maximum rate-of-climb regime, then t h e value i n parentheses i n eq.(4.33) i s equal t o -0.05. For a side-by-side h e l i copter, more t h a n h a l f o f t h e a v a i l a b l e h e l i c o p t e r power i s consumed i n a maximum rate-of-climb regime f o r producing v e r t i c a l speed. Consequently, when a l l power i s delivered t o t h e t r a c t o r propeller, t h e t o t a l t h r u s t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r decreases by 5%, whereas t h e excess of t h r u s t used f o r climbing decreases by A t ll = 0.9, we have T I t a p = 10%. The rate-of-climb l o s s w i l l b e about 1 m/sec. = 0.7, and when h a l f of t h e a v a i l a b l e power i s supplied t o t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s /339 t h e rate-of-climb l o s s will amount t o 20%, o r about 2 m/sec. General considerat i o n s on when t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of a t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r o r other propeller on a h e l i c o p t e r i s expedient o r necessary a r e given a t t h e end of Section 7, Chapter 11.

5. Comparison of Helicopter and AJrplan-e


A t i d e n t i c a l f l y i n g weight of h e l i copter and a i r p l a n e , t h e r e l a t i o n D = = L, i s approximately s a t i s f i e d ; t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s determined by design a d v i s a b i l i t y of t h e s i z e of wings and r o t o r s . A commrison o f t h e parameters of r e g u l a r aircraft and h e l i c b p t e r s shows t h a t a wing has an aspect r a t i o l a r g e r by a f a c t o r of 7 - 9 and an equally l a r g e r load per square meter of

3 CY,

Fig.3.50 Comparison of t h e Product of A i r c r a f t Performance and E f f i ciency f o r Regular A i r c r a f t and Helicopter

.=

(G) P
= h h

area.
=

Consequently ,

const.

This means t h a t a given a i r c r a f t and helicopter have

(+)

airs

a n approximately equal induced drag a t t h e same f l y i n g speed. Provided t h a t D = L,, t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s of an a i r p l a n e and h e l i c o p t e r are connected by t h e r e l a t i o n

364

(4.37)
helicopter and an airompar i m, l e t u s t a k e t h e following d a t a of For For an airplane, plane. For a helicopter, CT = 0.091; t, = 0.15, -Ex = 0.0075. t h e wing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are taken from d a t a of wing exposure t o propeller s l i p stream of a modern low-speed t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t . A rectangular wing with a slat and double s l o t t e d f l a p w a s t e s t e d . The wing aspect r a t i o w a s X, = 9. The p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t cxa i r of t h e airplane, based on wing area, w a s taken t o be equal t o 0.025 [Cc,S o f t h e a i r p l a n e i s approximately one h a l f t h a t of a helicopter : copter,
(CGS)airo

'Xafrc

Satre

Fro t

F~~~

=
T r

0.0036 and f o r t h e h e l i -

C,

0.00751.
TABLIZ 3.13
R e t r ec t e d

Moved

Slot Deflection o f Flap

I
0.4 0.0185 21.6 9.2 6.44 7.82
. -

I
Over1 apped

)pen

Forward

50
1.45 0.1175 12.35 10.2 7.15 8.67
. .

0.8 0.0439 18.25 11.6 8.12 9.86


-

1.2 0,0873 13.75 10.65 7.45 9.05

2.4 2.55 2.87 0.232 0.417 0.45' 0.582 8.63 5.77 5.6 4.93 7.8 5.44 5.36 4.72 3.75 3.31 5.46 3.8 6.62 4.62 4.55 4.02

~~

0.479

0.34

9.3 0.875 5.75 4.43

0,277 8.2 0.915 6.03 4.85

0.252 7.3 0.93 5.77 4.72

0.214 5.9 0.965 5.1 4.33

0.196 5.12 0.975 4.66. 4.00

0.19 4.19 0.98 4.5 3.88

0.179 4.45 1.o 4.11 3.62

For t h e selected values of cy, we f i n d , i n Table 3.13, c , , ~ K,, K a i r o , For t h e s e same values of cy,, t h e values of K, 7, K h , and K h I are K8irc?lt.p.

v,

365
4

determined f o r t h e helicopter. Since t h e h e l i c o p t e r h a s a d d i t i o n a l engine power l o s s e s , t h e product Kh7]5, where 5 = 0.88, i s calculated f o r a single-rotor h e l i copter with a t a i l r o t o r . The graph i n Fig.3.50 i s constructed from t h e d a t a of Table 3.13.

A comparison of wing and r o t o r performance shows t h a t , i n t h e examined example, t h e wing without mechanization, a t a l l cy,, has a performance greater
by a f a c t o r of 2 1.7 t h a n t h e r o t o r . The wing with mechanization has a 4 . 6 % greater performance a t cy, = 2.0 ( a t t h i s c,, t h e minimum f l y i n g speed corresponds t o V,,,

= 0.214),

whereas a t

2.87

(vmin

0 . 1 8 ) , t h e wing

performance i s only 10% higher t h a n t h a t of t h e r o t o r .

It follows from Table 3.13 and Fig.3.50 t h a t t h e maximum value of KalrcVt.p at 7 ) t , P = 0.7 i s by a f a c t o r of 1.75 g r e a t e r t h a n KhV5. The f u e l consumption of t h e a i r p l a n e per kilometer i s l e s s by t h e same f a c t o r t h a n t h a t of t h e h e l i copter ( a t equal s p e c i f i c consumptions of t h e engine). The speeds corresponding t o mazima of t h e product of t h e c r a f t performance and e f f i c i e n c y i s by a f a c t o r of 1.2 g r e a t e r f o r t h e a i r p l a n e ( a c t u a l l y , a i r l a n e s f l y t h e range a t a g r e a t e r speed and with a performance less t h a n maximumy.
On comparing a h e l i c o p t e r and an a i r p l a n e a t equal flying speeds, it w i l l b e found t h a t a t speeds reached by an a i r p l a n e without t h e use of wing mechanization 2 0.3 - 0.25), (KV)alre i s by a f a c t o r of 1 . 5 - 2 g r e a t e r t h a n (KVS),. At > 0.43, flow separation from t h e r o t o r blade begins at t h e helicopter. A t low f l y i n g speeds, reached by an a i r p l a n e with t h e use of powerful mechanization, (KV),irc i s less t h a n (KVS), owing t o t h e l a r g e p r o f i l e drag of t h e wing. Thus, it i s aerodynamically l e s s expedient t o use such an a i r p l a n e with i t s low att a i n a b l e speed f o r long f l i g h t s ; a h e l i c o p t e r i s t h e n preferable.

(v

Table 3.13 shows t h a t , at equal f l y i n g weight and at D = L,, t h e minimum speed of t h e airplane, determined by t h e q u a n t i t y = 2.87, w i l l b e =

& & !

0.18. A low f l y i n g speed can correspond t o t h i s value of o n l y i f t h e airplane has a small wing loading. The minimum speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s determined by t h e a v a i l a b l e engine power a n d . i s u s u a l l y equal t o zero, whereas when = t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s overloaded it w i l l not exceed a value corresponding t o = 0 . 0 5 .
=
- p. t e r of 6. Power of Front and T a i l Rotors i n a H _ _e l i c o Fore-and-BFtConfigw-atiin

An expression w a s derived i n Subsection 2 f o r determining h e l i c o p t e r performance and t o t a l required power of both r o t o r s . However, t h e t a i l r o t o r usua l l y r e q u i r e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r power t h a n t h e f r o n t r o t o r (by a f a c t o r of . 1 . 5 and more). L e t u s d e r i v e an expression f o r determining t h e power required by each r o t o r separately. F i r s t , l e t us f i n d t h e propulsive f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r s . They are not i d e n t i c a l , s i n c e various r o t o r s may have d i f f e r e n t l i f t s and d i f f e r e n t angles of attack.

366

According t o eq.(4.8),

t h e r e l a t i o n between

cy1

and az i s equal t o

- Aarotl +A E , ~ ~ ,
where A%ot,

i s determined by eq.(4.14)

with consideration of eq.(4.18).


=

Proceeding from t h e approximate expression f o r X : X

Y(a + al), we f i n d

From t h e condition of equilibrium of f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion (Fig.3 .4), w e obtain t h e following equality:

I n eq.(4.39), Qpar f o r a helicopter with a wing and t r a c t o r propeller represent s t h e sum Qp a p + x,, + Y , ,Aa,, - p , .

,,.

From eqs.(4.38)

and (4.39), we o b t a i n

Equations (4.40) and (4.u) i n d i c a t e t h a t vee-ing of t h e r o t o r s by an angle r e d i s t r i b u t e s t h e propulsive f o r c e s of t h e r o t o r s , t h u s influencing t h e A, power required by t h e r o t o r s . Owing t o downwash of t h e t a i l r o t o r , i t s propuls i v e f o r c e i s g r e a t e r (more negative) by an amount of Y , A c u , . t2. A t Yl Y2, t h e f r o n t and t a i l r o t o r s do not f u r n i s h an equal share of p a r a s i t e drag. S u b s t i t u t i n g X1 and X2 i n t o t h e expression f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e required power & 2

we o b t a i n

367

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t , on adding t h e expressions i n parentheses i n

eqs.(4.43) and (4.4!+), t h e sum w i l l coincide with eq.(4.13) f o r t h e case of a


fore-and-aft ratio helicopter.
=

The angle of vee-ing of t h e r o t o r s Aerot, and t h e At

Y l at y2

T 2 will not influence t h e t o t a l power of t h e helicopter.


t h e power of both r o t o r s i s i d e n t i c a l .

Yl

Yz and Aerot, - AcY,,,,,

It i s

necessary t o note, however, t h a t ' t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r d e t e r i o r a t e s when e r o t , > 0.

7. Retraction of Landing- G-e a r on Helicopters


- . ~. .~

It i s known t h a t h e l i c o p t e r s have a p a r a s i t e drag about twice t h a t of regular a i r c r a f t .


This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e s p e c i f i c configuration of a h e l i c o p t e r , t h e presence of a cabane and l a r g e hub of t h e r o t o r j t a i l boom with a t a i l r o t o r placed high, and a l s o t o t h e necessity of loading and unloading i n hovering f l i g h t and maintenance without t h e use of an airdrome. Therefore, various h o i s t i n g devices, numerous r a i l i n g s and hatches, movable doors, b l i s t e r s , e t c . are o f t e n i n s t a l l e d on t h e outside of a helicopter. On t h e other hand, t h e weight c o e f f i c i e n t which i s lower t h a n t h a t of a r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t n e c e s s i t a t e s a c a r e f u l approach t o any measures t h a t reduce t h e p a r a s i t e drag but i n c r e a s e t h e s t r u c t u r a l weight. Below, we w i l l estimate t h e expediency of i n s t a l l i n g a r e t r a c t a b l e landing gear on a h e l i c o p t e r from t h e viewpoint of i t s load-carrying capacity. Retraction o f t h e landing gear reduces t h e p a r a s i t e drag of a h e l i c o p t e r by

20

25%.

Figure 3.51 shows t h e graph of t h e r a t i o

Nh. f Ga f o r two values of

Zx: 0.0075 and (by 25% l e s s ) 0.0056.

The graph a l s o contains t h e quantity

.Ga- = 0.7

Ne, u

Ga.
Nhov

It i s obvious t h a t , with r e t r a c t i o n of t h e landing gear,

t h e cruising speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n c r e a s e s from V,,, = 253 h/hr (Mil = = 0.207) t o V , , , = 269 km/hr (Mil = 0.22), i.e., by 6%. "he required f u e l supp l y will decrease by t h i s same amount, while t h e range will remain unchanged. If t h e c r u i s i n g speed i s retained, t h e n t h e required power diminishes by 9%

368

(T N

0.000555 i n place of 0.000605).

Since t h e s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption of

turboprop engines g r e a t l y increases upon a decrease i n engine power, a change i n power as shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l r e s u l t i n a change i n f u e l consumption smaller by a f a c t o r of about 1.5. Consequently, we a r r i v e a t t h e same figure: The required f u e l supply decreases by 6%.

N o w we can c a l c u l a t e t h a t portion of t h e s t r u c t u r a l weight increase by /3rc3 r e t r a c t i o n of t h e landing gear which i s compensated by a decrease i n f u e l requirement. Thus, an increase i n structur a l weight by 1 % of t h e takeoff weight w i l l b e compensated a t a f u e l requirement equal t o 17% of t h e takeoff weight, i.e., E.. = 0.17, s i n c e 6% of 17% i s 1%.A 1 . 5 % increase i n s t r u c t u r a l weight w i l l be compensated when Gf = 0.25. The normal f u e l supply of modern turboprop h e l i c o p t e r s i s about 15% of t h e takeoff weight, with a mum of X)-25%. It i s obvious t h a t i n s t a l l a t i o n of a ret r a c t a b l e landing gear on modern helicopters i s expedient i f t h e increase i n s t r u c t u r a l weight does not exceed 1 1.5% of t h e takeoff weight. I n so doing, however, t h e max5mum l o a d - l i f t i n g capacity of t h e h e l i c o p t e r decreases i n f l i g h t s with a smaller f u e l supply.

0.1

0 . 2

Mjl

Fig.3.51 Ratio N h , /Ga of Helicopter f o r Two Values of Paras i t e Drag Coefficient, as a Function of Mil

A 6% decrease of f u e l supply and an equal increase i n c r u i s i n g speed lead t o cheaper hauling on helicopters, which should a l s o be taken i n t o account by t h e designer when attacking t h e problem of landing-gear r e t r a c t i o n .

It should b e pointed out t h a t , on a i r p l a n e s with a higher performance of t h e l i f t i n g system, a decrease i n p a r a s i t e drag w i l l l e a d t o a g r e a t e r decrease i n f u e l consumption. Furthermore, regular a i r c r a f t have g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e f u e l supplies F , f o r which reason r e t r a c t i o n of t h e landing gear on a i r p l a n e s has become advantageous a t c r u i s i n g speeds lower t h a n t h o s e presently used f o r h e l i copters

Calculation -_ of a Helicopter by t h e Power Method Section 5. Aerodynamic I n a n aerodynamic design of a h e l i c o p t e r by t h e power method, t h e condition o f power balance i n steady h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t i s used: The power supplied t o t h e r o t o r i s equal t o t h e sum o f a l l power l o s s e s . Thus, having determined a l l produced i n overcoming l o s s e s of power - both of t h e p r o f i l e and induced type t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s as w e l l as t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight component i n climbing, we f i n d t h e power which must b e supplied t o t h e r o t o r .

The formulas f o r determining t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t of a r o t o r , derived i n

369

Section 3, Chapter 1 1 , express t h e condition of t h e power balance. The same Section contains formulas and graphs f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p r o f i l e and induced power l o s s e s f o r a r o t o r .

It i s general p r a c t i c e t o determine a l l power l o s s e s approximately so as /3rcrc t o simplify t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s ; therefore, t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n s of a h e l i copter by t h e power method c o n s t i t u t e s an approximate method. 1 . Determination o f Required Power
Helicopter F l i g h t Horizontal

u m of t h e p r o f i l e and The required power of a h e l i c o p t e r i s equal t o t h e s induced l o s s e s at t h e r o t o r and t h e l o s s due t o overcoming t h e p a r a s i t e drag of n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r

The p r o f i l e power l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t mpr i s determined from s p e c i a l graphs, o r by t h e approximate formula (3.75) from Chapter 1 1 :
mpr

1 =-4

' , p a ,

(1

+5v2) P +Amco .

(5.2)

I n dimensional form, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s of a r o t o r are calculated by t h e formula


l e mpra( O R ) ~ F , Npp = 75E

(5.3)

where 5 i s t h e engine power u t i l i z a t i o n f a c t o r . The induced power l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t i s determined by means of eq.(3.83) from Chapter I1

while, i n dimensional form, t h e induced l o s s e s of a r o t o r are determined by

The induced l o s s e s can a l s o b e represented as t h e product of t h e f o r c e of t h e induced drag of t h e r o t o r and t h e f l y i n g speed, o r as t h e product of r o t o r lift and average downwash angle i n t h e r o t o r plane and f l y i n g speed

(5.6)
The, average downwash angle i n t h e r o t o r plane i s determined by t h e average

370

induced v e l o c i t y of t h e r o t o r

It i s obvious t h a t eq.(5.5)

i s also obtained from eqs.(5.6)

and (5.8).

It follows from eq.(5.5) t h a t t h e induced power l o s s e s are d i r e c t l y prop o r t i o n a l t o t h e square of f l y i n g weight, r e f e r r e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e l i n e a r dimension BD ( L e . , t h e span of t h e l i f t i n g system determines t h e volume of air flowing through t h e r o t o r ) . The induced l o s s e s are inversely proportional t o flying speed and a i r density.
Consequently, upon an increase i n h e l i c o p t e r weight without a proportional increase i n r o t o r diameter, t h e induced l o s s e s i n c r e a s e d t h respect t o a /3rc5 quadratic r e l a t i o n .
I f t h e load per u n i t r o t o r d i s k area p =

i s retained, F

t h e n t h e induced l o s s e s w i l l be d i r e c t l y proportional t o t h e f l y i n g weight and the ratio


nd will G
1 %

remain unchanged.

However, s i n c e increasing t h e h e l i c o p t e r

tonnage causes p t o increase ( f o r decreasing t h e r e l a t i v e weight of t h e r o t o r ) , the ratio


Nina is G

g r e a t e r f o r heavy h e l i c o p t e r s t h a n f o r l i g h t ones.

For multirotor helicopters, t h e induced power l o s s e s a r e determined as t h e sum of t h e product of t h e type of eq.(5.6), taken f o r a l l elements of t h e lifti n g system:

I n eq.(5.9), t h e downwash angles OCY are equal t o t h e sum of a l l downwash angles f o r each element of t h e l i f t i n g system: t h e downwash angle due t o selfinduction defined by eq.(5.8) and t h e downwash angles due t o interference*, whose expressions a r e given i n Sections 1 and 4.
A s a t y p i c a l example, l e t us develop eq.(5.9) f o r a fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r , using eqs.(4.14) and (4.18) f o r t h e downwash angle due t o interference:

* For
G/B2

t h e terms containing t h e downwash angles due t o interference, we can.t a k e 1 .

Having s u b s t i t u t e d

Acyl

and Acy2 i n t o t h e expression f o r Ni,,,

we obtain

N,,

If t h e r o t o r s have no excess, t h e n t h e graph. of nC0 i n Fig.3.8 1 and

furnishes

The expression f o r N i n d shows t h a t , a t nc0 = 1 , t h e q u a n t i t y N l n d does not depend on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of h e l i c o p t e r weight between t h e f r o n t and t a i l r o t o r s and i s determined only by t h e sum of l i f t s Yl + Y2 = G. Displacement of t h e l i f t i n g elements along t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t does not influence t h e quantit y N i a d , so t h a t t h e expressions f o r N l n d coincide f o r single-rotor and foreand-aft h e l i c o p t e r s

However, it must b e borne i n mind t h a t , f o r a two-rotor h e l i c o p t e r of foreand-aft configuration, t h e f l y i n g weight i s equal t o t h e t h r u s t of t h e t w o r o t o r s and t h a t , a t i d e n t i c a l load on t h e r o t o r d i s k area p, t h e r a t i o G / D i s twice Therefore, as already indicated i n Chapter I, t h a t of a single-rotor helicopter. N i n d i s by a f a c t o r of 4 g r e a t e r f o r a fore-and-aft h e l i c o p t e r t h a n f o r a singler o t o r type, and t h e r a t i o
Nind

i s twice as large.

This explains why fore-and-

a f t h e l i c o p t e r s have poorer f l y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and why t h e f l y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e t e r i o r a t e more noticeably upon an increase i n /346 f l y i n g weight.

VAD 2 For t h e side-by-side helicopter, t h e e f f e c t i v e t r a n s v e r s e dimension, i.e., t h e span of t h e system, i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n f l y i n g weight, which i s ex= 0 ?with t h e r o t o r s spaced far . 0. ~ At pressed by t h e f a c t t h a t N ~ <
apart),
G

If Hco

# 1, t h e n

Nind

16@ 75nB45

G2

1+

NCO

i s t h e same f o r t h e side-by-side

h e l i c o p t e r as f o r t h e singlet h e former i s lower.

rotor helicopter; at

< 0, t h e r a t i o

Nind of G

Losses f o r overcoming t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e n o n l i f t i n g p a r t s of a h e l i copter a r e determined by t h e formula

(5.10)
o r , . i n dimensionless form,

372

where

mw= -t%#

t , hf = - c ,

- P

7.

(5.12)

When c a l c u l a t i n g a h e l i c o p t e r with a wing, we w i L r e f e r t h e wing drag t o t h e p a r a s i t e drag of t h e helicopter, i.e.,

where c,, i s t h e p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t of an i s o l a t e d wing; Acu, i s t h e downwash angle of t h e wing due t o i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e r o t o r s . The i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e wing with t h e r o t o r s should be taken i n t o account when determining t h e t o t a l rotor-downwash angles f o r c a l c u l a t i n g N, n d by

5.9)

Thus, t h e required engine power of a helicopter, i n conformity with eqs.(5.1), (5.3), (5.5), and (5.10), i s equal t o

I f t h e h e l i c o p t e r has a propeller, t h e n t h e power balance i s expressed i n t h e form

Nhf +*=N,+&

+Npr.

The aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n s can be performed i n dimensionless form. I n t h i s case, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of required torque i s determined, i n conformity with eqs.(5.4) and (5.11), by t h e expression

mh.f =mpr 0.285 Y - t , h.f V

t B

v.
f

(5.15)
f o r example

A s a dimensionless form of calculation, convenient comparative calculations, we can determine t h e r a t i o t h e method of powers, i s equal t o

- for

which, Nhi Ga

when using

w h ere

373

A t given p

T, G C,

a,
F

height, and speed, t h e value of t h e products

t,oMg and t,,.,oM$ does not change upon a change i n t h e r o t o r parameters LOR and. 0. Consequently, when studying t h e e f f e c t of r o t o r parameters on t h e magnitude of required power of t h e helicopter, eqs.(5.16) and (5.18) a r e transformed i n t o

A an example of t h e aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n by t h power method, l e t u s determine t h e required power of t h e Mi-4 helicopter. The h e l i c o p t e r d a t a were given i n Section 3. The c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed by means of eq.(5.14) i n For simplicity, t h e p r o f i l e l o s s e s w e r e determined f r o m t h e graphs Table 3.14. i n Figs.2.63 - 2.66, using eq.(6.10) of Chapter I1 f o r converting t,; we can disregard t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n blade p r o f i l e s f o r Me = 0.6.

TABIB 3-14.
G = 7200 kp ; 0 = 0,063;
0

R = 196 m b ; E = 0.84;
1
A

F=346m2; Mo=0.6; ty=0.138-;

Npr=163.103 mp,.A;

1 I : c,s Njnd = 9000 -; Npap= VA 1010 v3A; H = I O O O ty=n.i52; ~; A=o,~o~ 0.15 106 29.4
4.5

0.20 141 39.2 2.75 0.0089 3.08 -0.00565 -0.00135 0.00306 450 253 165 868

0.25 176 49
0

0.30

212 58.8 -3
0.0096

0.0088 3.04 -0.003 14 0.0046


0.00286

0.0092 3.18 -0.009 15 -0.0063


0.0034 500 203

3.32 -0.0137 -0.01 17 0.0037 545 168 610 1323

420 338
70

828

340 1043

374

2. Determination . of . Helicopter _ _ . Performance _.-. Data . . _ _ _ The dependence of required power on f l y i n g speed i s found by means of t h e formulas given i n Subsection 1 . Maximum and plini" speeds, maximum range and endurance, c r u i s i n g and economic speeds are t h e n determined by t h e method described i n Section 3. During ascent, t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r increases by an amount equal t o t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight onto t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n Consequently, t h e engine power of t h e h e l i c o p t e r increases by an G sin Q f l a P . amount of

--1 756

G sin O L , p V

=-GV, 75E

while t h e t o t a l power of t h e engine i s equal t o

r e p r e s e n t s t h e v a r i a t i o n i n p o t e n t i a l energy of t h e h e l i c o p t e r Here, N,,, upon a change i n i t s f l i g h t a l t i t u d e . on v e r t i c a l ascent and i n h o r i z o n t a l The components N p r , N, n d , and N, f l i g h t d i f f e r somewhat i n magnitude. However, f o r approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s we can disregard t h i s , and under t h i s assumption eq.(5.21) can be represented i n t h e form

It i s obvious t h a t t h e maxi-"

v e r t i c a l r a t e of ascent of t h e helicopter i s

The discrepancy between eqs.(5.23) and (4.24) can b e explained by t h e assumption t h a t N I n d and N,, a r e equal i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and v e r t i c a l ascent. Equation (4.24) gives a more correct r e s u l t . A t f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s where t h e r o t o r lift c o e f f i c i e n t i s l e s s than t h e maximum value permissible with respect t o flow separation, we can take, i n conformity w i t h t h e graphs i n Figs.2.166 and 2.167, t h e average value of t h e propulsive e f f i c i e n c y as equal t o 0.95 and determine V Y m a xby t h e formula :

A t high f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s i n a climbing regime, where t, = t Y e ,t, h e speed


vym a x

should b e determined from eq.(4.24).

375

3. Relation- between Horizontal _ - N P r , N i n a , and Npar during ~-

FlightofiSingle-Rp_tp_roker

. -

It i s of i n t e r e s t t o examine t h e r e l a t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l components of Since t h e h e l i c o p t e r parameters determining t h e required power of a helicopter. N p r , N i n d , and Npar depend on t h e g r o s s weight of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , we w i l l give d a t a f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t weight classes.
Helicopters of d i f f e r e n t weight c l a s s e s have a m a x i " weight c o e f f i c i e n t , at a d i f f e r e n t load per square meter of r o t o r d i s k area p and correspondingly have d i f f e r e n t peripheral, speeds and s o l i d i t y r a t i o s , s i n c e t h e lift c o e f f i c i e n t t, limited i n value by flow separation should b e within 0.23 - 0.27 a t t h e dyn d c c e i l i n g and 0.13 - 0.17 near t h e ground. Let u s assume t h a t t h e charact e r i s t i c parameters f o r a l i g h t h e l i c o p t e r with an all-up weight t o G = 3000 kg are: Mo = 0.55, cr = 0.05; f o r a medium h e l i c o p t e r G = 7000 - 14,000 kg; Mo = 0.6, cr = = 0.07; for a heavy helicopter: Mo = 0.65 - 0.7, 0 = 0.09. The q u a n t i t y Cc,S of t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e f e r r e d t o gross weight decreases upon an increase i n weight owing t o t h e r e l a t i v e decrease i n t h e o v e r a l l s i z e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r (soc a l l e d "scale effect"). However, with an increase i n G of a h e l i c o p t e r t h e value of p w i l l increase, while t h e p a r a s i t e drag c o e f f i c i e n t r e f e r r e d t o t h e r o t o r area, c,

' G s p, G

will

change l i t t l e f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t weight classes. L e t u s t a k e it t o b e equal t o 0.0085 f o r l i g h t and medium h e l i c o p t e r s and 0.0075 f o r heavy h e l i c o p t e r s .
0
0.7

0.2

Quantity Nh. f / G and Relation Fig.3.52 between Components of Required Power o f Helicopters of Different Weight Classes.

For c a l c u l a t i o n s a t # 0, we use eqs.(5.4), (5.11), (5.12), and (5.16). The coeffic i e n t mpr i s found from t h e graph i n Figs.2.63 2.70 as a function of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t, and t,. A t V = 0. w e use eq.(8'127) and the-graph i n Fig.2.174.

376

The c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s axe shown i n Fig.3.52.


U,

Owing t o an increase i n p,

Me, t h e q u a n t i t y

Nh f in G

hovering f l i g h t i s much g r e a t e r f o r heavy h e l i -

copters t h a n f o r l i g h t helicopters. I n forward f l i g h t , eq.(5.16) can b e written i n t h e form

/350

This expression i n d i c a t e s t h a t , a t high f l y i n g speeds, t h e value of cc,s -. G

G y
Nh
f

d e s p i t e t h e increase i n p and Mo, i s lower f o r heavy h e l i c o p t e r s than f o r l i g h t ones owing t o a decrease i n t h e r a t i o

I f t h e a v a i l a b l e power of h e l i c o p t e r s i s equal t o t h e required power i n hovering f l i g h t , t h e n t h e average value of t h e m a x i " speeds of h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t weight c l a s s e s i s equal t o 210 km/hr ( M f l = 0.17), 260 km/hr ( M f l = = 0.21), and 310 km/hr (Mf, = 0.25).

The graph shows t h a t t h e p r o f i l e power l o s s e s , i n percentage of t h e power of = 0 and 50% a t average f l y i n g speeds, while h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , are 22 - 27% a t t h e y a r e 45% f o r l i g h t and medium h e l i c o p t e r s and 55% and more f o r heavy h e l i It w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e graphs of mPr i n Figs.2.63 - 2.70 copters a t p e r t a i n t o a r o t o r of average blade manufacturing q u a l i t y and t h a t cXp of t h e p r o f i l e increased by AcXp = 0.002.

vmax.

! b e induced power l o s s e s amount t o 73 - 78% i n hovering f l i g h t , 40% at average f l y i n g speeds, and only 13%a t m a x i m u m speed.

Losses due t o p a r a s i t e drag amount t o 15 t o 40 - 35% a t maximum speed.

1 0 % a t average f l y i n g speeds and

Thus, it t u r n s out t h a t , although h e l i c o p t e r s of d i f f e r e n t weight c l a s s e s d i f f e r i n speed range, i n load per square meter of r o t o r d i s k area, i n peripheral speed, and i n r e l a t i v e p a r a s i t e drag, t h e power l o s s e s i n f r a c t i o n s of t h e required power show a d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same a t corresponding speeds. The above d a t a permit an approximate estimate as t o t h e degree of v a r i a t i o n i n required power of a h e l i c o p t e r on introduction of various modifications i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r design. For example, an improvement i n b l a d e finishmay cause i t s p r o f i l e drag t o decrease by 23%; consequently, t h e required power of t h e h e l i copter w i l l decrease by 10% a t medium and high speeds. I n hovering f l i g h t , t h e required power diminishes by 5%, which i s very s u b s t a n t i a l since, i n t h i s case, t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e r o t o r increases by a l i k e quantity while t h e

m a x i " t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r increases by

2 3

2 is 3.3% [ t h e c o e f f i c i e n t -2

377

o b t a h e d i n accordance with eq.(S.34)

of Chapt.II].

Upon a change i n blade shape, t h e induced l o s s e s of t h e r o t o r may vary w i t h i n s e v e r a l percent. It i s obvious t h a t t h i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t s t h e m a x i mum t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r i n hovering f l i g h t but p r a c t i c a l l y causes no change i n t h e required power at high f l y i n g speeds. The change i n blade shape a t l a r g e M Q s i g n i f i c a n t l y changes t h e r o t o r p r o f i l e l o s s e s ( s e e Sect .3, Chapt . a ) .
A 25% decrease i n p a r a s i t e drag of a h e l i c o p t e r l e a d s t o a 3%decrease i n required power a t medium f l y i n g speeds and t o a 1 0 % decrease c l o s e t o maximum speed; t h i s y i e l d s an increase i n m a x i speed by 15 - 20 km/hr.

CHAPm

IV

ROTOR FLUTTER
The phenomenon of r o t o r f l u t t e r has been a p e r s i s t e n t companion of t h e development of h e l i c o p t e r construction. Numerous cases are known of t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r i n experimental h e l i c o p t e r s during t h e i r first ground t e s t o r during f l i g h t tests. Cases of t h e appearance of f l u t t e r have been observed a l s o during operation of h e l i c o p t e r s t h a t had already undergone a l l t e s t stages. Rotor f l u t t e r - h a s been t h e cause of a number of accidents. The g r e a t e s t number of cases of f l u t t e r was observed a t a time when t h i s phenomenon had not y e t been adequately studied and due a t t e n t i o n had not y e t been given t o i t s investigation. A t present, f l u t t e r has been studied in. g r e a t d e t a i l , and t h e r e a r e numerous means f o r completely preventing i t s appearance. However, t h e h e l i c o p t e r designer must keep constant t r a c k of t h e r o t o r parameters and hold them t o l i m i t s t h a t ensure t h e necessary s a f e t y margin before onset of f l u t t e r . However, t h e s e parameters vary constantly with design and technological modifications made i n designing and plant t e s t i n g of a helicopter and during i t s s e r i e s production. Such v a r i a t i o n s continue even when t h e h e l i copter has been placed i n service. This i s due t o various circumstances. The most common case i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e individual blade balance, e i t h e r due t o penetration of moisture i n t o t h e blade or due t o i t s increase i n weight during repair

Experience shows t h a t even t h e s l i g h t e s t l e t t i n g up i n control of t h e r o t o r parameters w i l l irmnediately cause appearance of f l u t t e r . This i s primarily explained by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e designer s t r i v e s t o reduce t h e margin before onset of f l u t t e r t o a minimum s i n c e t h e expenditures produced by an increase i n r o t o r weight a r e generally proportional t o t h e magnitude of t h i s margin. I t s increase r e q u i r e s a corresponding increase i n blade weight or i n weight of t h e s t r u c t u r a l elements of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system.
A s a r e s u l t , t h e most economic design of a helicopter keeps t h e s e parameters a t t h e minimum l e v e l allowable by t h e f l u t t e r l i m i t s . Even t h e i r s l i g h t e s t v a r i a t i o n produced by some unforeseen happening may lead t o f l u t t e r . The blade parameters, a t a l l times, are kept close t o t h e f l u t t e r l i m i t .

This circumstance necessitated t a k i n g r e l i a b l e measures t o keep t h e f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r w i t h i n l i m i t s t h a t would ensure prescribed margins /352 b e f o r e onset of f l u t t e r , which, as a r u l e , are rigorously standardized. These measures should b e enforced both during production and s e r v i c e of t h e helicopter. I n addition, each h e l i c o p t e r must b e subjected t o s p e c i a l ground tests t o check f o r f l u t t e r i n t h e f i n a l inspection. Experience gained i n m a s s use of helicope can consider t h a t , t e r s confirms t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h i s inspection system. W a t present, conditions have been created t h a t preclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of accid e n t s owing t o f l u t t e r . Actually, cases of unforeseen occurrence of f l u t t e r have almost completely stopped

379

I lllll I I1 I I

The achievement of t h e present favorable s t a t e as regards f l u t t e r was preceded by extensive t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Valuable contributions t o t h e development of t h e theory of f l u t t e r were made by P.M.Riz, L.N.Grcdko, V.D.Ilfichev, M.S.Galkin, A.I.Pozhalostin, F.L. Zarzhevskaya, M .E .Lipskaya, V.M .Pchelkin, and many other engineers. Numerous papers by f o r e i g n authors are a l s o w e l l known [see (Ref.39 - 4 2 ) ] . Results of g r e a t importance f o r t h e development of t h e theory were obtained i n f l i g h t t e s t s on f l u t t e r c a r r i e d out by S.B.Bren and A.A.Dokuchayev and performed by t h e p i l o t V .V .Vinit skiy

Many highly u s e f u l r e s u l t s were obtained by L.S.Popov, B.A.Kirshteyn, N.V.Lebedev, and B.B.Maxtynov i n t e s t s of dynamically similar models.
A l l t h i s work l e d t o r a t h e r c l e a r a.nd d i s t i n c t corxepts concerning t h e phenomenon of f l u t t e r which permitted developing new blades with t h e necessary parameter margins, without a d d i t i o n a l modifications a f t e r t e s t s , as had o f t e n been necessary before. However, f o r t h i s it w a s necessary, i n designing t h e blade, t o perform numerous r a t h e r laborious c a l c u l a t i o n s . This Chapter w i l l be devoted mainly t o an account of t h e method of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s .

I n w r i t i n g t h i s Chapter F.L.Zaszhevskaya was of considerable help t o t h e author, f o r which t h e author extends h i s g r a t i t u t e . Section 1 . Basic Assumptions and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an Approach t o Flutt-er Ca1culatio.n

1. Bending and Torsional Vibrations of t h e Blade. Possible Cases of S t a b i l i t y Loss


The theory of r o t o r f l u t t e r i s developed on t h e b a s i s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of bending and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of blades during t h e i r r o t a t i o n i n a i r . When solving t h e problem of bending and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of b l a d e s i n a i r , t h e designer i s i n t e r e s t e d primarily i n two q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t problems. The f i r s t of them reduces t o a determination of steady bending and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade, occurring i n a l l h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes. This problem r e q u i r e s t h e development of s p e c i a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods which are a f u r t h e r development of c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r forced v i b r a t i o n s of a blade and should, i n p a r t i c u l a r , answer t h e problem of t h e e f f e c t of t o r s i o n a l deformations of a blade on i t s bending v i b r a t i o n s and, accordingly, on t h e magnit u d e of v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s from blade bending. The second question i s associated with a determination of t h e s t a b i l i t y of blade motion. Usually, purely bending v i b r a t i o n s of blades a r e s t a b l e . L o s s of t h e i r s t a b i l i t y occurs only i n flow-sepaxation regimes. I n studying bending and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s we f i n d t h a t , a t c e r t a i n r o t o r parameters, t h e r e i s a loss of s t a b i l i t y of motion of blades which l e a d s t o f l u t t e r o r divergence. The phenomenon i n which blades undergo o s c i l l a t o r y ins t a b i l i t y i s c a l l e d f l u t t e r , whereas t h e phenomenon of aperiodic i n s t a b i l i t y of

380

blade motion i s c a l l e d divergence. The most common o f t h e s e two phenomena /353 i n p r a c t i c e i s r o t o r , f l u t t e r . Therefore, when examining bending and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a blade, t h e designer i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e conditions leading t o flutter.
2. Effect of B l a d e Attachment . t o Hub and t h e P o s s i b i l i t y st ..i-g a t i o n o f g u t t e r of an of T h e o r e t i c a r I n v e . I s6lat ed- Blade- -

The r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i n g f l u t t e r l a r g e l y depend on t h e design configurat i o n of t h e r o t o r and primarily on t h e conditions of blade attachment t o t h e root, i.e., on hub design and r o t o r c o n t r o l system. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of blade attachment influence t h e boundary conditions of t h e problem and hence t h e design formulas f o r determining f l u t t e r parameters. The most common type of r o t o r with individual hinge'attachment of each blade t o t h e hub, with t h e c o n t r o l exercised over an automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism, w i l l b e examined below when presenting t h e method of c a l c u l a t i n g f l u t t e r . For r o t o r s with a r i g i d and universal j o i n t attachment of t h e blade t o t h e hub or with some other t y p e of control, t h e approach t o f l u t t e r c a l c u l a t i o n remains t h e same. However, t h e conditions under which f l u t t e r occurs may change extensively. F l u t t e r i s g r e a t l y influenced by t h e design of t h e system c o n t r o l l i n g t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g and, primaxily, by t h e design of t h e automatic p i t c h control. The automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l couples t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e d i f f e r e n t r o t o r blades. Thus, as soon as t h i s couple becomes s u f f i c i e n t l y strong - and t h i s generally t a k e s place on r e a l h e l i c o p t e r s - it i s impossible t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e f l u t t e r of an i s o l a t e d blade. It i s then necessary t o study t h e f l u t t e r of t h e e n t i r e r o t o r a s a whole.

I n a l l p r a c t i c a l cases, t h e r e occurs only f l u t t e r of t h e e n t i r e r o t o r as a whole, when each advancing blade of t h e r o t o r d u p l i c a t e s t h e motion o f t h e ret r e a t i n g blade with some l a g . F l u t t e r of a s i n g l e blade has never been noted.
However, i n many cases t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of f l u t t e r of a r o t o r as a whole can be reduced t o c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n s of an i s o l a t e d blade. Therefore, c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l u t t e r of an i s o l a t e d blade o f t e n furnishes a s u f f i c i e n t l y comprehensive answer so t h a t we can frequently r e s t r i c t ourselves t o t h i s r e s u l t i n practice. I n s o doing, however, it i s important t o properly prescribe t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e i s o l a t e d blade control. This question w i l l b e taken up i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Section 4.

3 . D i f f e r e n t Types of Flufier Differing with Respect t o


.__ Bl-&-e-Vibrat

The problem of determining t h e conditions f o r occurrence of f l u t t e r i s solved u s u a l l y by means of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of bending and t o r s i o n a l These equations permit obtaining (binary) v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade (see Sect.6). t h e parameters of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f l u t t e r which d i f f e r by t h e blade v i b r a t i o n

381

modes. The c r i t i c a l rpn and other parameters of f l u t t e r obtained from solving t h e s e equations a r e q u i t e complex functions of t h e i n i t i a l r o t o r parameters. Therefore, an a n a l y s i s of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s i s conveniently begun with t h e simplest p a r t i c u l a r case. I n f a c t , f l u t t e r i n which blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e flapping plane occurs mainly with t h e fundamental v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e blade i s most widespread i n practice. Bending s t r a i n s of t h e blade i n t h i s case have t h e charact e r of an admixture t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode and do not determine t h e phenomenon. /354 Therefore, i n t h i s case a l l r e l a t i o n s of i n t e r e s t t o t h e designer can b e obt a i n e d from examination of a r o t o r model with b l a d e s t h a t have absolute flexural r i g i d i t y and execute flapping v i b r a t i o n s about t h e flapping hinges. This t y p e of f l u t t e r w i l l henceforth be c a l l e d "flapping f l u t t e r " i n contrast t o "bending f l u t t e r " , whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s cannot b e determined without regard f o r t h e f l e x u r a l deformations of t h e blade.

4. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of-the Torsional Vibration Modes of


a Blade and Possible Correlated Assumptions
The r e l a t i o n between t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade and t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system i n most modern h e l i c o p t e r s i s such t h a t , i n t o r s i o n a l vibrations, t h e b l a d e t u r n s mainly as a consequence of deformations of t h e c o n t r o l s (Fig.4.1). I n t h i s case, t h e s e t t i n g angle cp of t h e blade element over i t s io length, e s p e c i a l l y at t h e most 1.0 e f f e c t i v e portion from F = 0.5 t o t h e blade t i p , vary so i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h a t i n f l u t t e r calculat i o n s w e can s e t , with a s u f f i c i e n t degree of accuracy,
cp =const.
0

( 1 . 1 )

The acceptance of t h i s l a w of angle d i s t r i b u t i o n cp i s equivalent t o t h e assumption t h a t t h e Fig.4.l Typical Natural Vibration Modes blade i s absolutely r i g i d i n of a Blade i n Torsion ( t h e Curves Refer t o r s i o n and executes t o r s i o n a l t o Three Different Helicopters). v i b r a t i o n s only as a consequence of deformations of t h e control. To have t h i s assumption l e a d t o t h e smallest possible e r r o r , we w i l l introduce i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e equivalent value of t h e hinge s t i f f n e s s of t h e cont r o l s which t a k e s i n t o account t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e blade i t s e l f . Calculations made t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s assumption show t h a t it can b e succ e s s f u l l y used f o r a l l r o t o r s f o r which t h e values of t h e angle (Y < 0.4 - 0.5 (see Fig.k.l), which probably encompasses almost a l l e x i s t i n g helicopters.

It should a l s o b e noted t h a t t h e described character of t h e r e l a t i o n between t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade and i t s attachment causes t h e axis about which t h e blade elements i n t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s are t u r n i n g t o come close t o t h e axis of t h e axial hinge. Hence, t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e axis of blade s t i f f n e s s i n t h e examined cross s e c t i o n l o s e s i t s significance. This circumstance permits

382

t h e approximate assumption t h a t , i n t o r s i o n a l vibrations, t h e blade elements t u r n about t h e axial hinge.

5. Assumptions on Blade O s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e Plane of Rotation

/355

yLw
--

There e x i s t s a d e f i n i t e coupling between blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flapping plane and i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . This coupling i s due t o two types of forces. The stronger i s t h e coupling created by Coriolis forces. The weaker i s t h e coupling due t o aerodynamic forces. Let u s examine i n some d e t a i l t h e forces coupling v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flapping plane and i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n .

rc

During v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flapping plane, Coriolis f o r c e s a r i s e which a c t i n t h e plane of r o ta tion

Q,
& x

= - 2a,yy'm,

(1.2)

J: -

r
qk=-2wyfm

where

Fig.4.2 Coriolis Forces Acting on a Vibrating Blade.

r a t e of displacement of t h e blade elements i n t h e flapping plane (Fig.4.2); y'= angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e blade axis upon d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e blade from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ; m = m a s s of t h e blade element.
=

During blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , v a r i a b l e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s a r e s e t up which a c t i n a d i r e c t i o n close t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c e n t r i f u g a l forces. These f o r c e s s t r e t c h t h e blade and t h e r e f o r e should be taken i n t o account i n d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade vibrations, along with c e n t r i f u g a l forces. The Coriolis f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e blade axis can b e determined by t h e formula

NK =-2oxm,

(1.3)

where f i s t h e r a t e of displacement of t h e blade elements during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n (Fig.4.2). The C o r i o l i s f o r c e s determined by eqs.(l.2) and (1.3) r e l a t e t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flapping plane and plane of r o t a t i o n . The aerodynamic f o r c e s c r e a t e an analogous coupling.

If, i n t h e flapping plane, v a r i a b l e aerodynamic f o r c e s associated with a change i n t h e value cy a c t on t h e blade, t h e n t h e component of t h e s e f o r c e s

383

Q=@T

(1.4)

w i l l cause blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n [ t h e value of $ e n t e r i n g eq. (1.4) determines t h e angle of inflow] During blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e flapping plane will vary as a function o f any v a r i a t i o n i n t h e relative v e l o c i t y U. Thus, t h e presence of t h e described couples r e q u i r e s t h a t blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n b e taken i n t o account a l s o i n f l u t t e r calculations. However, c a l c u l a t i o n s and experiments show t h a t blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n have an i n s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l numbers of r e v o l u t i o n of f l u t t e r . Therefore, i n a l l c a l c u l a t i o n s of f l u t t e r , blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n can be disregarded. W e must a l s o t a k e i n t o account t h a t , i n t h e absence of t h r u s t a t t h e blade, when t h e angle of inflow Q i s equal t o zero (such a p o s i t i o n i s possible f o r an untwisted f l a t blade) and t h e blade i s not deflected from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n so t h a t y ' = 0, t h e terms of t h e coupling /356 determined by eqs.(l.2) and (1.4) are absent. Thus, i n t h i s case t h e r e i s no coupling between v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e indicated plane.

6 Determination- of Aerodynamic Forces Acting on


I

. .

a Vibrating P r o f i l e

The occurrence of diverging v i b r a t i o n s i n f l u t t e r i s caused by aerodynamic Therefore, t h e b a s i s on which t h e s e aerodyf o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade p r o f i l e . namic f o r c e s are determined i s very important. I n performing p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s of f l u t t e r , t h e method of determining aerodynamic f o r c e s based on t h e "steady-state hypothesis" i s widely employed. I n t h i s hypothesis, it i s assumed t h a t , during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e p r o f i l e , it i s acted on by loads t h a t are t h e same as those created i f t h e flow p a t t e r n formed The use of t h e "steadya t a given i n s t a n t of time w e r e t o b e time-invariant. s t a t e hypothesis" f o r c a l c u l a t i n g r o t o r f l u t t e r y i e l d s q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s which a r e i n good agreement with experiments. Therefore, our e n t i r e account w i l l b e based on t h e r e s u l t s obtained under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e "steadystate hypothesis". Refinements t h a t can be made by t a k i n g unsteady flow i n t o consideration will not b e examined here. The use of t h e "steady-state hypothesis" l e a d s t o t h e following well-known formulas [see f o r example (Ref.29, 32, 33)] f o r determining aerodynamic loads a c t i n g on-a v i b r a t i n g p r o f i l e of u n i t length:

384

where aerodynamic force per Unit length a c t i n g on t h e v i b r a t i n g p r o f i l e i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y U; gger = t o r s i o n a l moment per u n i t length of aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g relat i v e t o t h e axis passing at a d i s t a n c e xg from t h e p r o f i l e leading edge; cp = angle of blade p r o f i l e s e t t i n g i n t h e examined sections; $ = r a t e of displacement of t h e blade elements i n t h e flapping plane; xo = distance between p r o f i l e leading edge and f l e x u r a l a x i s , i.e., up t o t h e point where t h e elements of t h e blade start t w i s t i n g under a p p l i c a t i o n of a torque; of = d i s t a n c e between p r o f i l e focus o r a.c. and flexural axis of t h e blade; i n some formulas below [see eqs.(2.13) and (5.2)] we w i l l
T
=

a l s o use t h e designation of%

(Jf R *

Equations (1.5) are obtained f o r a plane-parallel flow. Therefore, t h e i r use f o r determining t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade loading i s approximate a l s o i n t h i s sense, since t h e flow past t h e blade markedly d i f f e r s from plane-parallel. It i s convenient t o make a s l i g h t transformation of eqs.(l.5) when using /357 them f o r t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade, by introducing c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s and refinements. The r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y U of t h e flow past t h e p r o f i l e can be approximately equated t o i t s component U , p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . It must a l s o be considered t h a t t h e other component of t h i s v e l o c i t y U, d i r e c t e d perpendicular t o t h e v e l o c i t y U, d i f f e r s from $ by t h e amount of t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r stream flowing through t h e r o t o r . Therefore. f o r a h e l i -

" e ,= ,

n __ 16 eb3U,+- of T .

(1.6)

Fig.4.3 Position of t h e Aerodynamic Center on t h e Mach Number, for a NACA 230 P r o f i l e .

Therefore, it can be neglected without res u l ting i n substant i a l e r r o r s

I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of f l u t t e r under condit i o n s of axial flow past t h e r o t o r i n hovering f l i g h t o r i n operation of t h e rotor under ground conditions, t h e aerodynamic loads can be determined on t h e b a s i s of t h e l i n e a r dependence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e angle of a t t a c k . This assumption i s a l s o included i n eqs.(l.5) and ( . 1 6 ) . However, under conditions of forward f l i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y i n regimes close t o s t a l l i n g , t h i s assumption becomes q u i t e inaccurate. Therefore, a method permitting r e j e c t i o n of t h i s assumption w i l l b e discussed below i n Sect i o n 7. Refined formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g aerodynamic loads f o r t h i s case w i l l a l s o b e derived i n t h e same Section.

385
4

A s i s known, t h e Mach number M has a strong influence on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a p r o f i l e . To c a l c u l a t e f l u t t e r of a h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r it i s e s p e c i a l l y important t h a t M have a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e focus which, as w i l l be shown below, g r e a t l y a f f e c t s t h e c r i t i c a l revol u t i o n s of f l u t t e r . Therefore, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r each blade radius, we must t a k e t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e aerodynamic center corresponding t o t h e l o c a l value of M at t h i s radius. Figure 4.3 gives t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a.c. as a function of t h e Mach nunber, f o r a NACA 230 p r o f i l e .
When c a l c u l a t i n g f l u t t e r i n forward f l i g h t it must b e taken i n t o account t h a t t h e l o c a l Mach number v a r i e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. This, i n t u r n , l e a d s t o f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e focus during each revolut i o n of t h e blade. I n approximate calculations, t h i s circumstance can b e disregarded. When using t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method presented i n Section 7, f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e a.c. r e l a t i v e t o azimuth can be accounted f o r without d i f f i c u l t y , which i s one of t h e important advantages of t h i s method. Section 2. Flapping F l g t t er- of -an s o l a t e d Blade with A x i a l Flow past t h e Rotor

/358

1. Blade Model
The parameters of flapping f l u t t e r can be determined with s u f f i c i e n t r e l i a b i l i t y from a c a l c u l a t i o n based on t h e following assumptions:
1) The blade i s absolutely r i g i d i n bending and v i b r a t e s i n t h e flapping plane l i k e a s o l i d body as a consequence of t u r n i n g about t h e flapping hinge. Feathering hinge axis

2) The blade i s absolutely r i g i d a l s o i n t o r s i o n and exec u t e s t o r s i o n a l vibrations, r o t a t i n g l i k e a s o l i d body about t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e hub as a consequence of deformation of t h e control, presence o f an automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l mechanism, and i n s t a l l a t i o n of a f l a p ping compensator. Fig.4.4 Blade Model Used i n t h e Calculation. These assumptions lead t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c a l c u l a t i n g a blade model with two degrees of freedom, determined by t h e This model i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d "semirigid".

v a r i a b l e s p and cp (Fig.k.4).

386

2. Derivation ____ of D _i f f_ ere _n t i a l Equations of F l u t t e r

I n t h i s Subsection we w i l l derive t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of f l u t t e r f o r a model of an i s o l a t e d blade. It w i l l b e shown below, i n Section 4, t h a t i n many cases t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of f l u t t e r of a r o t o r as a whole can be reduced t o an examination of t h e f l u t t e r of an i s o l a t e d blade. Therefore, it i s expedient t o evaluate f i r s t t h e e f f e c t of various f a c t o r s on t h e f l u t t e r of an i s o l a t e d blade and t o determine l a t e r ( i n Sect .4) i n what manner and i n what cases t h e s e r e s u l t s can b e extrapolated t o a r o t o r as a whole. Let u s construct; t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of torsional-flapping v i b r a t i o n s of an i s o l a t e d blade. These equations can be derived by equating t o zero t h e sum of t h e moment of a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade during i t s v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping and feathering hinges of t h e hub. A s usual, we will examine s m a l l v i b r a t i o n s f o r which a l l terms of t h e second order r e l a t i v e t o s m a l l displacements of t h e blade can be neglected.
To avoid needless complication of t h e equations, l e t u s assume t h a t t h e distance from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n t o t h e flapping hinge i s equal t o zero ( r o = = 0). Then, t h e condition of equilibrium o f t h e moments o f a l l f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge can be w r i t t e n as
R
0

m (rp-

ai)

rdr

+w2 s m (r? R
0

R
a?)

rdr

T rdr,
flapping hinge; feathering hinge; t o t h e center of eq.(1.6).

where

B
m o
T

= = = =

cp =

angle of r o t a t i o n o f t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e m a s s per u n i t length of t h e blade element; distance from t h e axis of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge g r a v i t y of t h e blade element; aerodynamic load per u n i t length determined by

/ 359

The i n t e g r a l s entering t h e left-hand s i d e of eq.(2.1) can be expressed i n terms of t h e moments o f i n e r t i a of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e horizontal hinge Ih.h and t h e c e n t r i f u g a l moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade I,f :
fhsh

=jmr2dr,
K
0

f
c f

= j mradr.

On introducing t h e s e designations i n t o eq.( 2.1) and r e f e r r i n g a l l terms of t h e expression can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form t h i s equation t o

e+

w2(3

--!&
%h

((p+w2?)

11
R

T rdr.

'h.h

(2.3)

For t h e regime of axial flow past t h e r o t o r , t h e v e l o c i t i e s entering

eq.(1.6)

can be equated t o

U , =or, U,=oRA-rP,

I
and t h e n eq.(1.6) i n t o eq.(2.3),

(2.4)

where A i s t h e r e l a t i v e rate of flow through t h e rotor. S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(2.4) obtain i n t o eq.(1.6),

we
(2.5)

where yo i s t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r i g i d blade [see eq.(2.U)]. The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s b.12, c12, d,,, [see eq.(2.14)]. and d,,
w i l l b e given below

The moment of e x t e r n a l forces, r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge, loading t h e system t h a t c o n t r o l s t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g , can be w r i t t e n as


M C ~ n= - ((f

w2'P)
R

/=.A

(@+
R

1.f - M ~ P

+
(2.6)

-twhere

w2
0

-k ma=&,
0

= moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e feathering o r axial Iaah hinge ; I, = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade per u n i t length r e l a t i v e t o t h i s

axis;

Waer

= =

Mi,

moment of aerodynamic f o r c e s per u n i t length r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i a l hinge with t h i s moment being determined by eqs.(l.6): moment due t o f r i c t i o n f o r c e s i n t h e axial hinge of t h e hub.

The moment a c t i n g on t h e control system, M , , , can be expressed i n terms of r i g i d i t y or s t i f f n e s s and deformation of t h e c o n t r o l system:

/360

where

y
CCO,

= =

angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e feathering hinge due t o deformations of t h e c o n t r o l system; s t i f f n e s s of t h e c o n t r o l system.

I n order t o express t h e value of y i n terms of t h e s e t t i n g angle of t h e blade sections, we put

388

where
8
=

N =

angle of s e t t i n g of t h e blade s e c t i o n s prescribed by t h e control system; flapping compansator.

The angle 8 i s determined from t h e expression

e =eo - el sin 9 - e2 cos +,


where

(2.9)
=

8 , , and I2

angle of blade s e t t i n g a t t h e root f o r B angles of c y c l i c p i t c h control.

0;

It follows from eq.( 2.8) t h a t


y=y+xp-e.

(2.10)

S u b s t i t u t i n y i n t o eq.( 2.7) and t h e n eq.( 2.7) i n t o eq.( 2.6) and r e f e r r i n g a l l terms of eq.t2.6) t o t h e moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e axial hinge I*. we obtain

,,

?I

(2.11)

Here ptv i s t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s i n twist or t o r s i o n of an absol u t e l y r i g i d blade i n compliant control:

( 2.12)
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.( 2.11) t h e value of Sn,,, from eq.(1.6) and taking t h e r e s u l t a n t equation together with eq.( 2.5), we obtain a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of binary v i b r a t i o n s of a r i g i d blade:

( 2.13)

389
4

II

The c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g eqs.( 2.13) formulas :

can b e determined by t h e following

/361

c,2= - - mradr =ioc2,,


I?

b 3 r d r + -1c p
2
0

1
R

b2raf

(-$- T) d r ] +df,,
R

b,, = 1 +Lca
2 fa.h

br2afdr,

i 0 -

'ah

'h.h

The c o e f f i c i e n t s of eq.( 2.14) entering t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation completely determine t h e behavior of t h e blade i n vibration. Certain comments are necessary r e l a t i v e t o these coefficients. The damping f a c t o r d,, of flapping v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade i s determined only by aerodynamic forces since t h e moment of f r i c t i o n f o r c e s i n t h e flapping hinge i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . A q u i t e s u b s t a n t i a l a d d i t i o n d,, due t o f r i c t i o n i n t h e feathering hinge e n t e r s t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade dzz, i n a d d i t i o n t o aerodynamic damping. The e f f e c t of f r i c t i o n i n t h e feathering hinge will b e discussed i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Section 3 of t h i s Chapter. The c o e f f i c i e n t d,, entering t h e equation i s s m a l l and not e s s e n t i a l f o r

390

t h e f i n a l r e s u l t s of t h e calculation. p r a c t i c a l calculations.

Therefore, it can be disregarded i n


ig =

I f t h e r a t i o of t h e moments of i n e r t i a

I -< t h e n we 1000 '


r

can /362

Ih.h

a l s o neglect t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cI2. i s simplified even more.

I n so doing, t h e system of equations (2.13)

It i s important t o note t h a t t h e e f f e c t of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e center of g r a v i t y of t h e blade element will appear i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n only upon a change i n the coefficient
CZl = -

Ia.h

nro dr.

3. P a. r.ti c_ u_ l_ a r Solution of t h _e_D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation


It i s not d i f f i c u l t t o demonstrate t h a t t h e expressions

B' =ao-al- cos 9- b , sin+,


'p* = p0-'pI

cos+- y1sin

(2.16)

a r e a p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (2.13) and determine t h e undisturbed motion of t h e blade. I f t h e swashplate of t h e automatic = O 2 = 0, t h e n t h e particup i t c h control i s s e t i n a n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n and i f lar s o l u t i o n of t h e s e equations i s c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e expressions

=a,,
'?*=yo.

4. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of_ Disturbed _ - Motion


. . .-

Let u s s u b s t i t u t e i n t o eq.(2.l3)

(2.18)
where Bd and cp, a r e t h e angles of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade from a p o s i t i o n corresponding t o i t s undisturbed motion. Then, bearing i n mind t h a t p* and cp* represent t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of eqs.( 2.13), we obtain a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of disturbed motion of t h e blade:

I n t h e s e equations, t h e subscript of t h e v a r i a b l e s B and cp, designating t h a t t h e s e variables re fe r only t o disturbed motion, i s dropped for simplicity.

5 . Notation of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations i n Matrix Form


-

It i s convenient t o write d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (2.19) i n t h e following m a t r i x form:

c2 +~d + ( A +& B )x =o.


Here, C i s t h e i n e r t i a m a t r i x :

(2.m)

D i s t h e damping matrix:

/363

A is the stiffness matrix:

B i s t h e m a t r i x of c e n t r i f u g a l and aerodynamic forces:

where bZl

cZ1.

X i s t h e vector function:

6. Solution of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of_Blade_Vibrations


Setting, i n t h e system o f equations (2.19),

we obtain t h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation:

392

Here f o r simplifying t h e calculations, t h e values of h and IJI a r e r e f e r r e d t o t h e frequency of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade p t v , i.e.,

The c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (2.22) have t h e following form:

Let us examine t h e behavior of t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (2.22) f o r d i f f e r e n t r o t o r parameters.

/36r,

I n t h e major portion of t h e r p m range of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t , t h e motion of t h e blade i s determined by two p a i r s of roots:

Figures 4.5 and 4.6 show t h e dependence of t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s of t h e s e r o o t s on t h e r o t o r rpm and on t h e blade balancing. I n both graphs, we plotted, on t h e abscissa, t h e r o t o r rpm r e l a t e d t o t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n t o r s i o n ptw, expressed i n o s c i l l a t i o n s per minute:

n =rtlptu'
The values of E coincide i n magnitude with t h e values of t h e r e l a t i v e angular v e l o c i t y

393

where ptw i s expressed i n rad/sec. Therefore, we will henceforth use t h e designations n and E on an equal footing

The r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation determine t h e l a w governing t h e motion of t h e blade a f t e r some extraneous a c t i o n ( i n practice, t h i s may b e - f o r example - a gust of wind) unbalances t h e blade. I n t h i s case, t h e value of t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e r o o t q determines t h e r a t e a t which t h e amplitude of t h e v i b r a t i o n s varies, whereas t h e imaginary p a r t 5 determines t h e i r frequency. The negative r e a l p a r t of t h e r o o t corresponds t o damping o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade. When t h i s q u a n t i t y i s positive, v i b r a t i o n s of an amplitude increasing i n time w i l l b e generated

Imaginary P a r t of t h e Roots Fig.4.5 of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Equation as a Function of Angular Velocity, f o r Different Values of t h e Coefficient c21. [ I n t h i s diagram, as w e l l as i n Fig.4.6, we i n d i c a t e t h e absolute value of (without t h e minus sign). I

The f i r s t p a i r TI, shown i n Figs.4.5 and 4.6 by broken curves, determines t h e motion i n which d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge i s predominant. The second p a i r of r o o t s X I , shown by s o l i d curves, determines t h e motion with an apprecia b l e r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge which i s due t o deformation o f t h e controls.

This second motion i s of g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t since, a t c e r t a i n blade balancing, t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e r o o t passes i n t o t h e a r e a of p o s i t i v e values ( s e e Fig.4.6), which corresponds t o v i b r a t i o n s of increasing amplitude, which a r e known as f l u t t e r . /365

T2

The values of t h e r o t o r rpm at which rpm of f l u t t e r " .

0 a r e usually called " c r i t i c a l

When q2 < 0, t h e blade executes damping o s c i l l a t i o n s . I n t h i s case, t h e value of determines t h e magnitude of f o r c e s t h a t produce damping of t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s and c o n s t i t u t e s a c r i t e r i o n for t h e i r s t a b i l i t y . It follows from Fig.4.6 t h a t t h e damping f o r c e s begin t o decrease long before t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. This decrease i s observed even when f l u t t e r cannot a r i s e no matter what t h e r o t o r rpm but t h e margin f o r blade balance i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y narrow. A decrease i n aerodynamic damping, and hence of s t a b i l i t y of blade vibrations, i s undesirable and may have an adverse e f f e c t on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of h e l i copter c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y

42

394

0.2

-0.2

0 . 4

-0.6

-0.8
-bO
. . . . . . ..

012

44

06

08

Fin.4.6 -

t e a l P a r t of t h e Roots of t h e Characteristic Equation as a Function of Angular Velocity, for Different Values of t h e Coefficient cZ1.

The p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e behavior of t h e f i r s t p a i r of r o o t s examined below i n Subsection 8 .

hr

w i l l be

7. Determination _of _ th _.. e C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm


To determine t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, it i s possible t o derive an anal y t i c a l expression i f , i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation, we s e t
-

- __

) . = i p , = i p fl"*

C&=O))

(2.26)

o=wflu.

Then, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (2.22) reduces t o a biquadratic equation:


-4 U f l U-

/366

2Li;/,+ M =0,

( 2.27)

where

2L = CI ( ~ C Z - J ~ I B Z 4 ) A I (AIDz-BICZ)
C? -I- Ai ( J ~ I D I BICI)

'I

(2.28)

395

from which we can determine t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm

The v i b r a t i o n frequency i n f l u t t e r i s determined from t h e expression

8 . Blade Divergence

A study of t h e graphs i n Fig.,!+.& i n d i c a t e s t h e behavior of t h e first p a i r of r o o t s TI

Beginning with a c e r t a i n r o t o r rpm, t h e imaginary p a r t of t h i s p a i r vanishes and t w o r e a l r o o t s appear. The presence of r e a l r o o t s i n d i c a t e s aperiodic mot i o n of t h e blade. With a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n rpm, one of t h e s e r o o t s Ill passes i n t o t h e region of p o s i t i v e values, which characterizes t h e appearance of aperiodic ins t a b i l i t y a t t h i s rpm, known as blade divergence.
= 0 i s known as t h e c r i t i c a l rpm The value of t h e r o t o r rpm a t which of divergence and can be determined by t h e formula

xIl

Usually, t h e c r i t i c a l divergence rpm i s higher t h a n t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm and t h e m a x i r o t o r rpm. However, i n a number of s p e c i a l cases, blade divergence i s a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r . For example, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e occurrence of divergence does not permit using negative values f o r t h e flapping compensator. A t K = 0, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of occurrence of divergence i s already q u i t e real, and a t small negative values of K t h e blade becomes a p e r i o d i c a l l y unstable. This circumstance must b e taken i n t o account when designing t h e r o t o r hub, e s p e c i a l l y when d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge kinematically l e a d s t o a decrease i n t h e values of K t o below zero.

9. Parameters Characterizing __ Blade - -~ Balance (_ Effective


Blade Balance) To evaluate a blade from t h e point of view of possible f l u t t e r , it i s convenient t o introduce s e v e r a l concepts characterizing t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e c.g. of blade elements over t h e blade length. The. q u a n t i t y

396

a- -

i s c a l l e d blade balance i n a given section.


I f balancing of t h e s e c t i o n s i s constant over t h e blade length, t h e n t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cZ1 e n t e r i n g t h e equations w i l l b e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d with t h e magnitude of t h i s balance. The f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a blade i n t h i s case can b e characterized by t h e value of t h e balance of i t s sections.

/367

I n practice, however, balancing of blade s e c t i o n s lengthwise i s always d i f ferent. Therefore, it . i s convenient t o evaluate i t s f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by means of t h e so-called e f f e c t i v e balancing. The e f f e c t i v e balancing of t h e blade i n question i s defined as t h e balanci n g of some equivalent blade with an i d e n t i c a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r s of gravit y over t h e length and having t h e same value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cZ1. It i s convenient t o .assume t h e planform and m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e length of t h e equivalent blade as being i d e n t i c a l t o those of t h e blade i n question. I n t h i s case, t h e e f f e c t i v e balancing of t h e examined blade can be determined by t h e expr e s sion
R

For blades having t h e a x i s of t h e feathering hinge a t a d i s t a n c e constant xo = const, it i s convenient i n percent of t h e chord from t h e leading edge =

xo

t o characterize t h e e f f e c t i v e balancing of t h e blade by t h e value of balancing of an equivalent blade r e l a t i v e t o i t s leading edge

Since t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e axis of t h e feathering hinge has only a s l i g h t e f f e c t on t h e values of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, it i s convenient t o reckon e f f e c t i v e balancing from t h e leading edge a l s o i n cases i n which t h e condition
XO

= const i s not s a t i s f i e d .

Then, t h e e f f e c t i v e balancing can be determined

by t h e expression
R

r mar dr
t 2.35)

The e f f e c t i v e balancing of manufactured blades can be determined only by

397

c u t t i n g t h e blade and experimentally determining t h e balancing of i t s i n d i v i d u a l segments.

10. Dependence of C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r R p n on B l a d e Balancing and Values of t h e Flapping Compensator Coefficient


To i l l u s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t of various parameters on t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, Figs.4.7, 4.8, and 4.9'give t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n s performed by eq.( 2.29). The curves r e f e r t o d i f f e r e n t values of t h e flapping compensator c o e f f i c i e n t ).t and t o t h r e e values of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis z9 a t a constant p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e focus. The graph shows t h a t a s h i f t of t h e c.g. toward t h e leading edge, j u s t as a decrease i n t h e flapping compensator, w i l l improve t h e f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade, whereas a s h i f t of t h e c.g. toward t h e t r a i l i n g edge and an increase i n t h e flapping compensator w i l l l e a d t o a decrease i n t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. These r e s u l t s coincide q u a l i t a t i v e l y with experimental data.

Fig.4.7 C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r and Divergence Fig.4.8 C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r and DiverRpm as a Function of E f f e c t i v e Blade gence R p as a Function of E f f e c t i v e Blade Balancing, f o r Eo = 0.23. Balancing, f o r 50 = 0.18.

A comparison of t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n s performed f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t /369 p o s i t i o n s of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis shows t h a t t h e e f f e c t of t h i s parameter on t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i s incomparably weaker t h a n t h e e f f e c t of blade balancing. Consequently, t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r r p depends mainly c)n t h e mutual

398

p o s i t i o n of t h e centers of g r a v i t y of t h e blade elements and of t h e p r o f i l e focus. Therefore, a s h i f t of t h e a.c. of t h e p r o f i l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e chord i s j u s t as e f f e c t i v e as a s h i f t of t h e blade balance.
1 1 . Blade .~ . - Arrangement .

Fig.4.9 C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r and D i vergence Rpm as a Function of Eff e c t i v e Blade Balancing, f o r

r ; ,=

0.28.

The presented dependences of t h e c r i t i c a l rpm on t h e balancing permit necessary conclusions with respect t o blade arrangement. It follows from t h e above c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t t h e b e s t way t o improve t h e f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a blade i s t o s h i f t i t s centers of g r a v i t y as much as possible toward t h e leading edge and t o use aerodynamic prof i l e s which, i n operating f l i g h t regimes, have t h e i r aerodynamic centers as f a r rearward as possible. This measure has a favorable e f f e c t even when t h e blade spar i s s h i f t e d toward t h e leading edge t o c r e a t e forward balance, together with t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis which o f t e n i s associated with t h e axis of t h e spar. The arrangement of t h e blade shown i n Fig.4.10 i s an example of such a solution.

However, it must be borne i n mind t h a t t h e statement as t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y weak influence of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e feathering hinge a x i s on t h e f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n comparison with blade balancing holds t r u e only when t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s e parameters i s of t h e same order of magnitude. I n practice, a s h i f t i n t h e posit i o n of t h e feathering hinge can b e performed i n appreciably wider l i m i t s t h a n a s h i f t i n blade balancing. Therefore, t h i s should b e regarded as s t i l l another means of influencing t h e blade f l u t t e r characteristics.
P

Fig.4.10 Blade Arrangement with Featheri n g Hinge Axis and Spar Shifted toward t h e Leading Edge.

The blade whose arrangement i s shown i n Fig.4.11 can serve as an example f o r t h e case i n which a change of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge i s used as a means of improving t h e f l u t t e r char a c t er ist ic s

399

12. E f f e c t of Control R i g i d i t y A highly important parameter greatly influencing t h e f l u t t e r speed i s t h e magnitude of t h e frequency of n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n i n t o r s i o n o r t w i s t ptw. I n t h e i d e a l i z e d blade scheme examined here, t h e magnitude of t h i s frequency i s completely determined by t h e hinge r i g i d i t y of t h e system c o n t r o l l i n g t h e angle of r o t o r s e t t i n g coo11 I n p r a c t i c e , however, t h e magnitude of t h i s freArrangement of Blade with quency i s influenced a l s o by t o r Fig.4.11 s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade Turned Feathering Hinge Axis. i t s e l f . Therefore, t o t a k e i n t o account t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade it i s proposed t o use, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s by t h e approximate method proposed here, t h e value ptw calculated with regard t o deformation of both t h e cont r o l s and t h e blade.

W e see from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v i b r a t i o n s res.( 2 . 1 9 ) ] that t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm ( f l u t t e r speed) and frequency of v i b r a t i o n s i n f l u t t e r . are dir&tly-proportional t o the Therefore, i n a l l calcuq u a n t i t y ptw l a t i o n s whose r e s u l t s a r e presented i n %ifz o n e of p o s s i b l e t h e above graphs, t h e f l u t t e r speed i s f l u t t e r at low c o n t r o 1 rigidity r e f e r r e d t o ptw and i s characterized by t h e r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s

13. Conditions f o r Absence of F l u t t e r


The character of t h e dependence of f l u t t e r speed on various parameters shows t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e necessary f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s does not r e q u i r e a shuDxulous change of a l l parameters. Production of t h e necessary c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s possible upon satisfying even one of t h e t w o following conditions : The f i r s t condition i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s u f f i c i e n t l y high t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade and i t s attachment t o t h e control system, so that

Fin.4.12 Boundaries between Zones i n w h i c h F l u t t e r i s Impossible and t h e Zone i n which it Arises a t Small Control Rigidity. o Rotor blades f o r which no flutter w a s obserGed Rotor blades f o r which t h e r e was f l u t t e r .

/371

400

Here, n,,,

i s t h e maximum possible r o t o r rpm.

It i s s u f f i c i e n t t h a t k l =

=4-5.
When t h e condition (2.37) i s s a t i s f i e d , t h e r e i s no need t o secure any spec i f i c t r a n s v e r s e blade balancing. It can be a r b i t r a r y , and t h e r e i s no need f o r introduction of s p e c i a l counterweights i n t o t h e design. The second condition i s t h e c r e a t i o n of a s u f f i c i e n t l y forward blade balancing so t h a t

Here, El i m i s some l i m i t i n g blade balancing a t which f l u t t e r i s impossible no matter how s m a l l , say, t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade attachment t o t h e control.
as . a Figure 4.12 gives t h e calculated value of t h e l i m i t balancing X l i m function of t h e value of t h e flapping compensator and p o s i t i o n of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis x g . This balancing divides t h e e n t i r e area of parameters i n t o two zones, i n one of which f l u t t e r cannot occur even a t very low c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y .

-v
----

Exciting F l u t t e r

The c a l c u l a t i o n methods t h a t reduce t o a determination of f l u t t e r parameters a r e ' l e f t without an explanation of t h e mechanism of a c t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s

L e t u s examine t h e blade model which w a s described i n Subsection 1 of t h i s Section. For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e problem, we will l i m i t ourselves t o t h e

p a r t i c u l a r case where t h e aerodynamic center coincides with t h e axis of t h e e can a l s o disregard t h e dependence of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge and where of = 0. W f o r c e T on $, which does not have any p a r t i c u l a r meaning. Then, t h e aerody/372 namic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e p r o f i l e can be represented i n t h e form
1 T =-ca
2 y

ebU2a;

(2.39)

where w i s t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade element. The moment of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s T a c t i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge can be w r i t t e n as where

k = - 1 capw2sbr3dr.
2 y
0

W e will assume t h a t t h e blade executes v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge according t o t h e l a w

P= Po sin pt.

(2.43)

I n t h i s notation, t h e time reference point i s taken from t h e i n s t a n t at which B = 0. F i r s t , we will examine t h e case i n which t h e blade does not execute t o r s i o n a l vibrations. The angle of s e t t i n g of i t s elements w i l l b e considered as equal t o zero and constant i n time. I n t h i s case, t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade elements w i l l vary according t o t h e l a w (Fig.4.13) where

a=acospt,

a=

P . --Po 0

The moment of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge w i l l vary by t h e same l a w


M,, =M COS p i .

(2.46)

I n accordance with eq.(2.41),


of

t h e s i g n of M w i l l coincide with t h e sign

cy.

If < 0, as occurs i n t h e case i n question, t h e n t h e moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e fl?pping hinge always a c t s o p p o s i t e t o t h e angular v e l o c i t y of blade vibrat i o n s B ( s e e Fig.4.13) and does negative work i n blade displacements.

The magnitude of t h i s work during t h e v i b r a t i o n period can be calculated by t h e formula


2m

(2.47)
where T
=

2n i s t h e period of blade vibration. P which, i n t u r n , coin-

The s i g n of t h e work A coincides with t h e s i g n of cides with t h e s i g n of Z. I n t h e examined case, A < 0.

/373

This means t h a t t h e air stream flowing past t h e blade absorbs t h e work expended t o maintain blade vibrations. Thus, i n t h e presence of aerodynamic f o r c e s t h e blade w i l l v i b r a t e with a constant amplitude Be only i f energy equal t o t h e magnitude of work calculated by eq.(2.47) i s furnished t o it from without. Otherwise t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e blade and, together with it, t h e amplitude of o s c i l l a t i o n s pa, w i l l diminish and t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l decay.
A d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e may b e produced i n t h e presence of t o r s i o n a l blade vibrations. Torsional vibrations of t h e blade a r i s e as a consequence of deformat i o n s of t h e c o n t r o l system and kinematic coupling across t h e flapping compens a t o r . Deformations of t h e control system a r i s e from aerodynamic and i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade during i t s flapping vibrations.

Centrifugal and i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g during .flapping v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade c r e a t e a moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge due t o t h e presence of an a r m between t h e centers of g r a v i t y of t h e ' b l a d e element and t h i s axis

The aerodynamic f o r c e s c r e a t e a moment on t h e a r m between t h e p r o f i l e focus and t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis of

maor= --- caewpiJ0 br20j dr cos p t .


y
0

1 2

(2.49)

A t of = 0, t h i s moment i s equal t o zero. Therefore, as a consequence of w i l l a c t on t h e blade. Under t h e flapping v i b r a t i o n s o n l y t h e moment m, n b e f f e c t of t h i s moment, t h e blade p i t c h c o n t r o l i s deformed and t h e blade begins t o execute t o r s i o n a l vibrations. However, t h e phase of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s w i l l not coincide with t h e phase of t h e flapping vibrations. Phase s h i f t of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s i s caused by damping f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e c o n t r o l system These f o r c e s are caused by f o r c e s of aerod i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e vibrations. dynamic damping determined by eq.(2.&O) and by t h e moment of f r i c t i o n a c t i n g i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e blade. The d i r e c t i o n of phase s h i f t of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s depends on t h e s i g n of t h e e x t e r n a l moment m i n e r t.
The l a w according t o which t h e blade executes t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s

403

(Fig.4.u)

can be w r i t t e n as
'p

=T

cos p t

+y sin pt.

( 2-50)

Here, it i s assumed t h a t t h e i n i t i a l s e t t i n g of t h e blade elements i s equal t o zero. The angle of a t t a c k i n t h i s case will vary according t o t h e l a w

a=iicospt +tTsinpt,
where

The appearance of a sinusoidal component i n t h e l a w of change of t h e angle of a t t a c k 3 and, along with t h i s , t h e s i n u s o i d a l component of t h e moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge, does not influence t h e energy t r a n s f e r during blade /374 vibrations. Actually, a check on t h e work done by t h e sinusoidal component Ip o f t h e moment i n blade displacements r e l a t i v e t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge will show t h a t it i s equal t o zero:

A = M sin p t ppocos p t dt =O.


0

( 2.52)

The magnitude of t h e cosinusoidal component of t h e angle of a t t a c k & , as follows from eq.( 2 . 5 1 ) , l a r g e l y depends on t h e s i g n and magnitude of F. When Cp < 0, t h e work absorbed by t h e a i r stream flowing past t h e blade i n c r e a s e s which causes a r i s e i n t h e r a t e of damping of t h e f r e e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade. Thus, when (p < 0, t h e s t a b i l i t y of flapping v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade increases. When Cp > 0, t h e work absorbed by t h e stream past t h e blade decreases and when

Fig.4.14 Damping Forces Acting on a Vibrating P r o f i l e i n t h e Presence of Torsional Vibrations of t h e Blade.

it becomes equal t o zero, whereas when

t h e cosinusoidal component of t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge moment i s d i r e c t e d along t h e

404

angular v e l o c i t y of t h e flapping v i b r a t i o n s B . This l e a d s t o "resonant build-up" of t h e blade. The k i n e t i c energy of blade v i b r a t i o n s begins t o increase, which l e a d s t o a r i s e i n t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude. Such a t y p e of o s c i l l a t i o n a t amplitude build-up i s known as f l u t t e r . Thus, t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r i s associated with t h e magnitude and s i g n of t h e component of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s F.

L e t u s examine how t h e quantity @ changes under t h e e f f e c t of an external Figure 4.15 shows moment varying by t h e sige l a w i n conformity with eq.( 2.48). and (p on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p of t h e e x t e r n a l moment t h e dependence of m i n e r t . A s usual during v i b r a t i o n s close t o resonance, t h e component (p which i s i n 90 phase with t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s f i r s t increases, whereas t h e v i b r a t i o n component coinciding i n phase with t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s changes i t s s i g n i n resonance, passing through zero.
Thus, t h e value of (p i n c r e a s e s e s p e c i a l l y upon approaching resonance with t h e frequency of n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n i n t o r s i o n . Therefore, f l u t t e r always occurs with a frequency close t o but s l i g h t l y below t h e frequency of torsion. /375 Usually t h e frequency of f l u t t e r amounts t o about 0.8 ptw.

It follows from t h e foregoing t h a t f l u t t e r occurs as a consequence of t h e following causes: The t o r s i o n a l moment due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g during F ' ;p' I flapping v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade l e a d s t o t h e appearance of t o r s i o n a l blade 7 I vibrations. I n s o doing, t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s with a 90' phase s h i f t r e l a 6 I t i v e t o t h e flapping v i b r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e 5 e s p e c i a l l y strongly a t frequencies close t o t h e frequency of t h e n a t u r a l 4 v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n torsion. I This component of t h e t o r s i o n a l vibra3 t i o n s l e a d s t o e x c i t a t i o n of flapping v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade. A s soon as 2 I t h i s excitation [first t e r m i n I I eq.( 2.55)] becomes stronger t h a n t h e I f o r c e s damping t h e flapping v i b r a t i o n s i 0 I [second term i n eq.(2.55)], flutter will occur. I -I

7
1 T

-2 -3

I I I

Fromthe expression f o r t h e cosinusoidal component of t h e angle of attack

-4

T
it i s also possible t o t r a c e t h e e f f e c t
of r o t o r rpm on f l u t t e r . Actually, t h e second term i n t h i s formula r a p i d l y decreases with increasing r o t o r rpm, whereas does not g r e a t l y depend on

Fig.k.15 Variation i n t h e Torsional during Vibration Components (p and Blade Vibration Frequency.

405

t h e r p s i n c e t h e e x t e r n a l t o r s i o n a l moment h n e r it s determined m a i n l y by t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency [see eq.(2.48)] because of t h e f a c t t h a t , during f l u t t e r , p u s u a l l y i s by a f a c t o r of 5 8 g r e a t e r t h a n w. The v a r i a t i o n i n Cp with respect t o r o t o r rpm i s r e l a t e d mainly with an i n c r e a s e i n aerodynamic damping a t increasi n g w.

Thus, on t r a c i n g t h e mode of v a r i a t i o n of t h e q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g eq.( 2.55) with t h e r o t o r rpm, it w i l l be found t h a t , a t some value of w, t h e cosinusoidal component of t h e angle of a t t a c k F changes i n s i g n and becomes positive. This /376 l e a d s t o t h e appearance of f l u t t e r , beginning with some s p e c i f i e d r o t o r rpm. A rearward s h i f t of b l a d e balancing l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e absolute value of m i n e r t [eq.(2.49)] and hence t o an increase on F. I n t h i s case, as follows from eq.(2.55), f l u t t e r a r i s e s a t smaller w. I n t h e same manner, it i s possible t o t r a c e t h e e f f e c t of various other parameters on t h e f l u t t e r speed. However, t h e r e i s no need f o r t h i s s i n c e t h i s has already been done above with s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l . Section 3 . Consideration of F r i c t i o n Forces during F l u t t e r
~

1. Character of the-Effectof

F r i c t i o_ n_ Forces -~ - . during - --F u e r

The occurrence of f l u t t e r l e a d s t o t h e appearance of o s c i l l a t o r y motions i n t h e hinges of t h e r o t o r hub and i n t h e hinge control. Therefore, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e s e hinges have a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l rpm and on t h e nature of generation of f l u t t e r . O f primary importance i n t h i s case i s f r i c t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e blade loaded by a c e n t r i f u g a l force, i n comparison with which t h e f r i c t i o n i n a l l other hinges can be neglected. Experiments show t h a t f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge a r e similar i n character t o f o r c e s of d r y Coulomb f r i c t i o n [eq.(h.l6) 3. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e s e f o r c e s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n makes t h e problem of f l u t t e r essentiall y nonlinear. Therefore, i n simplified c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s n a t u r a l t o use any of t h e possible methods of l i n e a r i z a t i o n of f r i c t i o n forces. A more exact s o l u t i o n t o t h i s problem without such l i n e a r i z a t i o n w i l l b e given i n Section 7 of t h i s Chapter. Fig.4.16 Recording of t h e Moment of F r i c t i o n i n t h e Feathering Hinge during Torsional Blade Vibrations.

A s i s known, l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n f o r c e s leads t o t h e dependence of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e amplitude of o s c i l l a t i o n s . Here t h e nature of f l u t t e r generation, described on t h e b a s i s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n changes a t increasing amplitude, approaching t h a t observed i n experiments on h e l i c o p t e r s . These r e s u l t s permit explaining numerous p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n t h e development of f l u t t e r i n full-scale experiments. The p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e chara c t e r i s t i c s appreciably f a c i l i t a t e s t h e conduction of tests.

2. Linearization of ____ - .. - - F r i c t i o n Forces Let u s use t h e energy method of l i n e a r i z a t i o n of f r i c t i o n forces. For t h i s , we will r e p l a c e t h e moment of f r i c t i o n a c t i n g i n t h e feathering hinge of t h e blade by some equivalent moment whose magnitude i s proportional t o t h e r a t e of angular blade displacement

The value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t yfr i s determined from t h e condition of equalit y of t h e work done during t h e v i b r a t i o n period by t h e moment of f r i c t i o n ,

AP =4 4 , yflU

(3.2)

and by an equivalent moment whose magnitude i s proportional t o t h e v i b r a t i o n rate


A,*

/377

=r,,

Pflu$l"*

(3.3)

where

Mi,
(pflu

= = =

pflu

constant ( i n magnitude) moment of f r i c t i o n a c t i n g i n t h e feathering hinge, always opposite t o t h e 'rate of r e l a t i v e displacement; amplitude of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e feathering hinge during f l u t t e r ; frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s during f l u t t e r .

The moment of f r i c t i o n a c t i n g i n t h e feathering hinge can b e considered proportional t o w2, s i n c e i t s magnitude i s determined mainly by t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force

Mfr =apw2.

(3.4)

I n a number of cases, however, t h i s dependence i s disturbed as a consequence of the. following circumstances:


1) The bearing i s i n s t a l l e d with appreciable prestressing. I n t h i s case, t h e load a c t i n g on t h e bearing i s determined not only by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e but

a l s o by t h e i n i t i a l tension.
2) The design of t h e packing glands i s such t h a t t h e y have an appreciable moment of f r i c t i o n r e g a r d l e s s of t h e magnitude of t h e e f f e c t i v e c e n t r i f u g a l force.

3) The use of t o o heavy a l u b r i c a n t i n t h e bearing c r e a t e s an appreciable a d d i t i o n a l moment due t o t h e generation of viscous f r i c t i o n . The appearance of r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e viscous f r i c t i o n f o r c e s i s o f t e n observed a t low negative t e m peratures of t h e ambient a i r .
A l l t h e s e f a c t s have an influence on t h e f l u t t e r speed b u t introduce no fundamental features i n t o t h e p a t t e r n of t h e phenomenon. Therefore, i n t h e following account we w i l l t a k e eq.(3.4) as t h e b a s i s .

The c o e f f i c i e n t

+r

entering eq.(3.4)

i s determined from t h e expression

407

IP

afr = f k S a z

(3.5)

where
S a a r = s t a t i c moment of t h e blade relative t o t h e axis of r o t a t i o n ; rbe = r a d i u s of t h e t h r u s t bearing; f = c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n i n t h e bearing.

The values of t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f a r e u s u a l l y q u i t e s t a b l e and amount t o about 0.003 f o r b a l l and 0.006 f o r r o l l e r bearings.

After equating eqs.(3.2) t h e c o e f f i c i e n t yf :

and (3.3), we o b t a i n t h e expression f o r determining

With t h i s method of l i n e a r i z a t i o n , consideration of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e s l e a d s t o only one change i n t h e i n i t i a l equations (2.19), namely of t h e coeffic i e n t dzz standing f o r t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e hinge, which i s supplemented by some a d d i t i o n d f r . I n an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of flapping f l u t t e r with a blade r i g i d i n t o r s i o n , t h i s supplement should be determined by t h e formula

(3.7)

3 . Determination of F l u t t e r Speed with _ _ _Consideration __ - of F r i c t i o n


~

-..

/378

Equation (3.7) derived above, which determines t h e magnitude of t h e addit i o n term due t o f r i c t i o n f o r c e s t o one of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equations of blade v i b r a t i o n dzz, i s distinguished by a highly important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . This a d d i t i o n depends on t h e amplitude of blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e feathering Consequently, t h e c r i t i c a l r p a t which t h e amplihinge during f l u t t e r 'pilu. t u d e of o s c i l l a t i o n s t h e o r e t i c a l l y remains constant i n time depend on t h e amplit u d e of f l u t t e r o s c i l l a t i o n s . Figure 4.17 shows such a dependence f o r t h r e e values of blade balancing obt a i n e d i n a c a l c u l a t i o n of flapping f l u t t e r . Along t h e a b s c i s s a i n t h i s diagram i s l a i d out t h e amplitude of angular blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e feathering hinge 'pi l u , and along t h e o r d i n a t e t h e c r i t i c a l f l u k t e r rpn r e f e r r e d t o t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s o f t h e blade i n t o r s i o n G I u . These curves determine t h e amplitude of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y regime, which forms t h e boundary between o s c i l l a t i o n s with amplitude build-up and damping o s c i l l a t ions.

For a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, t h i s means t h a t f o r f l u t t e r t o occur some i n i t i a l impetus i s needed leading t o d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e blade from a position of equilibrium by an angle determined by t h e s e curves, usually c a l l e d t h e excita-

t i o n threshold.
If t h e r e i s no such impetus present, f l u t t e r will not occur a t a l l no matter what t h e r o t o r rpm'might be.,

For a comparison, Fig.4.17 shows t h e c r i t i c a l rpm f o r t h e case i n which t h e moment of f r i c t i o n i n t h e feathering hinge i s MI, = 0..

4. E f f e c t of Forced Motion i n t h e
Feathering Hinge Quite a d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e of t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r i s observed when forced motion i s present i n t h e feathering hinge of t h e hub caused by t i l t i n g of t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l or by forced flapping v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades a r i s i n g i n f l i g h t during oblique flow past t h e r o t o r . I n t h i s case, t h e v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge following t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r a r e generated by a complex l a w consisting of two o s c i l l a t o r y motions with d i f f e r e n t fre-

Fig.4.17 C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm as a Function of t h e Vibration Amplitude


(Pr l u

quencies. Figure 4.18 shews, as an example, t h e n a t t e r n of t h i s motion observed during f l u t t e r under conditions of ground tests when forced motion i s present i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge caused by t i l t i n g of t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h control (curve (ifor) and t h e motion caused by f l u t t e r ( G f l u ) . /379

Oscillation period

-_

Character of F l u t t e r i n t h e Presence of Fig.4.18 Forced Motion i n t h e Feathering Hinge. For convenience of f u r t h e r discussion, we p l o t t e d t h e r a t e of v i b r a t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge r a t h e r t h a n t h e displacements. The work of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge can b e

409

determined by t h e expression

where t h e moment of f r i c t i o n Mi, i s always d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e r a t e of angular displacement of t h e blade $.

If t h e r a t e of angular motion

$ is

the s u m of two o s c i l l a t o r y motions

(3.9)
t h e n t h e work of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e s can always b e represented as c o n s i s t i n g of two works, i n each of t h e s e motions

where

Here, t h e moment of f r i c t i o n of t o t a l motion $5.

as usual

i s d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e r a t e

The simultaneous presence i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of two o s c i l l a t o r y mot i o n s of d i f f e r e n t frequency always l e a d s t o t h e appearance of time segments during which t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e coincides i n d i r e c t i o n with t h e rate of one of t h e s e motions, i n t h i s case doing p o s i t i v e work. I n Fig.4.18 t h e area segments corresponding t o t h e p o s i t i v e work of f r i c t i o n f o r c e s i n displacement of one of t h e composite motions of a frequency p f l u are hatched. A s a r e s u l t , t h e o v e r a l l magnitude of work of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e s during t h e v i b r a t i o n period i n displacement of each of t h e composite motions decreases i n comparison with t h e case where t h e r e i s no concomitant motion. A s applied t o our case, t h i s means t h a t t h e work expended f o r damping f l u t t e r v i b r a t i o n s markedly drops because an appreciable portion o f t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e s i s expended by forced motion. This drop can be characterized by a s p e c i a l c o e f f i c i e n t which r e p r e s e n t s t h e - r a t i o /380

where

Aflu
Ai,
Figure

work of f r i c t i o n f o r c e s during t h e v i b r a t i o n period i n displacements of t h e component of motion caused by f l u t t e r , which i s of i n t e r e s t here; work of f r i c t i o n f o r c e s during t h e same period when t h e r e i s no concomitant forced motion. on t h e amplitude

h . 1 9 shows t h e dependence of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t

r a t i o of t h e v e l o c i t y components of o s c i l l a t o r y motion A t t h e values of

Pi 1 u = 1 . 5 - 2.5 of i n t e r e s t t o us, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Pior depends l i t t l e on t h e r a t i o of t h e s e frequencies.

. (-_ 1
-

Kflu

If t h e value of t h e c o e f f k i e n t y f r i s determined i n t h i s case, as w a s done above,from t h e condition of e q u a l i t y of work [see eq.(3.6)], t h e n eq.(3.7) t a k e s t h e following form:

It follows from t h i s expression t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpn depending on t h e coefficient d,, i s r e l a t e d with t h e a m d i t u d e of forced motion i n t h e axial hinge cpf o r since d, , depends on t h e quantity With consideration of t h e nonlinear A,

dependence

&

(e)
shown i n

Fig.4.19, t h i s r e l a t i o n becomes r a t h e r complex. However, consideration of t h i s dependence r a d i c a l l y changes t h e character of t h e conditions necessary f o r t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r . F i g w e 4.20 gives t h e values of c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm a t d i f f e r e n t magnitudes of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y blade motion i n t h e featherjrng hinge c p , o r , calculated with consideration of t h i s nonlinear dependence as applied t o flapping f l u t t e r . The c a l c u l a t i o n w a s made only f o r one value of blade balancing and d i f f e r e n t amplitudes of forced motion i n t h e feathering hinge T i o r The curves p l o t t e d i n Fig.4.20 number of i n t e r e s t i n g conclusions. permit a

04

Q8

!Z

16

k u

90.

Fig.4.19 De endence of t h e Coefficient o n t h e Amplit u d e Ratio of t h e Velocity Components of O s c i l l a t o r y Motion.

%,,,

F i r s t of a l l , it follows from t h e s e curves t h a t , i n t h e presence of forced motion i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge, f l u t t e r occurs at c e r t a i n revolutions of t h e r o t o r and i t s appearance i s not due t o t h e e f f e c t of any extraneous influence i n t h e form of some i n i t i a l impetus. I n t h i s case, t h e r p of f l u t t e r onset is smaller, t h e greater t h e amplitude of forced motion i n t h e feathering hinge q 0 , . This f a c t i s responsible f o r t h e dependence of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r r p i n /381 f l i g h t on a l l parameters of t h e f l i g h t regime t h a t determine t h e amplitude of cpfor, and primarily on t h e helicopter balancing and t h e f l y i n g speed. I n ground t e s t s , t h i s l e a d s t o dependence of t h e c r i t i c a l rpn on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e cont r o l stick.
A second important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of f l u t t e r , following from t h e curves

(see Fig.h.X)), i s t h e appearance of two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f l u t t e r which d i f f e r by t h e character of t h e increase i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude upon any change i n r o t o r rpm*
Upon an i n c r e a s e i n rpm t o values corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s a,, a,, a3, f l u t t e r w i l l s e t i n with an amplitude smoothly i n c r e a s i n g with increasing r o t o r rpm. If, a f t e r t h e occurrence of such o s c i l l a t i o n s , which are u s u a l l y called "soft flutter", t h e r o t o r rpm remains unchanged, t h e n t h e i r amplitude will remain constant f o r as long as desired. O s c i l l a t i o n s of t h i s type have been repeatedly ob served i n ground and f l i g h t s t u d i e s of f l u t t e r i n h e l i c o p t e r s . A decrease i n r o t o r rpm a f t e r t h e occurrence of " s o f t f l u t t e r " l e a d s t o cessation of o s c i l l a t i o n s at t h e same rpm a t which f l u t t e r began. Fig.4.20 Variation i n C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm with Vibration Amplitude i n t h e Feathering Hinge cpfl u, a t Different Magnitudes of Forced Motion. "hard f l u t t e r " . Probably, t h e l i m i t i n g values of t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes obtainable i n t h i s case a r e determined by t h e nonlinear nature of t h e change i n aerodynamic f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e angle of attack. This branch of t h e curve i n Fig.4.X) i s shown approximately by a dashed l i n e . When "hard crease i n blade marked decrease lead t o s e r i o u s f l u t t e r " occurs during ground t e s t s of a helicopter, t h e inv i b r a t i o n s can be stopped ( t o prevent an accident) only by a i n r o t o r rpm. The generation of such o s c i l l a t i o n s i n f l i g h t may consequences. Upon an increase i n r o t o r rpm t o values determined by t h e p o i n t s b, and b,, o s c i l l a t i o n s are generated whose amplitude i n c r e a s e s i n t i m e without an increase i n r o t o r r p . O s c i l l a t i o n s of t h i s type are called

A decrease i n r o t o r rpm after t h e onset of "hard f l u t t e r " l e a d s t o cessat i o n o f v i b r a t i o n at an rpm corresponding t o t h e point k, which, as a r u l e , i s smaller t h a n t h e values corresponding t o al and a,.

Thus, t o s t o p "hard f l u t t e r " t h e r o t o r rpm should b e decreased t o values lower than those a t which f l u t t e r began.

A t small amplitudes of forced motion i n t h e axial hinge, t h e occurrence of "hard f l u t t e r " i s possible o n l y after some i n i t i a l impetus, j u s t as i n t h e case when forced motion i s absent.
The rpm corresponding t o t h e point nl should be considered t h e most

/382

probable rpm f o r t h e start of "hard f l u t t e r " since, i n t h i s case, t h e magnitude of t h e necessary impetus i s minimal. I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l rpm f o r t h e onset of f l u t t e r , corresponding t o al, a2, a3 i n Fig.4.20, a d d i t i o n a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s can b e made i n eq.(3.l2).

A s follows from Fig.4.19,

when -%lL < 0.5,


Vtor

t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t

A i l u can be determined by t h e formula:

If t h e frequency of forced motion i s pior = mu, (m being t h e order of t h e harmonic of t h i s motion with respect t o r o t o r rpm), t h e n we can write

I n t h i s case, eq.(3.12)

t a k e s t h e following form:

The value of t h e equivalent moment of f r i c t i o n i s here proportional t o t h e r a t e of angular displacements and does not depend on t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of f l u t t e r cpf l u :

I n other words, t h e moment of f r i c t i o n a c t i n g i n t h e feathering hinge i n t h e presence of forced motion i n t h i s hinge a f f e c t s small o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e blade i n t h e same manner as a l i n e a r v i b r a t i o n damper, whose moment i s proport i o n a l t o t h e r a t e of r e l a t i v e displacement. This conclusion p e r t a i n s not only t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g o r a x i a l hinge of t h e blade but i s generally v a l i d f o r a l l mechanisms with f r i c t i o n .

It a l s o follows from Fig.4.20 t h a t f r i c t i o n i n t h e feathering hinge, even i n t h e presence of forced motion, i n c r e a s e s t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r r p i n comparison with t h e case where M i , = 0 and r e p r e s e n t s a u s e f u l f a c t o r from t h i s point of view. Therefore, t o improve t h e f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r o t o r it i s possible t o use f r i c t i o n dampers i n t h e feathering hinges. O f course, t h e use of such dampers i s possible only when t h e h e l i c o p t e r has a s u f f i c i e n t l y powerful and reliable booster control.

Section

4. Rotor, F l u t t e r A t h . @nsACer&ion_of

G.oupling of Blade Vibrations through t h e A u t o ~ a ~ ~ c ~ ~ f & - c ; o ~ r o l

1 . Forms of Rotor F l u t t e r @served i n Helicopter. . Experiments


A s mentioned above, t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r i n a h e l i c o p t e r sets up vibrat i o n s of a l l r o t o r blades. These o s c i l l a t i o n s begin simultaneously d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e parameters of i n d i v i d u a l b l a d e s making up t h e r o t o r generally d i f f e r somewhat. Consequently, t h e simultaneous occurrence of f l u t t e r cannot be explained by t h e coincidence of t h e c r i t i c a l rpm of i n d i v i d u a l blades. Furthermore, it has been noted in almost a l l experiments on h e l i c o p t e r s t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a l l b l a d e s are s t r i c t l y P l a n e o f longitudinal synchronized so t h a t each advancing /383 blade d u p l i c a t e s t h e motion of t h e ret r e a t i n g blade with some l a g i n time. The v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of d i f f e r e n t b l a d e s increase simultaneously so t h a t t h e i r magnitude on t h e d i f f e r e n t blades i s approximately i d e n t i c a l . F l u t t e r of one i n d i v i d u a l blade of t h e r o t o r of a given h e l i c o p t e r i s p r a c t i c a l l y never observed.
automatic p i t c h control

This t y p e of v i b r a t i o n s i n f l u t t e r i s a s c r i b a b l e primarily t o t h e coupling of i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r blades through t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l (Fig.4.21)

Fig.4.21

Diagram of Rotor Hub.

The v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e r o t o r i n which each advancing blade d u p l i c a t e s t h e motion of t h e r e t r e a t i n g blade with some l a g i n time i s usually called c y c l i c v i b r a t i o n mode. Such modes a r e very o f t e n encountered i n s t u d i e s of h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s . Therefore, t h e y should b e examined i n g r e a t e r detail.
2. Ana1;ytical Expression for c;Yclic M o d e s -f -R o t o r VibratLoG .. -

For c y c l i c modes of f l u t t e r , distinguished by t h e f a c t t h a t each advancing blade d u p l i c a t e s t h e motion of t h e r e t r e a t i n g one, we can construct an analytic a l expression determining t h e l a w of v a r i a t i o n of t h e blade motion parameters i n time.
=

I f we f i x t h e point of reference i n time such t h a t for t = 0 we have &=., 0, t h e n t h i s expression can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following manner:

PN=
where

POe*fsin ( p i - N A ~ ~ ) ,

(4.11

PN
414

flapping angle of t h e n-th blade;

Bo
q p

= = = =

N m
N
=

angle determining t h e magnitude of blade d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e i n i t i a l reference time, f o r t = 0; exponent determining t h e time r a t e of change of v i b r a t i o n amplitude; frequency of o s c i l l a t i o n s i n f l u t t e r ; phase s h i f t of v i b r a t i o n s f o r two successive blades.

Equation (4.1) i s used f o r determining t h e motion of blades with numbered 0, 1, 2, zb - 1 (zb being t h e number of b l a d e s of t h e r o t o r )

...,

For a blade with N = zb, t h e l a w of change of v a r i a b l e s should coincide w i t h t h e l a w of motion of t h e blade having N = 0. Proceeding from t h i s assump-

t i o n , t h e phase s h i f t A$m should b e a multiple of t h e azimuth angle between t h e blades, i.e.,


A+,=m-.
2 3 3
zb

/384
(4.2)

A t c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, f o r q = 0, t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a l l blades t a k e place at constant and i d e n t i c a l amplitude but with d i f f e r e n t v i b r a t i o n phases. The a n a l y t i c a l expression f o r t h e l a w of change of v a r i a b l e s a t c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm can be obtained by s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(4.2) i n t o eq.(4.1) and s e t t i n g q = 0:
PN=Posin

(4.3)

It follows from eq.( 4.3) t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n phase d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r b l a d e s i n c y c l i c modes may d i f f e r depending on t h e q u a n t i t y m. The quantity m i s c a l l e d t h e order of t h e v i b r a t i o n mode and may vary from m = 0 t o m = zb - 1 . A t m - zb, t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e r o t o r , as follows from eq.(4.3), w i l l coincide with t h e mode having t h e order m = 0. I n l i k e manner, f o r m > zb a l l modes w i l l be repeated.. Thus, f o r any r o t o r t h e r e can be zb d i f f e r e n t v i b r a t i o n modes corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t orders m varying from m = 0 t o m = q , - 1. Equations (4.1) and (4.3), derived above f o r determining t h e modes cf r o t o r vibration, were constructed only f o r t h e v a r i a b l e & . However, a l l other parameters characterizing blade motion vary i n t h e same manner. Nevertheless, a c e r t a i n v i b r a t i o n phase usually exists between them and t h e variable B N . Therefore, i n many cases it w i l l be convenient t o represent t h e l a w of change of variables i n a compl'ex form. With respect t o t h e v a r i a b l e B N , this can be w r i t t e n as where

(4.4)

It should b e noted t h a t , i n forward f l i g h t of a helicopter, t h e blade executes a l s o forced v i b r a t i o n s of c y c l i c modes since, i n f l i g h t , each advancing blade d u p l i c a t e s t h e motion of t h e r e t r e a t i n g blade. However, unlike v i b r a t i o n s i n f l u t t e r , t h e forced blade v i b r a t i o n s i n f l i g h t are s t r i c t l y synchronized r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r r p , so t h a t each harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s of an order m

u 5

w i l l correspond t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode having t h e same order:

PN=IJmsinm
Here, m corresponds t o t h e order of t h e harmonic of forced vibrations.

(4.5)

3. c;Yclic VibratioLModes i n S p e c i f i c

Cas=

agd C o g t r a

Loads

The d i v i s i o n of v i b r a t i o n s i n t o c y c l i c modes i s convenient i n t h a t only c e r t a i n r o t o r c o n t r o l loops a r e loaded i n t h e presence of each such mode. Therefore, t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i s determined by t h e r i g i d i t y of t h a t cont r o l loop which i s loaded i n t h e presence of t h e p a r t i c u l a r v i b r a t i o n mode under consideration. O f p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t a r e only those r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes /385 t h a t correspond t o t h e smallest control r i g i d i t y and hence t o t h e lowest c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm.

L e t u s study t h e manner of generation of c y c l i c v i b r a t i o n modes during f l u t t e r , i n a s p e c i f i c case - f o r example - f o r a four-blade r o t o r .


With a v i b r a t i o n mode of zero order (m = 0), a l l ' f o u r blades v i b r a t e with i d e n t i c a l phases and load only t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h control. This form of f l u t t e r i s c a l l e d in-phase f l u t t e r . The cont r o l r i g i d i t y r e f e r r e d t o t h e axial hinge, P o s i t i o n of c o n i n g and hence t h e c r i t i c a l in-phase f l u t t e r rpm, P o s i t i o n of c o n i n g axis before onset axis during depend only on t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e c o l l e c t i v e of f l u t t e r flutter p i t c h c o n t r o l loop.

*
P

%
\\

Ro t o r c o n e

The v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e f i r s t order (m = l ) , j u s t as t h a t of t h e t h i r d (m = 3 ) , i s of g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t since on h e l i c o p t e r s it corresponds u s u a l l y t o t h e smallest cont r o l r i g i d i t y and hence t o t h e lowest values of c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. Vibrations of t h e s e modes are characterized by t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y t h e moment loading t h e l a t e r a l and longit u d i n a l c o n t r o l loops i s applied t o t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h control. The opposite b l a d e s i n modes of t h e f i r s t and t h i r d order o s c i l l a t e i n opposite phases. Therefore, t h i s mode of f l u t t e r i s

Fig.4.22 Position of Coning Axis i n Antiphase F l u t t e r . usually c a l l e d antiphase f l u t t e r

The coning angle of t h e r o t o r i n antiphase modes of f l u t t e r does not change. Therefore, t h e motion of t h e blades i n t h e s e modes i s conveniently characterI n v i b r a t i o n s of t h e firstized by t h e motion of t h e coning a x i s (Fig.4.22). order mode, t h e cone of t h e r o t o r i s d e f l e c t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e o r i g i n a l axis through an angle B and r o t a t e s about it with an angular v e l o c i t y p1 = pilu - w opposite t o t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

k16

Both t h e d i r e c t i o n and magnitude of t h i s angular v e l o c i t y vary i n t h e third-order mode: p3 = p r l u + W. The v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e variable f o r c e s i n nonrotating p a r t s of t h e c o n t r o l system, j u s t as t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e fuselage during f l u t t e r , coincides i n magnitude with t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e coning a x i s , which c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e modes.
I f t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e nonrotating p a r t s of t h e c o n t r o l d i d not depend on t h e frequency of f o r c e s applied t o it, t h e n t h e values of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpn corresponding t o modes of t h e f i r s t and t h i r d order would be identical. However, i n a l l experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of f l u t t e r , only v i b r a t i o n s of one of t h e s e modes, most o f t e n of t h e third-order ( m = 3), a r e usually enI n several cases, i n p a r t i c u l a r when t h e c o n t r o l system includes countered. i n e r t i a dampers, t h e f i r s t - o r d e r v i b r a t i o n (m = 1) i s observed i n f l u t t e r . This i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e nonrotating p a r t of t h e control, operated by t h e i n e r t i a inherent t o i t s components, depends on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency. Consequently, t h e hinge c o n t r o l r i g i d i t i e s corresponding t o modes of t h e f i r s t and t h i r d order on a helicopter d i f f e r somewhat i n magnitude. Accordingly, t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm a l s o d i f f e r s . These considera/386 t i o n s w i l l be supplemented i n Section 8.6.
m =o
N-0
m=l

m=2

m=.7

N-1

N-2

N-3

Fig.&. 23

Vibration Phase D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Different Modes

of F l u t t e r , f o r a Four-Blade Rotor a t

2 = 1.75. W

During second-order v i b r a t i o n modes (m = 2), t h e opposite blades i n each p a i r have an i d e n t i c a l phase, and t h e phases of t h e s e p a i r s d i f f e r by h a l f a period. The f o r c e s applied t o t h e c o n t r o l during v i b r a t i o n s of t h i s mode are locked on t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l whose r i g i d i t y mainly determines t h e hinge c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y f o r t h i s case. Since t h i s r i g i d i t y i s usually s u f f i c i e n t l y high, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f l u t t e r with t h i s mode, which i s usually c a l l e d t h e p l a t e mode of f l u t t e r , i s improbable within t h e operating rpn of t h e r o t o r .

The curves (Fig.4.23) p l o t t e d on t h e b a s i s of eq.(4.3) permit judging t h e character of t h e phase d i s t r i b u t i o n by b l a d e s i n a l l t h e s e modes f o r a fourblade r o t o r .

4. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Rotor F l u t t e r with Consideration


of Coupling of Blade Vibrations . through . t h e Automatic P i t c h Control Each r o t o r blade, during vibration, generates a moment a c t i n g on t h e b l a d e p i t c h control system. The magnitude of t h i s moment, taken r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge a x i s of t h e hub, can be w r i t t e n i n conformity with eqs.(2.19) as

where N

0, 1, 2,

..., zb - 1 i s t h e numeral of t h e blade.

Here we have used t h e same notations as t h o s e given i n Section 2 i n derivi n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of flapping f l u t t e r of an i s o l a t e d blade with axial flow past t h e r o t o r . Now, t h e number of equations has increased zb times, i.e., as many times as t h e r e a r e blades i n t h e r o t o r .
I f o s c i l l a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r blades a r e i n no way r e l a t e d and i f each blade i s attached t o t h e hub as an i s o l a t e d e n t i t y , then, a f t e r substitut i o n of

/387

i n t o eq.(4.6),

we o b t a i n equations coinciding with eqs.( 2.19).

However, h e l i c o p t e r s u s u a l l y do not have such r o t o r designs. Generally, as a consequence of interference, t h e e l a s t i c angle of r o t a t i o n of each blade i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge

follows t h e deformations of individual r o t o r c o n t r o l loops, which i n t u r n are determined by t h e t o t a l i t y of f o r c e s a r i s i n g from a l l r o t o r blades.


For t h e conventional r o t o r c o n t r o l system, t h i s r e l a t i o n can be represented

i n t h e form

where, as before, N Here,

0, 1 ,2 ,

..., zb - 1.

y C a p = angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade according t o deformations o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h control;

418

yx and yz = amplitude values of t h e angles of blade twist as a consequence


y (a N .) p

of deformations of t h e l a t e r a l and longitudinal c o n t r o l s respec ti v e l y ; angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e n-th r o t o r blade as a consequence of deformation of t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l under t h e e f f e c t of f o r c e s completely balanced on t h e p l a t e ; it i s assumed t h a t , i f a l l e x t e r n a l f o r c e s are balanced on t h e swashplate, i t s deformation obeys t h e condition

where $'a:! i s t h e azimuth of t h e N-th blade reckoned from t h e plane of t h e longitudinal c o n t r o l with respect t o t h e swashplate spider ( s e e Fig.4.21); t h i s azimuth i s r e l a t e d with t h e blade azimuth by t h e expression

where
ost = angle of stagger of t h e r o t o r hub spider; A$,,, = control angle of advance; 5 = blade angle of l a g during r o t a t i o n about t h e drag hinge; i n Fig.4.21 t h e blades are shown i n a p o s i t i o n where 5 = 0;

I f t h e r o t o r has three or less blades, t h e n t h e quantity ; y : : should be s e t equal t o zero, since i n t h i s case t h e r e i s no combination of forces which could be balanced completely on t h e swashplate.
N

For a four-blade r o t o r , a l l values of y ; : 0, 1 , 2, 3

a r e equal i n modulus, i.e.,

when

This e q u a l i t y i s not observed f o r a g r e a t e r number of blades.

/388

If we introduce t h e concepts of r i g i d i t y of various control loops r e f e r r e d t o t h e axial hinge of t h e blade, t h e n t h e hinge moment a c t i n g on t h e blade due t o t h e control can be expressed i n terms of t h e s e r i g i d i t i e s and deformations of t h e corresponding c o n t r o l runs:

where c e a p , c,, c,, and c a S p are t h e r i g i d i t i e s of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h control, l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l controls, and swashplate respectively, r e f e r r e d t o t h e feathering hinge of t h e blade.

The form of n o t a t i o n of eq.(&.l3) assumes t h a t t h e - r i g i d i t y c C a premains constant r e g a r d l e s s of t h e type of combinations of f o r c e s locked on t h e swashp l a t e. The values of t h e deformations of d i f f e r e n t c o n t r o l loops r e f e r r e d t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge can be expressed i n terms of t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of i n d i vidual blades yN i f we represent eqs.(4.9) as a system of equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknowns ye,p , yx yz and ys. p . The s o l u t i o n of t h e system (4.9) y i e l d s th.e following expressions f o r deformations of i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l loops:

, ,

When

For a four-blade r o t o r , yb!:

can be determined by t h e formula

For a number of b l a d e s q, > expression

4, t h e q u a n t i t y

yiy:

i s determined by t h e

m=z, - 2

(4.16)
S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(4.14) and (4.16) i n t o eq.(4.13), we obtain t h e expressions for t h e hinge moment from t h e control for a blade with t h e numeral N:

+% 2
b
m =2

m=zb - 2

cos-

2rim
*b

2
N

2nm YNCos N.
b

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(4.17) i n t o eq.(4.6) and examining t h i s equation to/389 gether with t h e first equation of t h e system (2.19), we obtain a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of coupled blade v i b r a t i o n s at e a 1 flow past t h e r o t o r :

m=zL -2

where

The system of equations (4.18) i s a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equat i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknown functions BN and T ~ N , with periodic time-variant c o e f f i c i e n t s together with t h e variable

where
A+b=-.
2n

*b

5. Transformation of Eqs.(4.18) i n P a r t i c u l a r Cases where


c;Yciic Modesare t h e Solution of t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Rot or- F l u t t e r
L e t u s check whether c y c l i c v i b r a t i o n modes a r e t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (4.18) of r o t o r f l u t t e r w r i t t e n with consideration of coupling between blade v i b r a t i o n s through t h e swashplate.

I n t h e general case, t h e r e l a t i o n between v a r i a b l e s i n c y c l i c v i b r a t i o n modes of a r o t o r can b e represented i n t h e form

where

BO and cpo

Atm

angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e b l a d e with t h e numeral N = 0 r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping and f e a t h e r i n g hinges, which are unknown functions of time; 2nm - phase angle characterizing t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e zb order m.
=

/390

S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.( 4.21) i n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (4.18) and success i v e l y varying t h e values of m from 0 t o z b - 1 , we f i n d t h a t c y c l i c v i b r a t i o n modes are t h e s o l u t i o n t o eqs.(4.18) only f o r values of m = 0 (in-phase f l u t t e r ) and z - 2 2 m 2 2 ( p l a t e mode of f l u t t e r ) . A t t h e s e values, t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (4.18) are transformed i n t o equations e x a c t l y coinciding with t h e equations of f l u t t e r of an i s o l a t e d blade [eq.(2.19)]. Only t h e value of t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n t o r s i o n entering t h e second equat i o n of system (2.19) becomes equal t o

during in-phase f l u t t e r (m

0) and

pt, =pa.p

(4.23)

during p l a t e f l u t t e r ( z b - 2 2 m 2 2), when a l l f o r c e s due t o t h e blades close t o t h e swashplate and t h e l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l s and c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l a r e not loaded. A t t h e same time, c y c l i c v i b r a t i o n modes a t m = 1 and m = zb 1are the s o l u t i o n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (4.18) only i n one p a r t i c u l a r case, when c, = c, I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case, t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (4.18) are transformed i n t o equations coinciding with eq.( 2.19) f o r an i s o l a t e d blade. Only t h e value of ptw i n t h i s case should b e equal t o

p,, =p x =P I .

(4.24)

Thus, f l u t t e r of a r o t o r as a whole can be studied on t h e model of an isol a t e d blade having a r i g i d i t y of attachment equal t o t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e coll e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l c C a p ,with t h e c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l c, = c, and swashp l a t e c a e Ptaken separately.

6. Rotor F l u t t e r i n t h e P r e s e n c e - o z x f f e r e n t - R i g i d i t y
tro of Longitudinal and- Lateral C o _ n~ _k To solve t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (4.18) i n t h e case of c, f cz, we can use t h e following method. L e t u s introduce t h e new variables:

Successively multiplying a l l t e r m s of eqs.(4.18) by s i n and by /391 cos and s d n g them with respect t o N, we obtain a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations relative t o t h e new v a r i a b l e s of t h e following form:

$6;;

$brb

The system of equations (4.26) can be solved by t h e conventional method f o r solving a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with constant c o e f f i c i e n t s .
A similar method of reducing t h e problem t o a system of equations with cons t a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s w a s used by Coleman and B.Ya.Zherebtsov i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e ground resonance of helicopters.

W e can show t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e s (4.25) can be expressed by t h e v a r i a b l e s proposed by A.P.Proskuryakov f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g helicopter s t a b i l i t y .


I n h i s works, A.P.Proskuryakov expressed t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e flapping hinge i n t h e form

On a l t e r n a t e l y multiplying eq.(4.27) respect t o N, it w i l l be found t h a t

by cos

eN

and s i n

$N

and s d n g with

i.e., t h e v a r i a b l e s a l ( t ) and b l ( t ) v i r t u a l l y coincide with t h e v a r i a b l e s and 5 s .

1~
423

The use of t h e above method f o r solving equations o f h e l i c o p t e r f l u t t e r at It w a s a l s o used by V.D.Ilfichev c, # c, and p # 0 w a s proposed by L.N.Grodko. f o r obtaining p r a c t i c a l results. Section

5. Flapping F l u t t e r of a Rotor i n Forward F l i g -ht

1. Preliminary Statements
Experiments c a r r i e d out on various h e l i c o p t e r s showed t h a t , i n forward f l i g h t , f l u t t e r might set i n e a r l i e r t h a n under conditions of axial flow past t h e r o t o r , f o r example, i n ground-testing. Therefore, a determination of t h e /392 c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n f l i g h t i s of appreciable p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t . The b a s i c problem r e q u i r i n g s o l u t i o n i n t h i s case i s t h e degree t o which t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i s lower i n f l i g h t t h a n on t h e ground.

A v a r i e t y of other important p r a c t i c a l problems arises i n t h i s connection. For example, what parametric margin p r i o r t o f l u t t e r should b e secured under ground-testing conditions s o as t o preclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e occurrence of flutter i n flight.
A l l t h e s e problems can be solved i f t h e r e i s an opportunity t o c a l c u l a t e f l u t t e r i n forward f l i g h t , which permits determining, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e dependence of c r i t i c a l rpm on t h e f l y i n g speed.

Furthermore, d i f f i c u l t i e s arise i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t . These r e f e r primarily t o s u b s t a n t i a l complication of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations describing blade vibration. Therefore, i n examining t h e problem, one should begin with these.

2. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Blade - Oscillation s i n Forward F l i g h t


The d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t o r s i o n a l and flapping v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n forward f l i g h t a r e derived i n t h e same manner as f o r t h e regime with axial flow past t h e r o t o r . Only t h e values of t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s of t h e stream flowing past t h e p r o f i l e should be calculated with consideration of t h e addition t e r m due t o forward velocity. These v e l o c i t i e s can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

where p

cos

CY

Substituting eqs.(5.1) i n t o eqs.(l.6) and t h e n eq.(1.6) i n t o eqs.( 2.3) and ( 2 . 1 1 ) , we obtain t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v j h r z t i o n i n forward f l i g h t:

Here, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c12, cZ1, d l l , dal, dza, b21, bZ2 a r e t h e same as i n eqs.( 2.14); furthermore, we introduce t h e following a d d i t i o n a l coefficients:

/393

Assuming t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n B* and cp" s e t , as before (see Sect.2.4)

of eqs.(5.2)

i s found, we

B=P *+hi
(P"p

*+Vdl

where B ,

and T ,

are t h e angles of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade from a p o s i t i o n

425

corresponding t o i t s steady motion, determinable by t h e p a r t i c u l a r solution. S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e expressions i n t o eqs.(5.2), we o b t a i n t h e following d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of disturbed motion of t h e b l a d e i n forward f l i g h t :

Here, t h e s u b s c r i p t s of t h e v a r i a b l e s Bd and ( p d , which i n d i c a t e t h a t they r e f e r t o disturbed motion, a r e omitted f o r simplicity.

3 . Solution of D i f f e r e n t i a l . Equ-ations Equations (5.4) represent a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with periodic c o e f f i c i e n t s . The s o l u t i o n o f such a system can b e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

/394.

where t h e functions Ts and Tv determine t h e content of t h e harmonic components of blade v i b r a t i o n i n f l u t t e r . These functions can be w r i t t e n as

where n = 1 , 2, 3 , are constant c o e f f i c i e n t s determining t h e order of t h e corresponding harmonics. The c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n t h i s case can b e determined i f eqs.(5.5), with consideration of eqs.(5.6), a r e s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (5.4) and i f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i k e harmonic components are equated. This operation r e s u l t s i n t h e formation of-a system - of a l g e b r a i c equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e unTo solve t h i s system, it i s known Coefficients Be, To, B, B,, ( P , and necessary t o determine t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation whose order

...

Tn.

4%

depends on t h e number of harmonic components n r e t a i n e d i n t h e solution. The s o l u t i o n of eqs.( 5.4), with consideration of t h e harmonics, greatly complicates t h e c a l c u l a t i o n and a t t h e same time - at t h e values of p < 0.4 a c t u a l l y used - introduces no e s s e n t i a l refinements i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s . Therefore, i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s we usually employ e i t h e r t h e approximate method without consideration of t h e harmonic components or else t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n with numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e equations of blade motion with respect t o time. One of t h e versions of t h i s method w i l l be given i n Section 7 of t h i s Chapter.

4. Detgrmigation of C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm without Consideration


o f Harmonic Cgmwnentsof Blade Motion
If t h e e f f e c t of harmonic components on t h e c r i t i c a l rpn i s disregarded, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f l u t t e r i n forward f l i g h t i s no more complex t h a n under cond i t i o n s of axial flow past t h e r o t o r . A n approximate solution, neglecting t h e e f f e c t of harmonic components can be obtained, i f t h e periodic c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (5.4) a r e omitted%. I n t h i s ' case, t h e forward f l y i n g speed i s taken i n t o account by introducing, i n t o eqs.(l.6), t h e constant p a r t of For t h i s it s u f f i c e s t o s e t t h e functions depending on U,.

Then, t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of disturbed motion can b e w r i t t e n i n t h e following manner:

/395

1i
where

For a blade of rectangular planform, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t bIe2 can be considered The c o e f f i c i e n t bZ2 i s s m a l l i n magnitude and has as approximately equal t o -2. no s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e r e s u l t s . .
Equations (5.8) d i f f e r from eqs.(2.19) t h e r o t o r only by terms of t h e type of (1 X -

f o r a regime with axial flow past 1 2 pZbT2). This permits determining

This method was proposed by V.D.Iltichev.

t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n forward f l i g h t by eq.(2.27); .however, i n t h e expressions of c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s of eq.( 2.a) e n t e r i n g t h i s formula t h e r e appears

Thus, disregarding a l l harmonic components of blade motion, t h e problem of determining t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n forward f l i g h t .can b e reduced t o solving t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (5.8) with constant c o e f f i c i e n t s .

5. Effect of Flying Speed o n Critical Flutter

Rpm

The e f f e c t of f l y i n g speed, definable by t h e t e r m (1

-1 p2bT2)
2

in

eqs.(5.8) proves t o be q u i t e weak. Figure 4.24 shows t h e dependence of t h e c r i t i c a l rpm on t h e f l y i n g speed, determined by t h e value of p, f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t values of blade balancing.
I f follows from t h e graph ( s e e Fig.4.24) t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l . f l u t t e r rpm 0 % with an increase i n drops by about 5 - 1 f l y i n g speed t o values of p = 0.25 - 0.3.

/396

I n experiments c a r r i e d out on h e l i copters, t h e e f f e c t of speed i s somewhat stronger. This can b e explained by t h e eff e c t of t h e following factors:

Fig.4.24 C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm as a Function of Flying Speed.

It i s shown above i n Section 3 t h a t , f o r s m a l l blade o s c i l l a t i o n s during f l u t t e r , t h e axial hinge with f r i c t i o n can be r e garded as a l i n e a r damper whose e f f i c i e n c y i s smaller, t h e higher t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r e l a t i v e displacements i n t h i s hinge during forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade. Therefore, t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n f l i g h t decreases with increasing r e l a t i v e

displacements i n t h e a x i a l hinge and hence with f l y i n g speed, since relative displacements usually increase with speed. Hence it follows t h a t a l l f a c t o r s on which t h e h e l i c o p t e r balancing depends may a f f e c t t h e f l u t t e r , since balancing determines t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude i n t h e axial hinge with respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic of r o t o r rpm. Displacements of t h e blade i n t h e axial hinge, with harmonics higher than t h e f i r s t , may a l s o have a strong e f f e c t . These harmonic components usually have smaller amplitudes of displacement but r e l a t i v e l y high angular velocity, leading t o an appreciable reduction of t h e effectiveness of t h e damping a c t i o n of d r y f r i c t i o n i n t h e a x i a l hinge of t h e blade. Thus, i n many cases t h e severe drop i n c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n forward f l i g h t i s explained by a decrease i n t h e damping a c t i o n of f r i c t i o n i n t h e axial hinge.
A no l e s s important f a c t o r capable of s u b s t a n t i a l l y influencing c r i t i c a l revolutions of f l u t t e r i s t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade p r o f i l e i n connection with f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e value of t h e Mach number under forward f l i g h t conditions. A s mentioned above, a change i n M i n t h e range from 0.5 t o 0.9 causes a marked change i n t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and, what i s e s p e c i a l l y important f o r f l u t t e r , a d i s t i n c t s h i f t i n t h e position of t h e p r o f i l e focus.

Only t h e method employing numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equat i o n s of blade motion with respect t o time ( s e e Sect.7) permits t a k i n g i n t o account t h e s e f a c t o r s with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy. C a l g u l a t i o n o f F l u t t e r with Consideration of Section 6. -B e n d i x and Torsion of t h e Blade
1. -Bending &nd-Torsion o f Blade during F l u t t e r

It w a s pointed out above t h a t , i n t h e overwhelming majority of cases, vib r a t i o n s of t h e blade as a s o l i d body predominate i n t h e mode of blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e flapping plane during f l u t t e r . The blade executes t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s , r o t a t i n g about t h e flapping hinge. Torsional v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade occur mainly as a consequence of i t s r o t a t i o n about t h e feathering hinge. I n t h i s /397 hinge, t h e blade r o t a t e s owing t o t h e kinematic action of t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and flapping compensator as well as deformations of t h e control cables. Flexural and t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade i t s e l f generall y have no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. Nevertheless, t h e f l e x u r a l and t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade during f l u t t e r of t h i s type are usually q u i t e pronounced. They lead t o smaller displacements of t h e blade elements i n comparison with displacements during v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade as a s o l i d body, but t h e s e displacements a r e of t h e same order. Therefore, it i s impossible t o neglect deformations of t h e blade i t s e l f or t o show no i n t e r e s t i n them. I n i n d i v i d u a l cases, t h e flexural deformations of t h e blade increase and begin t o have a noticeable e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. It i s e s p e c i a l l y important t o t a k e i n t o account blade bending i n determining t h e e f f e c t of con-

429

centrated balancers i n s t a l l e d on t h e blade t o eliminate - f l u t t e r .

Also known are i n d i v i d u a l cases where t h e blade during f l u t t e r executes flexural v i b r a t i o n s i n which t h e share of t h e flapping mode i s q u i t e small. It should be emphasized t h a t such cases are very rare. However, f o r jet h e l i c o p t e r s with blade-tip engines, such f l u t t e r - u s u a l l y c a l l e d "bending f l u t t e r " - cons t i t u t e s a s e r i o u s danger. Subsection 8 of t h i s Section w i l l b e devoted t o an examination of t h i s type of f l u t t e r .
A s s t a t e d above, t h e e f f e c t of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade during f l u t t e r can be disregarded a t a value of t h e coefficient. CY < 0.4. - 0.5 (see I n t h e remaining cases, i n p a r t i c u l a r when t h e p i t c h control system Sect.l.4). has r e l a t i v e l y great r i g i d i t y , blade t o r s i o n cannot b e disregarded. This may r e s u l t i n a very l a r g e e r r o r ,
However, most of t h e presently constructed h e l i c o p t e r s have a c o e f f i c i e n t Therefore, i n Subsection 6, we w i l l s p e c i f i c a l l y study f l u t t e r with consideration of bending b u t without consideration of t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade. Such an approach l e a d s t o a considerable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations.

CY

< 0.4.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t o r s i o n a l s t r a i n s of a blade it i s important what method i s used f o r determining t h e torque due t o bending f o r c e s on t h e blade. I f t h e biade i s bent i n t h e flapping plane, t h e n t h e f o r c e Q applied t o t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n c r e a t e s torque on t h e a r m Ay r e l a t i v e t o t h e section, a t a r a d i u s r c l o s e r t o i t s r o o t (Fig.k.25). Likewise, when t h e blade i s bent i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n a similar torque on t h e a r m Ax i s created by t h e f o r c e T a c t i n g i n t h e 7,, flapping plane. I n calculating t h e twisting moments due t o bending f o r c e s on t h e blade, it i s important t o r e c a l l t h e f a c t t h a t t h e components of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l W f o r c e s r e l i e v i n g t h e blade i n 7 J bending a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e r generation of t w i s t i n g moments. If we c a l c u l a t e only t h e torque Fig.4.25 Diagram of t h e Occurrence of due t o e x t e r n a l bending f o r c e s on t h e blade, t h e value will be ! h i s t i n g Moments due t o Bending Forces on t h e Blade. much l a r g e r t h a n t h e a c t u a l torque, j u s t as t h e moment due only t o t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s bending t h e blade will be many times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e bending moment i n t h e blade section.

Y1

Let us examine a blade element of length d r , bent i n two mutually perpendic-

430

Equating t o zero t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l e x t e r n a l ular planes (Fig.k.26). f o r c e s relative t o t h e tangent t o t h e blade a x i s i n a section a t t h e r a d i u s r /398 and discarding a l l t e r m s of higher orders of smallness relative t o dry we obtain

or

I f , f o r simplicity, we assume t h a t t h e planes of m z u d " and mini" blade r i g i d i t y coincide with t h e planes of r o t a t i o n and flapping, then, having set

(6.3)
and we obtain
y"=-.
M Y
E ' Y

where I, and I, are t h e e l a s t i c moments of i n e r t i a of t h e blade s e c t i o n during bending i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and flapping plane. Equation (6.5) w a s f i r s t proposed f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s of a blade by V.N.Novak. It follows primarily from an examination of t h i s formula t h a t t h e torque

m o rper
ar
t o zero i f

u n i t length due t o t h e bending f o r c e s on t h e blade i s always equal

Jx=ly,

i.e.,

i f t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n and i n t h e flapping plane i s i d e n t i c a l .

Furthermore, by v i r t u e of t h e smallness of t h e bending moments M, and M y ( a s a consequence of load r e l i e v i n g b y c e n t r i f u g a l forces, t h e s e moments a r e by a f a c t o r of 8 - 1 2 l e s s t h a n t h e moments due t o t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade), t h e torque
aMtor

ar

per u n i t length w i l l b e q u i t e s m a l l i n a l l cases

even i f I, f I,. This conclusion i s highly important and r e s u l t s i n a general approach t o c a l c u l a t i n g torques and t o r s i o n a l deformations of a blade, as follows : I n each s e c t i o n o f t h e blade, we must determine t h e torque relative t o /399 t h e f l e x u r a l axis of t h e b l a d e i n t h e examined s e c t i o n due t o f o r c e s a c t i n g only i n t h i s section. Then, t h e s e l o c a l t w i s t i n g moments should b e summed with

431

Flapping plane

respect t o t h e blade length. Hence it follows i n p a r t i 6 u l a r t h a t t h e a r m s of t h e f o r c e s causing t h e t w i s t i n g moments of t h e b l a d e must remain constant r e g a r d l e s s of whether o r not t h e blade i s bent. With regard t o f l u t t e r calculations,

~4

it follows from t h i s conclusion t h a t t h e


P l a n e o f rotation

1My+dMY

torque per u n i t l e n g t h of t h e blade from c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s should be calculated by t h e formula

rL
\
M Y

.-

--

-r-

r a t h e r t h a n by t h e frequently used formulas of t h e t y p e

Fig.4.26 Diagram of Loading t h e Blade Element with Stresses i n Two Mutually Perpendicular Planes.

which holds t r u e o n l y f o r a blade with an i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t r i g i d i t y i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n .

3. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Binary Blade Vibration


Binary blade v i b r a t i o n s i n vacuum a r e examined i n Section 5, Chaoter I of Vol.11. I n studying b i n a r y v i b r a t i o n s i n a i r , we must a d d i t i o n a l l y t a k e i n t o account aerodynamic forces. Using t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of flexural [eq.(l.9)] and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s [eq.(5.6)] of a blade (see Chapt.1 of /r-coo Vol.11) and supplementing t h e s e with i n e r t i a terms of t h e couple and with aerodynamic f o r c e s expressed by eqs.(l.6) of t h i s Chapter, we o b t a i n a set of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s i n air:

my

+[ ~ / y " ] "- [ ~ y ' ] ' mi4 (6 . l o )

I,,,!- [GT$]'+w21,cp +"eb3(/++


16

432

These equations are w r i t t e n i n a form pertaining only t o disturbed motion of t h e blade. The p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n describing undisturbed steady motion of a blade w i l l not b e discussed here.

I n eqs.(6.10), we use t h e following designations: y = displacement of t h e blade element i n t h e flapping plane during disturbed motion o f t h e blade; cp = angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade element i n t h e same motion; m = mass of t h e blade element per unit length; I, = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade element per u n i t length r e l a t i v e t o t h e feathering hinge axis; GT = t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade; N = c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e blade section:
R

N =w2 r mrdr;
CT =

oc

d i s t a n c e from t h e center of g r a v i t y of t h e s e c t i o n t o t h e feathering hinge axis, with t h e d i r e c t i o n from t h i s a x i s t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge of t h e blade considered p o s i t i v e ; d i s t a n c e from t h e p r o f i l e aerodynamic center t o t h e feathering hinge a x i s .

D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect t o t h e blade r a d i u s i s denoted by a prime and with respect t o time by a dot.
cp,

To solve t h i s set of equations it i s convenient t o change from t h e variable which determines t h e t o t a l angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade element i n disturbed motion, . t o t h e v a r i a b l e 9 representing only t h e e l a s t i c angle of r o t a t i o n p by t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e blade and correlated with c
[p=

3- y o ,

where

y o ' = angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e flapping hinge;


u =

flapping compensator.

Let u s s u b s t i t u t e t h e expression f o r t h e angle cp i n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l This makes It possible t o equations of binary blade v i b r a t i o n [eq.(6.10)1. rewrite them i n a form more convenient f o r f u r t h e r transformation:

/ko1

( 6 . 1 1 )

433

..,-021mxyo -may - Zmxy0

-=
n

~ b ~ L / Xyo
.I

I n t h e presence of a horizontal flying speed of t h e helicopter, t h e relat i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow past t h e p r o f i l e will b e a periodic function of time , : and radius. This v e l o c i t y can be set approximately equal t o t h e v e l o c i t y U
Ux =or

+V sin w t .

(6.12)

Therefore, eqs.(d.ll) represent a system of p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with c o e f f i c i e n t s p e r i o d i c a l l y varying i n time. When t h e f l y i n g speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r V equals zero, t h e periodic coeffi6 . 1 1 ) become constant, independent of time. c i e n t s of t h e system ( For t h e examined t y p e of r o t o r s system, eq.(6.ll) boundary conditions: has t h e following

~o=[~~y"lo=.(M~+Mf,), M b =[GTS'],=c , 8 0 -M , ,,
where

(6.13)

bending moment i n t h e blade r o o t ; t w i s t i n g moment i n t h e blade r o o t ; = moment of f r i c t i o n i n t h e axial hinge of t h e hub; c,,, = r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system; zY0 = angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r o o t due t o deformations of t h e c o n t r o l system.
= =

MQ Mb Mfr

4. Solution of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations
The s o l u t i o n of t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (6.11) e set by using B.G.Galerkincs method. W can b e obtained

where y C J ) and
= =

6, and yk

modes of t h e n a t u r a l flexural and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n vacuum; c o e f f i c i e n t s of flexural and t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e

434

blade with respect t o t h e j-th flexural and k-th t o r s i o n a l harmonic of n a t u r a l vibration. The c o e f f i c i e n t s 6 , and yk are c e r t a i n functions of time. Since e q ~ ~ ( 6 . U ) are d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with periodic c o e f f i c i e n t s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6 j /rcoz and Y k should be functions of time of t h e type
6 , =B,,eaf (1

+T )

(6.15)

where t h e function T determines t h e content of harmonic o s c i l l a t i o n s during flutter


If, as before i n Section 5.4, we seek t h e solution with an accuracy l i m i t e d only by t h e fundamental frequency and disregard t h e e f f e c t of harmonic components, t h e n we can omit t h e periodic c o e f f i c i e n t s i n eq.(6.11).

Applying B.G.Galerkints method t o t h i s simplified system of equations, we obtain a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e v a r i a b l e s 6, and yk. I n m a t r i x form, t h i s system can be w r i t t e n a s before (Sect.2.5) as t h e equation

C X + D w k +(A +&B) X =O.


Here t h e v a r i a b l e X i s t h e vector function with projections 6, and

(6.16)
yk,

X=

(i)
,

i.e.,

(6.17)

.. .
while A, B, C, and D are rectangular matrices of t h e order z, where z i s t h e sum of t h e number of f l e x u r a l and t o r s i o n a l harmonics accounted f o r i n t h e calculation. Setting X of t h e form
=

X0dt i n eq.(6.16),

w e obtain a system of a l g e b r a i c equations

(6.18)
Let us then equate t h e determinant of t h i s system t o zero. The r e s u l t a n t algebraic equation r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknown parameter A' i s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation of t h e system (6.16). The r o o t s of t h i s equation completely charact e r i z e t h e blade motion described by t h e system (6.11). To determine t h e boundaries of f l u t t e r , we should set h = i p i n t h e charact e r i s t i c equation and f i n d t h e corresponding values of w and p. These values w i l l determine t h e parameters of t h e limits of t h e f l u t t e r zone.

435

A n a n a l y s i s of t h e r e s u l t s obtained from c a l c u l a t i b n s shows t h a t , i n t h e general case, each combination of t o r s i o n a l and flexural harmonics of blade vib r a t i o n s may correspond t o a zone of i n s t a b i l i t y w i t h o s c i l l a t i o n s having a mode i n which t h e content of t h e harmonics of t h i s combination predominate. However, with a c t u a l l y used blade parameters, a given f l u t t e r zone by no means corresponds t o each combination of harmonics. Thus, t h e number of f l u t t e r zones i s always smaller t h a n t h e number of combinations of flexural and t o r s i o n a l harmonics and can never b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e number of t h e s e combinations. For p r a c t i c a l purposes, an important point i s t h e d i r e c t dependence of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm on t h e frequency of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e t o r s i o n a l harmonic of t h e blade e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e combination i n question. Therefore, combinations involving only t h e f i r s t harmonic of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n /403 give t h e lowest values of c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm. All o t h e r combinations based on higher. t o r s i o n a l harmonics of t h e blade a r e of no p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t since t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm corresponding t o t h e s e zones i s always higher t h a n t h e operating range of i n t e r e s t here.

A l l forms of f l u t t e r , corresponding t o combinations of d i f f e r e n t flexural harmonics of t h e blade with t h e f i r s t harmonic of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade, w i l l be c a l l e d t h e p r i n c i p a l modes of f l u t t e r . Below, we w i l l b e int e r e s t e d only i n t h e p r i n c i p a l v i b r a t i o n modes since t h e s e modes of f l u t t e r have t h e lowest c r i t i c a l rpm and t h e r e f o r e a r e t h e only ones encountered i n practice.

5 Calculation of F l u t t e r with C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f
Three Degrees of Freedom

.,

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e above method, l e t u s examine i n greater d e t a i l t h e comput a t i o n a l formulas f o r t h e case where t h e v i b r a t i o n mode during f l u t t e r i s represented as combinations of t h e zero r and t h e first y flexural and f i r s t t o r s i o n a l harmonics.
The matrices entering eq.(6.16) w i l l b e of t h e t h i r d order i n t h i s case, and t h e vector function X w i l l have only t h r e e projections:

x=(

t).

The c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e matrices A, B, C, and D w i l l b e r e f e r r e d , as above, t o t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s I h a hL1, r and I1 standing f o r t h e higher d e r i v a t i v e of t h e variables:

R
0

Zl = my2dr.

436

Let us write out t h e expressions for t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e matrices:

a) I n e r t i a m a t r i x C:
'11
c12 c13

' 2 1 c22 c23 ''=(c31 '32 c33

where
Cll

)'
'

=1

-+- mor dr,


7 .

'hh

. Rc12 =

--I
'h.h

mor8 dr,

C2*=lr

c~~ =1

+-5 Po
11

may dr;
0

b ) Damping c o e f f i c i e n t m a t r i x D:

(6.22)

where

437

i f d,,

[see eq. (3.14) I. ~ L l m rr~ , c) S t i f f n e s s matrix A:


=

where
R

a22=4; =
4 3 =Pil.

ccon8 ;f
0

GT (8' )2 dr

4
Here, pa, i s t h e frequency of n a t u r a l f l e x u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e first harmonic of a nonrotating blade. d) Centrifugal and aerodynamic s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x B:

438

(6.26)
where

b33= k

c p 2Po
I1

br2ydr

1 +p2R2 b y d r ] ; 2 o

Here, k

-PJmrdr
I1
r

where B

= y'.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation for t h i s case w i l l have t h e following form:

439

Hence,

The r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (6.28) can be determined by means of any standard program a v a i l a b l e f o r d i g i t a l computers of any type. Such a program can include t h e operation of computing t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e charact e r i s t i c equation d i r e c t l y from t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of eq.( 6.16). I n t h i s case, eqs.(6.3) need not be used. The values of t h e angular v e l o c i t y w corresponding t o t h e l i m i t s of f l u t t e r can be obtained a l s o d i r e c t l y i f , i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (6.28), we set h = i p and equate t o zero t h e r e a l and imaginary p a s t s of t h e equation separately. The equations t h u s obtained w i l l have t h e following form:

I f , from t h e equation Lz(w, p) = 0, we determine p = f(w) and s u b s t i t u t e i n t o t h e equation L,(w, p) = 0, t h e n t h e points of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e obtained curve L1(w) = 0 w i t h t h e abscissa will correspond t o t h e limits of f l u t t e r .

6. Calculation-of. . F -l u.t. t-e.r,with Three . . . Degrees of


Freedom - - . .Disregarding . . .~ B1ad.e _ Torsion ..
~

A l l t h e formulas presented above a r e appreciably simplified i f we assume t h a t t h e r o t o r blade i s absolutely r i g i d i n torsion. It w a s noted above t h a t t h i s assumption i s v a l i d f o r a l l r o t o r s f o r which t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s appreciably higher t h a n t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e blade p i t c h c o n t r o l system. I n t h i s case, during t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s t h e blade elements r o t a t e m a i n l y as a consequence of deformations of t h e c o n t r o l system and, t o a l e s s e r degree, owing t o deformations of t h e blade i t s e l f .

Consideration of a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade with respect t o length l e a d s t o a minor change of c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s of eq.(6.18) This i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e [see eqs.(6.21), (6.23), and (6.27)]. magnitudes of t h e i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g t h e expressions of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined mainly by t h e blade t i p which i s subject t o l a r g e aerodynamic forces,

4 4 1

while t h e change i n t h e angle of r o t a t i o n 9 over t h e length of only t h e blade Therefore, t h e assumption of constancy of t h e angles of t i p i s insignificant. r o t a t i o n of t h e blade c r o s s s e c t i o n s over i t s length, i n many cases, w i l l not lead t o s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s . A t t h e same time, t h i s assumption appreciably s i m p l i f i e s a l l computations, s i n c e 9 = 1 and t h e r e i s no need t o decompose t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of each blade s e c t i o n i n t o 9 and uyd. The d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of motion f o r t h i s case can b e w r i t t e n i n t h e following manner :

(6.33)
+(~6-x0)U4R
--w2
0

mray'dr=O.

The v a r i a b l e cp here r e p r e s e n t s t h e t o t a l angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade relative t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge as a consequence of deformations of t h e control and as a r e s u l t of t h e kinematic a c t i o n of t h e flapping compensator. The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s system of equations, j u s t as f o r t h e s y s t e m (6.10), can be obtained by means of B.G.Galerkinfs method, i f we put

where cpa i s a function only of time and does not depend on t h e blade radius.

L e t us write out t h e computational formulas f o r t h e case where t h e vibrat i o n mode i n t h e flapping plane i s represented by means of only t h e zero r and t h e first y harmonics of t h e n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s . I n t h i s case, t h e coeff i c i e n t s of t h e matrices entering t h e equation of t h e form of eq.(6.16) can /409 b e determined by t h e following expressions:

a) I n e r t i a c o e f f i c i e n t m a t r i x C:

where

c,,=l;
I R ' c12= - J ma rdr;
Ih.h

cZ1= --jma 1
1a.h
Cz2=

rdt;

1;
1 Ia.h

c23= --

1maydr;
R

C32=

--s

maydr;
0

11

b ) Damping c o e f f i c i u n t m a t r i x D:

where

d, , =1 cue1 br3dr:
'h.b
R

443

. .. .. . .

._ ... - - .. .._ -

c)

Stiffness matrix A:

where

d) Centrifugal and aerodynamic stiffness matrix B :

where
b,, = 1;

b21= - f@,h

-. 1 ma r d r ;
R
0

s
R

1 b,, = - marpdr;
fa.b

r~

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equations for t h i s case w i l l have t h e sane form a s i n t h e preceding case [see eq.(6.28)1:
A6Ao

/4u

+h6aA1+1.'(02B1+B2)

+)b30

(02C1+

C?)

)?

(dD,+dD2

+D3)+

(6 042)

The values of t h e c r i t i c a l angular v e l o c i t i e s of a given case are determined by simultaneous s o l u t i o n of two equations obtained from eq.(6.42) i f we set A = i p , as i n t h e case of t h e blade e l a s t i c i n torsion.

7. Calculation Results
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t of f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y of a blade, Fig.4.27 gives t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm as a function of % c . g f o r a blade of mass constant over its length and with balancing. The curves a r e p l o t t e d f o r two values of flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade. The degree of r i g i d i t y i s characterized by t h e values of t h e frequency of n a t u r a l bending v i b r a t i o n s of t h e first harmonic of a nonrotating blade pol The cases i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e t h o s e of blades with t h e usual magnitude of flexural r i g i d i t y , a t = 0.3 ( s o l i d curve) and of pa, /p pol/ptw = 3.0 which corresponds t o a very r i g i d blade (broken curve).

Fig.4.27 C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r Rpm as a Function of Blade Balancing, f o r Two Values of i t s Flexural R i g i d i t y .

The share of bending i n t h e mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s during f l u t t e r can /k13 b e estimated from t h e r a t i o s 6,/6, p l o t t e d f o r a number of p o i n t s on t h e same graph. The q u a n t i t y 6,/6~ i s equal t o t h e r a t i o of t h e b l a d e t i p d e f l e c t i o n i n bending r e l a t i v e t o t h e shape of t h e f i r s t harmonic t o t h e displacement of t h e

4 . 4 6

t i p during v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade as a s o l i d body (shape of t h e zero harmonic)

It follows from t h e s e d a t a t h a t f o r a blade with constant m a s s and balancing over i t s length, consideration of f l e x u r a l deformations with respect t o t h e f i r s t harmonic does not g r e a t l y r e f i n e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s .
8 . Bending F l u t t e r

The r e s u l t s presented above cannot be extended t o a l l designs of r o t o r blades. I n i n d i v i d u a l cases, v i b r a t i o n s with primarily bending of t h e blade occur during f l u t t e r . This type of f l u t t e r i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d "bending f l u t t e r " . I n bending f l u t t e r , t h e blade v i b r a t e s i n t h e flapping plane with a mode close t o some harmonic of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade i n bending and i s twisted with respect t o a mode close t o t h a t of t h e f i r s t harmonic of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s i n t o r s i o n . A s already noted, f l u t t e r with modes of subsequent harmonics of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n t o r s i o n i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y also poss i b l e . However, t h e c r i t i c a l rpm of such f l u t t e r i s s e v e r a l times greater than t h e m a x i " r o t o r rpm.
The previously examined flapping f l u t t e r can b e regarded as a p a r t i c u l a r case of bending f l u t t e r i n which t h e blade v i b r a t e s with a mode close ' t o t h a t of t h e zero harmonic of n a t u r a l vibrat i o n s of t h e blade i n t h e flapping plane.

To each harmonic of bending vibrat i o n s of t h e blade t h e r e corresponds a separate f l u t t e r zone i n which t h e vib r a t i o n s are characterized by s p e c i f i c parameters inherent only t o t h i s zone. Blade v i b r a t i o n s with d i f f e r e n t modes of f l u t t e r may occur q u i t e independently. The mode of f l u t t e r having t h e lowest c r i t i c a l rpm i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e f i r s t t o be detected. Most often, t h i s form i s t h e flapping mode of f l u t t e r . However, we can mention a number of part i c u l a r cases i n which t h e c r i t i c a l rpm of some bending mode of f l u t t e r proved p m of t h e t o be below t h e c r i t i c a l r flapping mode. Fig.4.28 Variation of t h e Real and Imaginary P a r t s of t h e Roots of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Equation as a Funct i o n of Rotor Rpm.

* For

A s an example, l e t u s d i s c u s s f l u t t e r of a blade with t i p loading. This case i s of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t f o r j e t h e l i c o p t e r s with an engine i n s t a l l e d a t t h e blade tip36.

footnote see next page.

447

Figure 4.28 shows t h e change of t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t of t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (6.42) with r e s p e c t t o r o t o r rpm. The r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (6.42) w e r e calculated f o r a blade with a t i p loadi n g approximately equal t o t h e weight of t h e blade i t s e l f . Figure 4 . 2 8 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , i n t h i s case, t h e r e a r e two f l u t t e r zones; t h e f l u t t e r zone appearing f i r s t r e l a t i v e t o r o t o r rpm i s distinguished by a vibrat i o n mode having a high content of blade bending. Therefore, t h i s zone i s usuall y c a l l e d t h e zone of bending f l u t t e r .

It i s possible t o t r a c e t h e manner i n which t h e zone with t h e v i b r a t i o n /rc14 mode having an increasing share of bending with increasing t i p loading begins t o separate from t h e zone o f flapping f l u t t e r as t h e blade-tip loading gradually increases. A t c e r t a i n loading, t h e s e zones may separate i n t o two d i f f e r e n t f l u t t e r zones.
Figure 4.29 shows t h e f l u t t e r zone a t a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l t i p loading, equal approximately t o l/5 of t h e blade weight. I n t h i s case, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c form of t h e zone of f l a p p i n g f l u t t e r i s d i s t o r t e d and t h e second zone begins t o separ a t e from it. Figures 4.30 and

4 . 3 1

show t h e f l u t t e r zones f o r a blade with a t i p loading

equal t o 42% of t h e blade weight blade weight

(-- 0.42)
-

(*

: :
j j -

and approximately equal t o t h e

1.1).

I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e f l u t t e r zone separates i n t o

Gb

two d i f f e r e n t zones of flapping and bending f l u t t e r . Figures

4.29, 4.30, and 4 . 3 1 give t h e values of

so characterizing
61

t h e v i b r a t i o n mode on f l u t t e r and t h e q u a n t i t i e s f l u t t e r frequency t o r o t o r rpm:


P!h
"flu

5 representing

t h e r a t i o s of

It i s of i n t e r e s t t h a t t h e share of t h e flapping mode of v i b r a t i o n i n /rc16 t h e bending f l u t t e r remains r a t h e r l a r g e i n a l l cases, whereas t h e share of bending i n t h e flapping f l u t t e r may be almost completely absent i n c e r t a i n cases. It should be emphasized t h a t , f o r blades with t i p loading, t h e c r i t i c a l

rpm of bending f l u t t e r i s appreciably below t h e c r i t i c a l r p m of flapping f l u t t e r ,


and t h a t t h e r e i s a weak dependence of c r i t i c a l rpm on t h e blade balancing. This f a c t g r e a t l y complicates t h e problem of developing b l a d e s f o r j e t h e l i copters

The r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s given here ( i n Subsects.7 and 8) were obtained by. V . M .Pchelkin.

44g

Fig.4.29

F l u t t e r Zones with Blade Tip Loading Referred t o Blade Weight


GI - 0.20
0

Gb

G
I/> L

=Q42

Fig.4.30

F l u t t e r Zones with Blade Tip Loading Referred t o Blade Weight

- 0.42. Gb
G1o

4.49

Fig.4.31

F l u t t e r Zones with Blade Tip Loading Referred t o Blade Weight


*

Gl 0

Gb

- 1 . 1 .

9 Approximate,Method of Determining t h e Mode of Bending Vibrations i n F l u t t e r I f , i n t h e first equation o f t h e system (6.33), we d i s c a r d terms of blade v i b r a t i o n damping as w e l l as t h e s m a l l term m c @ , t h e n we can write t h i s equation i n t h e form

my
S e t t i n g approximately U

+[E/y"]"- [Ny']'

=- caQbU2y. .

"

(6.45)

w r , we can represent t h e s o l u t i o n i n t h e form

where

n l ui s

t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency of f l u t t e r .

The c a l c u l a t i o n s of bending f l u t t e r show t h a t t h e frequency p f l u can be approximately set equal t o the-frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade i n t o r s i o n and twist, i.e., p f l u = p t w .

W e assume t h a t

/rc17

where
6,
-( Y
J,

= =

c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformations; mode of . t h e j-th harmonic of t h e n a t u r a l blade vibration.

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(6.47) i n t o eq.(6.45) and applying B.G.Galerkints method, we o b t a i n expressions f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6, :

Here,

where

i s c a l l e d t h e equivalent m a s s of t h e blade during i t s v i b r a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e shape of t h e j-th harmonic.


y,
= =

pj

m a s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade during v i b r a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e same harmonic; frequency of t h e j - t h harmonic of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade i n bending; f o r t h e zero harmonic y"), we can s e t p~ = w.

It follows from eq.(6.48) t h a t t h e share of one or another harmonic of bending v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e mode of f l u t t e r depends primarily on two parameters: r e l a t i o n of f l u t t e r frequency and frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e corresponding harmonic, and magnitude of t h e i n t e g r a l A , .
For example, t h e share of t h e flapping v i b r a t i o n mode ( j = 0) i n t h e mode of f l u t t e r i s smaller, t h e higher t h e "harmonic" of f l u t t e r , i.e., t h e r a t i o of f l u t t e r frequency t o r o t o r rpm. Here, we should note t h a t since A b i s always g r e a t e r t h a n zero, i.e.,
1

A,
0

&,7d;>

0,

t h e n t h e flapping mode w i l l always be present i n t h e v i b r a t i o n mode during f l u t t e r . This conclusion i s r a t h e r important and i n d i c a t e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t it would be i n c o r r e c t t o c a l c u l a t e f l u t t e r of some v i b r a t i o n mode without cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e flapping mode. The content of t h e first-harmonic n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode i n bending increases as t h e frequencies of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s i n bending p1 and t h e frequency of f l u t t e r p r l u close t o t h e frequency of n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s i n

451

t o r s i o n are approached. However, i n t h i s case t h e magnitude of t h e i n t e g r a l A, i s very substantial:

The c a l c u l a t i o n of t h i s i n t e g r a l shows t h a t , f o r t h e vast majority of blades, t h i s i n t e g r a l i s c l o s e t o zero so t h a t t h e content of t h e first-harmonic n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode i n t h e v i b r a t i o n mode with t h e frequency p f l u i s q u i t e (418 s m a l l . This explains t h e r e l a t i v e l y rare appearance of bending f l u t t e r .

A q u i t e d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e a r i s e s when concentrated loads are mounted t o t h e blade t i p . The node of t h e shape of t h e f i r s t harmonic i n t h i s case s h i f t s toward t h e blade t i p and t h e absolute value of t h e i n t e g r a l A , begins t o increase. Correspondingly, t h i s causes an increase i n t h e content of t h e f i r s t harmonic i n t h e v i b r a t i o n mode with a frequency p f l u .
Having assumed approximately t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n mode during f l u t t e r can be calculated i n a form of eq.(6.47) where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e calculated by means of eq.(6.&8), we can develop a simplified c a l c u l a t i o n method f o r bending f l u t t e r . Section 7. General Method of Calculation of F l u t t e r gnd B e n d i n g o to r Blade during Flight
1 . Calculation Method and- . i.t s . Possibilities

A l l methods presented above f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f f l u t t e r were based on a number of assumptions which, i n many cases, it would b e d e s i r a b l e t o discard. These assumptions include t h e following:
1) I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of aerodynamic forces, t h e nonlinear dependence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k w a s disregarded. Consideration of t h i s dependence may have a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l r p and e s p e c i a l l y on t h e character of amplitude build-up of o s c i l l a t i o n s i n flutter. 2) I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s under conditions of forward f l i g h t , t h e flow compressibility w a s accounted f o r by introducing only values of c ; and xi averaged with respect t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. Under conditions of forward f l i g h t t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s p e r i o d i c a l l y change with r e s p e c t t o r o t o r azimuth, which may have a noticeable e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm.

3) Consideration of t h e f o r c e s of f r i c t i o n i n t h e feathering hinge, which as i s known - have a strong e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm, w a s q u i t e a r b i t r a r i l y done, by l i n e a r i z a t i o n of t h e s e forces.

I n t h i s Section, we w i l l derive a method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bending and t w i s t i n g (binary) blade v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t , which permits discarding t h e s e assumptions. This method 'makes it possible t o determine t h e

45 2

bending stresses a c t i n g on t h e blade i n t h e absence of r o t o r f l u t t e r and a t s t a b l e blade vibrations. If f l u t t e r i s possible i n t h e operating regime of t h e r o t o r under consideration, then c a l c u l a t i o n by t h i s method permits determining t h e process of divergent blade v i b r a t i o n s and t h u s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e phenomenon of f l u t t e r . The c a l c u l a t i o n method i s based on t h e approximate s o l u t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade vibration. I n t h i s case, B.G.Galerkints method i s used f o r determining t h e form of blade deformations a t some i n s t a n t of time, while t h e method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations i s applied f o r determining t h e o v e r a l l process of blade motion with respect t o time. B.G.Galerkints method permits transforming t h e system of p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations i n t o a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations and t o use numerical i n t e g r a t i o n f o r solving t h i s transformed system.
A s applied t o s t r e s s analysis, t h e method permits accounting f o r t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bending s t r e s s e s i n t h e flapping plane. Under t h e e f f e c t of constant and v a r i a b l e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s i n f l i g h t , t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade i s twisted through some angle .9 w h i c h . i s time-variant and /41q d i f f e r s with respect t o blade length. Torsional deformations of t h e blade change t h e angle of a t t a c k of i t s sections, which i n t u r n l e a d s t o t h e generat i o n of a d d i t i o n a l constant and v a r i a b l e aerodynamic forces. These a u x i l i a r y f o r c e s must b e taken i n t o consideration when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bending s t r e s s e s of t h e blade. I f t h i s i s not done, good agreement between c a l c u l a t i o n and experimental d a t a i s q u i t e impossible.

When applied t o f l u t t e r calculations, t h e proposed method i s not t o o convenient i n p r a c t i c a l application, since it does not permit an exact numerical determination of t h e parameters characterizing t h e l i m i t of f l u t t e r . The f l u t t e r limit can be established only i n f i r s t approximation by v i s u a l inspection of curves describing t h e blade motion f o r parameters close t o t h i s l i m i t ; s i m i l a r l y , it i s impossible t o determine, with t h e required accuracy, t h e margins of f l u t t e r based on parameters used i n p r a c t i c e f o r evaluating t h e r o t o r from t h e s a f e t y angle. The described method b a s i c a l l y permits only a determination whether or not f l u t t e r occurs i n t h e f l i g h t regime under consideration and a des c r i p t i o n of i t s evolution. Nevertheless, t h e method has a number of important advantages i n comparison with methods t h a t use t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation and generally inv e s t i g a t e f l u t t e r only i n a l i n e a r array. It i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine any other method which would permit such a complete and accurate consideration of a l l nonl i n e a r dependences, both i n t h e magnitudes of aerodynamic f o r c e s and i n determining f r i c t i o n forces, as i s offered by t h i s method i n combination with numeric a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e equations with respect t o time. Consideration of t h e s e dependences i s highly important f o r f l u t t e r calculations. Therefore, it i s preferably used i n control t e s t s and check calculations, a f t e r determining t h e f l u t t e r parameters by means of t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation.
O f great importance l o r p r a c t i c a l use i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s method, without excessive complication of t h e calculation, permits considering t h e e l a s t i c couple between blades through t h e automatic p i t c h control, even a t d i f f e r e n t r i g i d i t y of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l controls. Without consideration of

453

t h i s couple, a c a l c u l a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l deformations claim t o accuracy.

yf

t h e blade cannot lay

2. Basic Assumpt-ions and Suggestions . .

To d e r i v e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of motion o f t h e blade, l e t us examine t h e conventional type of r o t o r with i n d i v i d u a l hinge attachment of each blade t o t h e hub and with c o n t r o l through t h e swashplate. I n determining t h e angles of twist of t h e blades as a consequence of deformation of t h e c o n t r o l system, we w i l l consider t h a t t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l control loops differ. W e will consider deformations of a l l c o n t r o l loops of both c y c l i c and c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l including deformation of t h e swashplate, which i s necessary when e x t e r n a l f o r c e s generated by t h e r o t o r b l a d e s are locked on t h e p l a t e.
The motion of an i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r blade w i l l b e considered t o consist of flapping and bending v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e t h r u s t plane and of t o r s i o n a l vibrations, both due t o deformation of t h e blade and of t h e c o n t r o l system and t o t h e kinematic a c t i o n of t h e swashplate and flapping compensator. A s above, we will disregard blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . With respect t o blade design, l e t us use t h e following s t i p u l a t i o n s : L e t us consider t h a t t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s r e c t i l i n e a r and coincides with t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis. The plane of least r i g i d i t y of t h e blade will b e assumed t o coincide with t h e flapping plane, i.e., with t h e plane going through t h e axis of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r and perpendicular t o t h e axis of t h e flapping hinge. The flexural deformations of t h e blade w i l l be determined i n /Icx) t h i s plane. The r o t o r blade w i l l be considered as a beam with t h e parameters continuously d i s t r i b u t e d over i t s length.

3. Different i a l - Q u a t ions With consideration of t h e above s t i p u l a t i o n s , t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v i b r a t i o n can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following form:

where y
cp
= = =

m I, EI

=
=

GTt,

displacement of p o i n t s of t h e e l a s t i c a x i s of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r s ; angle between t h e p r o f i l e chord and plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ; mass of t h e blade per u n i t length; moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade per u n i t length r e l a t i v e t o i t s f l e x u r a l axis; flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade; t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y or twist of t h e blade;

454

o
w

r
N

= =

distance from t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade t o t h e centers of g r a v i t y of i t s elements, with t h e s h i f t of t h e c.g. towasd t h e t r a i l i n g edge of t h e blade considered as p o s i t i v e ; angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ; d i s t a n c e from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n t o t h e examined blade element; c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e blade section: N =w2

J mrdr;
r

IP

W , , , ,

= =

aerodynamic load per u n i t length i n t h e flapping plane; aerodynamic torque per u n i t length relative t o t h e flexural axis.

The method of determining t h e aerodynamic loads w i l l be described i n Subs e c t i o n 6. The d o t s i n eqs.(7.l) denote d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h . r e s p e c t t o time and t h e primes, with respect t o t h e blade radius. I n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e function cp with respect t o t h e r a d i u s we should not introduce t h e geometric t w i s t of t h e blade i n t o t h e value of CD', assuming t h a t cp' = 8 ' where 8 i s t h e e l a s t i c angle of t w i s t of t h e blade.

4. Boundary CondLtions of t h e Problem


~

-.

.. ~

For t h e type of r o t o r s discussed here, t h e bo'mdary conditions i n t h e blade root can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

(7.2)

where
M e = bending moment i n t h e blade r o o t ; M b = exbernal torque r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis due t o

x mh z[EIf'X
N

= = =

Mfr =

ce 9 =

y =

f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade, with t h e pitching moment considered as p o s i t i v e ; flapping compensator; m a s s of t h e helicopter without blades; /421 s u m of f o r c e s s t r i k i n g t h e h e l i c o p t e r hub from a l l r o t o r b l a d e s ( t h e index N denotes t h e blade numeral); moment of f r i c t i o n a c t i n g on t h e blade i n t h e feathering hinge from t h e s i d e of t h e r o t o r hub, with t h e pitching moment considered as p o s i t i v e ; equivalent r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system reduced t o t h e axial hinge of t h e hub ( t h e method of determining t h i s r i g i d i t y w i l l b e given i n Subsect.5); angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade root i n t h e axial hinge of t h e hub, as a consequence of deformations of t h e c o n t r o l system.

455

I n deriving t h e s e boundary conditions, f r i c t i o n w a s taken i n t o account only i n t h e axial hinge of t h e hub loaded by c e n t r i f u g a l forces. Usually, we can disregard f r i c t i o n i n t h e other hinges of t h e hub and of t h e c o n t r o l system. With a s u f f i c i e n t degree of accuracy, t h e second boundary condition of eq.(7.2) can be replaced by t h e condition
y o = 0.

(7.3)

5. Determination

o f Equivalent Rigid&

~~~

of- the. -_ Co&rol_ -. System . -

To use t h e t h i r d boundary condition, we must determine t h e magnitude of t h e equivalent r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system c e q . This value can be determined i f t h e angles of twist yN of a l l z b blades of t h e r o t o r i n t h e axial hinge of t h e hub are known. The angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e N-th blade of t h e r o t o r yN i s r e l a t e d with t h e deformations of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l loops by formulas derived previously [see eq.(4.9) I:
yN=yc.p +Yx

sinqL$))SyzCOS $ ~ ~ $ y ~ ~ ) y

(7.4)

where N

0, 1 , 2, 3,

..., z b - 1.
(7.4) y i e l d s t h e following expressions f o r i t s un-

Solution of t h e system

h-mwn

Yc.p,

Yx, Yz,

and

Yip;;:

The magnitude of t h e hinge moment a c t i n g on t h e blade from t h e c o n t r o l can b e expressed i n terms of r i g i d i t y and deformations of t h e corresponding c o n t r o l cab l e s

where c g a P , c,, c,, and c a a P a r e t h e r i g i d i t i e s of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h control, l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l controls, and swashplate, respectively, reduced t o t h e axial hinge of t h e blade.

If we represent t h e magnitude of t h e hinge moment due t o t h e control i n

/422

456

t h e n t h e equivalent c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y can be determined by t h e formula

where t h e vinculum denotes t h a t t h e given magnitude of t w i s t p e r t a i n s t o t h e value YN.

6. Determination of Aerodynamic . . Forces


To solve a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (7.l), it i s necessary t o determine t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s and torque entering t h e equation.

It i s known t h a t , during flow past t h e blade p r o f i l e i n f l i g h t , t h e angles of a t t a c k of i t s s e c t i o n s may vary w i t h i n wide l i m i t s , even t o t h e extent t h a t on t h e r e t r e a t i n g blade - t h e flow passes over i t s root p a r t s from t h e s i d e of t h e t r a i l i n g edge. Flow-separation conditions occur a t t h e blade t i p i n c e r t a i n regimes. A t high f l y i n g speeds and a t appreciable peripheral r a t e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , t h e e f f e c t of flow compressibility has a considerable influence on t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic forces. Therefore, a determination of aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade should t a k e i n t o account t h e nonl i n e a r dependence of t h e aerodynamic Coefficients on t h e angle of a t t a c k CY and t h e Mach nymber. Correspondingly, t h e expressions f o r determining t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s should be w r i t t e n with consideration of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a wide change i n t h e angle3 of a t t a c k . A t t h e same time, we can make use of t h e genera l l y employed assumption of smallness of t h e displacements y and angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade sections cp. Therefore, t o determine t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s t h e following expressions can be used:

%Raor=xoT
where cy and c, m,
=

+-

1 2

eb(nzbU

b2i)U,

p =

xo
U,

= =
=

and U ,

aerodynamic lift and drag c o e f f i c i e n t s ; torque c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e p r o f i l e , with c y , c,, and m, determined from t h e r e s u l t s of downwash exposure a s a function of t h e s e c t i o n angle of a t t a c k CY and M; a i r density; blade chord i n t h e examined section; distance from t h e leading edge t o t h e flexural axis of t h e blade; mutually perpendicular r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y components of t h e flow i n a plane normal t o t h e e l a s t i c a x i s of t h e blades, with U, being p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane of r o t a t i o n o f t h e r o t o r and U, perpendicular t o U,;

457

t o t a l magnitude of t h e relative v e l o c i t y of flow past a p r o f i l e i n a plane normal t o t h e e l a s t i c a x i s of t h e blade.

The magnitude of t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y U can be determined i n terms of i t s components

/423

where

U,=ot+ V cos uhsinqhb;

U , =OR)\ -y - V cos ahcos qbp.


Here, t i p speed of t h e blade; f l y i n g speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ; CY,, = angle of a t t a c k of t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r i n t h e s h a f t axes, i.e., angle between d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t and plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o tor ; Jlb = azimuth angle of t h e blade; y = angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c axis of t h e blade i n t h e flapping plane; h = v e l o c i t y of flow through t h e r o t o r r e f e r r e d t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l blade t i p speed wR, with t h e d i r e c t i o n of h coinciding with t h e axis of t h e r o t o r s h a f t ; when t h e flow passes through t h e r o t o r f r o m t h e bottom up, A i s considered positive.
=

wR

f3 =

The relative v e l o c i t y of flow i s determined by t h e formula

where

Here, v i n d i s t h e induced p a r t of t h e v e l o c i t y of flow, a l s o r e f e r r e d t o wR. The induced v e l o c i t y vlnd i s a v a r i a b l e with respect t o t h e r o t o r d i s k area and t o time. I n a number of f l i g h t regimes, t h e v a r i a b l e p a r t of t h e induced v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s s o much as t o l e a d t o t h e occurrence of appreciable v a r i a b l e stresses i n t h e blade (see Sect .8, Chapt.1 of Vol.11). To determine s t r e s s e s i n t h e blade with consideration of t h e v a r i a b l e f i e l d of induced v e l o c i t i e s , it, i s suggested t o use t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method which involves c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s . I f we limit ourselves t o a consideration of only t h e constant component of t h e induced velocity, t h e n i t s value can be determined from t h e formula

(7.14)

where

voav and ho,,


C,

components of t h e induced v e l o c i t y and flow-brough vel o c i t y , constant with respect t o t h e azimuth and average with respect t o t h e r a d i u s of t h e blade; t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e rotor:

7 eF @R)2
Here,

Trot F

= =

rotor thrust; r o t o r area.

The angle of a t t a c k of t h e blade sections, needed t o determine t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s , can b e calculated as


a=cp+Q,

where
c p = angle of s e t t i n g of t h e blade p r o f i l e ; @ = angle of inflow:

/424

time.

The angle of s e t t i n g c p i s a v a r i a b l e with respect t o both blade r a d i u s and It c o n s i s t s of two parts:

where

ll
8

angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e feathering hinge as a consequence of t h e kinematic a c t i o n of t h e swashplate and t h e flapping compensator, including a l s o t h e geometric twist of t h e blades; angle of e l a s t i c twist of t h e blade, with t h e angle 8 determined by solving t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (7.1).

The angle ll i s determined by t h e expression:

Here,
=

and

= =

pa

angle of s e t t i n g of some blade s e c t i o n taken as t h e point of reference a t Bo = 0; t h i s angle i s usually c a l l e d t h e "indicator" angle of s e t t i n g s i n c e i t s value i s o f t e n given on t h e instrument panel of t h e p i l o t ; geometric twist of t h e blade; angles of c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l caused by t i l t i n g of t h e swashplate; angle of r o t a t i o n o f t h e blade i n t h e flapping hinge.

The Mach number, a l s o needed for determining t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s ,

459

i s calculated by t h e formula

ME-U
a,

where a g o i s t h e speed of sound.

Thus, eqs.(7.1) together with eq.(7.9) make up a set of p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with c o e f f i c i e n t s representing complex nonlinear functions of variables.

7. Method of Solving t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations


The method of solving eqs.(7.1) most convenient f o r p r a c t i c a l use a t t h e present s t a t e of t h e art of computer technology i s t h e method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e equations of blade motion with respect t o time, i n which t h e blade deformations a r e determined by B.G.Galerkin* s method. I n t h e formulation of t h e problem adopted here, t h i s method permits obtaining t h e most accurate results. I n determining t h e bending s t r a i n of a blade, it i s n a t u r a l t o represent t h e s o l u t i o n by means of functions which a r e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e hinged blade i n vacuum. The p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r i g i d i t y and m a s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s over t h e blade length and t h e boundary conditions of t h e problem have already been covered by such functions. W e set (7.21)

mode of t h e j-th harmonic of n a t u r a l blade bending v i b r a t i o n s ; c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation with respect t o t h e j-th harmonic. I n determining t h e t o r s i o n a l s t r a i n , c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e produced /rc25 by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e deformations of the c o n t r o l s vary s u b s t a n t i a l l y , depending on t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n i n t h e axial f e a t h e r i n g hinge and on f o r c e s generated a t t h e swashplate by t h e t o t a l i t y o f r o t o r blades. The r e l a t i o n s between t h e twist of t h e blade r o o t and of a l l i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s a l s o vary, depending on t h e conditions of t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e f a c t o r s . To t a k e t h i s i n t o account, we must introduce some a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e i n t o t h e calculation. Let us study t h i s problem i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . To determine t o r s i o n a l deformations by t h e Galerkin method, j u s t as i n determining bending deformations, it i s l o g i c a l t o use t h e modes of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n vacuum. Here we can use various systems of eigenfunctions, d i f f e r i n g by t h e boundary conditions i n t h e attachment of t h e blade a t t h e root. The s o l u t i o n t o eqs.(y.l) i s simplest i f we a s s i g n t h e blade twist by means of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n modes, determined f o r a blade represented as a beam with a fixed value of t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s a t t h e point of attachment This method of s o l u t i o n i s q u i t e common i n practice. However, (Fig.4.32a).

460

h e r e t h e problem b a s i c a l l y reduces t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n s of an isol a t e d blade, s i n c e t h e use of t h e indicated modes precludes t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of accounting f o r t h e e l a s t i c couple between t h e blades through t h e swashplate. The e f f e c t of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n i n t h e axial hinge of t h e hub cannot b e f u l l y covered, Actually, t h e e l a s t i c t w i s t of t h e blade root i s determined by t h e magnitudes of t h e moments a c t i n g on t h e c o n t r o l system; fythermore, t h e magnitude of t h e s e moments a t known moments due t o t h e blade M b depends on t h e d i r e c t i o n and magnitude of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n :

M!Ai

Therefore, blade t w i s t a t t h e root, and consequently t h e connection between t h e twist of a l l s e c t i o n s of t h e blade length, a r e r e l a t e d with t h e magnitude of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n . This e f f e c t cannot be accounted f o r i f t h e indicated connection between t h e twis-Ls i s fixed by v i b r a t i o n modes used i n t h e calculation.

It follows from t h e foregoing t h a t t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n method should be considered i n v a l i d as applied t o r e a l helicopters. It can be used only i n indiv i d u a l - r a r e l y encountered - p a r t i c u l a r cases.
To t a k e i n t o account t h e couple between blades through t h e swashplate and t h e e f f e c t of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge, we could use a system of functions representing t h e modes of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n t h e form of a f r e e beam unattached a t t h e r o o t ( s e e Fig.k.3Zb). However, owing t o t h e discrepancy of boundary conditions, t h e use of such funct i o n s might lead t o a s o l u t i o n of only an approximate type. Actually, t h e modes of t o r s i o n a l deformations t h u s obtained w i l l s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r from t h e r e a l modes. This d i f f e r e n c e w i l l be e s p e c i a l l y pronounced i n twist of t h e r o o t port i o n s o f t h e blade where, f o r a f r e e beam, t h e torque diagram drops t o zero,

All t h e s e considerations n e c e s s i t a t e applying a nonorthogonal system of functions t o t h i s problem, as shown i n Fig.4.32~. I n t h i s case, t h e twist of t h e blade can be represented i n t h e form

where k Here,

1, 2,

... .
/426

yo = angle of t w i s t of t h e blade as a consequence of deformation of

a")

yt,, =

t h e c o n t r o l system; mutually orthogonal modes of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a blade r i g i d l y fixed a t t h e r o o t ; unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade.

8 ' IC),

Thus, t h e blade twist i s represented by a system of orthogonal functions supplemented by a function 8"' = 1 nonorthogonal t o t h i s system. Equation (7.23) can b e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

461

where k

0, 1 , 2.

This form of representing t h e blade t w i s t c r e a t e s c e r t a i n complications i n t h e calculation, produced by t h e nonorthogonality of t h e functions 8 ' k, Nevert h e l e s s , we must put up with t h e s e complications i n order t o account f o r a l l of t h e above highly important f a c t o r s .
Beam w i t h e l a s t i c a t tachnent

F r e e beam

Bean w i t h r i g i d attachment

Fig.4.32

Modes of Natural Torsional Vibrations o f a Beam with Various Attachments.

8 . !&ansformation of P a r t i a l D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations i n t o Ordinary D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations


~

Having represented t h e s o l u t i o n of system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (7.1) i n t h e form of eqs.(7.21) and (7.;?rc), l e t u s apply t h e Galerkin method. For t h i s , l e t u s twice d i f f e r e n t i a t e eqs.(7.21) and (7.24) and s u b s t i t u t e them, together with t h e i r second derivatives, i n t o eqs.( 7.1). The second d e r i v a t i v e s from eqs.(7.21) form: (7.25) and (7.24) w i l l have t h e following

TABLE L.1

k22

k23

c2o

c21

'

c22

k32

k33

c30

(731

R =2
I

C2n

W e t h e n multiply t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system ( 7 . 1 ) by y'j' and t h e /k28 second by d k )and i n t e g r a t e a l l terms with respect t o t h e blade radius. The boundary conditions (7.2) should b e accounted f o r i n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n . This ope r a t i o n transforms t h e system of p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations i n t o a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e new v a r i a b l e s 6, and y t w

For p r a c t i c a l purposes, it i s highly important what number of v a r i a b l e s 6, and y+ i s used i n t h e calculation. Experience has shown t h a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y complete answer can be obtained i f t h e bending s t r a i n s a r e represented by means of t h e first four harmonics of t h e n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n and t h e t o r s i o n a l s t r a i n s by two o r - i n t h e extreme case - by t h r e e harmonics. Thus, t h e problem of bending and t w i s t i n g v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r b l a d e can be solved with t h e use, i n any case, of seven independent variables. W e will r e s t r i c t t h e f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n t o t h i s number of variables.
The system of ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations obtained from a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e Galerkin method i s ' w r i t t e n out i n t h e form of a t a b l e ( s e e Table.4.1).

All equations of t h i s system represent t h e sum of t h e products of c e r t a i n constant c o e f f i c i e n t s and t h e unknown functions 6, and y t w and t h e i r second derivatives. I n Table 4.1, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s p e r t a i n i n g t o one equation occupy one row. The known constants t h a t do not change during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a r e w r i t t e n out i n t h e squares of t h e t a b l e .
The independent v a r i a b l e s 6, and yt,, and t h e i r second d e r i v a t i v e s , entering simultaneously a l l equations of t h e system, are extended with respect t o t h e v e r t i c a l i n a s p e c i a l row i n t h e upper p a r t of Table 4.1. The right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations are extended i n a s p e c i a l column next t o t h e t a b l e of constants. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations of t h e system ( s e e T a b l e 4.1) are determined a f t e r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e modes and frequencies of t h e n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s i n bending and torsion. A s s t a t e d above, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t o r s i o n a l frequencies a blade r i g i d l y fixed at t h e r o o t i s used.
A number of c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined d i r e c t l y during t h i s calculation. This concerns primarily t h e frequencies of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of a r o t a t i n g blade i n bending pJ and i n t o r s i o n % , and a l s o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t o which t h e m a s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade enter:

After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e modes and frequencies, we determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t o which simultaneously e n t e r t h e d a t a obtained from c a l c u l a t i n g t h e blade i n bending and i n t o r s i o n . These are t h e following coefficients:

464

The second, t h i r d , and f o u r t h terms i n t h e s e expressions are small i n comparison with t h e f i r s t and can be neglected. A t i f j , t h e f i r s t t e r m s of eqs.(7.27) vanish by v i r t u e of t h e orthogonality of t h e functions Y ' ~ ' and y ' j ) , and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k,, and aiJ can be assumed as approximately equal t o zero, i.e., k,,sO;

aij=0.
N e x t , t h e coupling c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined whose value depends mainly on t h e blade balancing

At j

1 , we have

The t e r m s on t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e system of equations ( s e e T a b l e a r e determined by means of t h e following expressions:

4 . 1 )

465

Here, : I

= QOIk

1~ , h p , ~ : . a ( k ) d r .
0

The first terms of eqs.(7.29) are t h o s e determining t h e value of t h e coeffic i e n t s A , and Bk. The following terms a r e small and can be neglected.

9. Determination o f t h e Magnitude of t h e Moment of. Friction-in t h e


Feathering Hinge of t h e Hub During t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e equations ( T a b l e 4.11, t h e magnitude of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n can b e obtained from t h e values of t h e t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade determining t h e e x t e r n a l torque i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge and from t h e d i r e c t i o n o f blade r o t a t i o n i n t h i s hinge. I n s o doing, t h e magnit u d e of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n should b e determined by a d i f f e r e n t method, depending on which i s greater i n absolute value: t h e e x t e r n a l torque i n t h e feathering hinge Mhi o r t h e maximum possible moment of f r i c t i o n M i , . The e x t e r n a l torque i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge i s determined by t h e formula

/4.30

where k Here,
M,,,

0, 1 ,2 , 3, Mb ceqyo
= =

... .

&'"I=

hinge moment due t o f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade; moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge due t o t h e c o n t r o l system; i n conformity with t h i s n o t a t i o n t h e pitching moment due t o t h e control i s considered as p o s i t i v e j u s t as i n eqs.(7.6), (7.71, and (7.22); magnitude of t h e hinge moment i n b l a d e deformations with respect t o t h e mode of t h e k-th harmonic of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade i n t o r s i o n .

Modes of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n normalized i n some manner, f o r example, by t h e quantity 8 ; ' ) = 1, w i l l now b e discussed., Here, we assume t h a t
M(O)= - c
b

e4

The magnitude of t h e maximum possible moment of f r i c t i o n M x :! i s usually determined experimentally i n t h e laboratory. I f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n i n t h e bearing f i s known, t h e n t h i s magnitude can be determined by t h e formula
h l ? " =fNo&,

where

NQ
rbe

= =

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e bearing of t h e axial hinge; r a d i u s of t h i s bearing.

I f IMhi < IM;,"" then Mi, i n g hinge does not turn, and & immediately 90 and yo

1,

= -Mh1 *

&

I n t h i s case, t h e blade i n t h e feather0. This condition permits determining

436

10. Sequence __ - .

of

Performing - --_ t h e Calculation

The system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (see Table 4.1) i s w r i t t e n here i n a form such t h a t i t s s o l u t i o n i s conveniently found by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h respect t o time. During t h i s i n t e g r a t i o n , mainly t h e right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations w i l l change. A l l c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations remain unchanged during t h e calculation, with t h e exception of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ce P whose magnitude i s recalculated a t each i n t e g r a t i o n step. The numerical s o l u t i o n of t h e system ( s e e Table 4.1). a l s o r e p r e s e n t s t h e b a s i c p a r t of t h e method of c a l c u l a t i n g b i n a r y blade v i b r a t i o n s presented here. The c a l c u l a t i o n of blade v i b r a t i o n by t h i s method i s carried out i n t h e following sequence :
1) Calculate t h e modes and frequencies of n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s i n vacuum. For c a l c u l a t i o n by t h i s method, it i s necessary t o determine t h e f i r s t four harmonics of flexural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade, including t h e so-called zero harmonic of v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade as a s o l i d body, and t h e f i r s t two harmonics of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a blade r i g i d l y fixed a t t n e root. From res u l t a n t v i b r a t i o n modes, determine t h e constant c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e system of /431 In' t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations ( s e e Table 4.1). equations, a l l t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s remain unchanged with t h e exception of t h e coe f f i c i e n t c, p whose determination i s described i n Subsection 5.
2) Select t h e parameters of t h e f l i g h t regime p , w, p, a h , which t h e bending and t w i s t i n g v i b r a t i o n s must be calculated.

e ,

el, e2

in

Usually, t h e s e parameters are taken from an aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r o t o r and from c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e balancing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . However, another more n a t u r a l method can be used. The c a l c u l a t i o n method presented here can be used as a method of aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n and c a l c u l a t i o n of balancing, by adding a number of simple operations. The values of ah and can be obtained from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i f t h e values of t h r u s t and propulsive , necessary f o r f u l f i l l i n g t h e f l i g h t f o r c e of t h e r o t o r and t h e angles 81 and 8 regime a r e prescribed and i f t h e moments on t h e hub necessary f o r balancing of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are determined.

3) A t t h e i n i t i a l i n s t a n t of time, which i s u s u a l l y r e l a t e d with t h e azimuth angle gb = 0, a s s i g n a r t i t r a r y values of t h e v a r i a b l e s and t h e i r first To account f o r t h e coupling between t h e b l a d e s d e r i v a t i v e s 6, , ytr, 6, and yt,, through t h e swashplate, t h e s e values are assigned f o r a l l zb blades of t h e r o t o r .

4 ) Determine t h e magnitudes of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s necessary for calculation:

467

i=i

+x
k

I
I

where t h e value of I ) i s determined by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of eq.(7.19):


q-=

--e1

cosqb+-e2 sin +,-&.

Here,

60

= E i3f3&j
3

5) From eqs.(7.10), (7.11), and (7.12), determine t h e v e l o c i t y of flow past t h e p r o f i l e and i t s components, and d e r i v e t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e s e c t i o n s Use eq.(7.X)) f o r determining t h e Mach number. from eq.(7.16).
6) From t h e p o l a r s of t h e p r o f i l e fed i n t o t h e computer together with t h e i n i t i a l data, determine t h e values of cx, cy, and m,. After t h i s , making use of eqs.(7.9), c a l c u l a t e t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s per u n i t length T and t h e t o r s i o n a l moments Sn ,

7) From t h e known values of T and n,,, determine t h e terms A, and e n t e r i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations ( s e e Table 4.1).
8) To determine t h e value of ceq it i s necessary t o know t h e values of t f o r a l l zb blades of t h e r o t o r . I n blade twist i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge yoN) t h i s case, ceq i s determined by t h e method presented i n Subsection 5.

9) Determine t h e value and s i g n of t h e moment of f r i c t i o n Mi, i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge ( s e e Subsect .9).


After t h i s , derive a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equations ( s e e Table 4.1) and start with t h e solution.

10) The system of equations ( s e e Table 4.1) permits determining a l l values of i , and ;it,, i f 6,, y t w and t h e right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations A, and B, are known a t t h e azimuth $b i n question. This f a c t permits i t s use i n t h e /432 c a l c u l a t i o n program i n t h e form of some operator of t h e type

..

..
Y,

61, y t w = w 1 *

,+J.

(7.34)

After applying t h i s operator, determine t h e values i n s t a n t of time.

g3

and .;it,, at t h e i n i t i a l

l l ) The change t o t h e next i n s t a n t of time can b e accomplished by means of various methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations.

Good r e s u l t s are obtained by a system of formulas i n which t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e i n s t a n t of time t t o t h e time t + A t i s accomplished by two checks. This system of formulas i s i l l u s t r a t e d f o r t h e example of determining t h e values The index pertaining t o t h e number of t h e harmonic i s of t h e v a r i a b l e 6 , . omitted f o r simplicity. F i r st check:
&:+At =8t

+ A t i t $-I

Atfit;

i:+At = i t

..I
Determination of

+A t i f ;
(&:+Atr

't+Af=

yf+Al, $ t + A t ) .

Xav:
(7.35)

Second check:

The values of 6;: A t , At, 'dt: At obtained as a r e s u l t of r e c a l c u l a t i o n a r e considered f i n a l for t h e i n s t a n t of t i m e t + A t . Operations analogous t o eq.(7.35) a r e performed on t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t o r s i o n a l deformations. The change-over t o t h e next i n s t a n t of time i s t h u s accur a t e l y accomplished.
A simpler method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n can be proposed. presented i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Vol.11.

This will b e

1 2 ) The type of problem investigated i s important f o r t h e sequence of calculation. I f it i s a question of determining t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r o t o r f l u t t e r , t h e n t h e process of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n must b e c a r r i e d out simultaneously f o r a l l r o t o r blades and t h e value of coq must be determined a t each i n s t a n t of time. The coupling between blades through t h e swashplate i s taken i n t o account by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e quantity c, 9. I f t h e question of i n v e s t i g a t i n g f l u t t e r i s not r a i s e d and only stresses i n t h e blade are being determined, t h e problem i s greatl y simplified. I n t h i s case we can introduce i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t h e assumpt i o n t h a t a l l blades of t h e r o t o r d u p l i c a t e t h e motion of t h e blade i n question, and t h e process of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n is performed f o r only one blade.

When determining cos i n t h i s case it i s assumed t h a t

469

(7.36)
where azimuth angle of t h e b l a d e with t h e number N = 0 whose motion i s determined i n t h e calculation; c o e f f i c i e n t of deformation o f t h e blade with t h e number N = 0, not a t t h e azimuth i n question b u t

$io'

at t h e azimuth

2nN ($io) - -);


zb

c o e f f i c i e n t of deformation of t h e blade with t h e number N when t h e blade with N = 0 i s at t h e aaimuth

$io?.

13) I n determining t h e s t r e s s e s , t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s performed f o r s e v e r a l rpm of t h e r o t o r u n t i l a l l values of 6, and ytwa t two successively calculated rpm d i f f e r l e s s t h a n t h e prescribed accuracy of 'calculation. This will i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e process has converged. After t h i s , t h e bending s t r e s s e s a t each azimuth can be determined by t h e formula (7.37)
where 0") are t h e bending s t r e s s e s of t h e blade with respect t o a normed mode of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e j-th harmonic. Further reduction of t h e obtained d a t a can b e performed i n any form, depending on t h e purpose of t h e calculation. Usually, t h e amplitude of t h e s t r e s s e s i s determined and t h e v a r i a t i o n i n stresses with respect t o azimuth i s decomposed i n t o harmonics.

14) I n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of f l u t t e r , t h e r e s u l t s can b e evaluated after studying t h e e n t i r e process of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s during s e v e r a l r o t o r rpm. This i s not very convenient i n p r a c t i c e s i n c e it r e q u i r e s considerable graphic work f o r p l o t t i n g t h e dependences 6, = f ( $ ) and y t w = f ( S ) . Nevertheless, t h e s e drawbacks a r e compensated by t h e advantages of t h i s calculat i o n method.
The method presented here involves a l a r g e amount of work, but it i s known from p r a c t i c a l experience i n design shops t h a t , i f modern d i g i t a l computers are used, t h i s method b e s t meets t h e requirements i n designing and perfecting blades and permits introducing a d d i t i o n a l refinements i n t o t h e r e s u l t s of t h e calculat i o n based on an a n a l y s i s of t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation. of .- F . l u t ter Section 8. Experimental I n . ve .s .t i g a t i o n s 1 . Ground Tests f o r F l u t t e r

The features of h e l i c o p t e r design permit t h e performance of f l u t t e r a n a l y s i s

470

of t h e r o t o r under safe conditions, with t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground. This c o n s t i t u t e s a d i s t i n c t advantage of t h e h e l i c o p t e r over r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t . Ground t e s t s f o r f l u t t e r are carried out f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes. Often t h e s e purposes are purely of a research nature. I n many cases, it i s necessary t o check o r r e f i n e - under f u l l - s c a l e conditions - t h e e f f e c t of various parameters on f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t o evaluate t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e development and cessation of f l u t t e r and, f i n a l l y , t o simply r e f i n e i n d i v i d u a l moments i n t h e procedure of conducting such tests. Nevertheless, i n t h e overwhelming majority of cases t h e s e t e s t s are /434. c a r r i e d out f o r inspection purposes. Recently, it has become t h e r u l e t h a t each experimental h e l i c o p t e r must undergo f l u t t e r t e s t s b e f o r e t h e start of f l i g h t t e s t s . The a c t u a l margins t o t h e onset of f l u t t e r are established i n t h e s e tests. I f t h e y prove t o b e t o o large, t h e designer can reduce them, f o r example, by decreasing t h e weight of t h e counterbalance i n t h e blade and t h u s l i g h t e n i n g it. I n t h e case of i n s u f f i c i e n t margins, it i s necessary t o make some design modifications and recheck them i n tests. The f i n a l l y established f l u t t e r margins on an experimental h e l i c o p t e r will l a t e r serve as c r i t e r i a f o r evaluating t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of other h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e same design i n production at a series-production plant or i n a c t u a l service. Usually, i n developing a new h e l i c o p t e r it i s possible t o r e s t r i c t t h e t e s t i n g t o ground t e s t s without t h e need f o r a d d i t i o n a l f l i g h t t e s t s . I n exceptional cases i n t h e past, it had been necessary t o a l s o conduct f l i g h t tests. A s a r u l e , t h e r e i s no need f o r these. Ground f l u t t e r t e s t s a r e usually carried out i n t h e following manner: The h e l i c o p t e r i s made f a s t on a s p e c i a l platform so t h a t t h e possible occurrence of f l u t t e r and consequent f a i l u r e of a p a r t will not cause t h e h e l i copter t o roll over. A s i s known, roll-over of a h e l i c o p t e r will cause t h e blades t o s t r i k e t h e ground and almost completely wreck t h e c r a f t . I n some cases, t h e r e might b e c a s u a l t i e s . Generally, such does not happen i n ground t e s t s for f l u t t e r , b u t t h e experimenter must always b e prepared f o r any eventuality

To begin t h e t e s t s , t h e r o t o r should b e r e w e d t o t h e maximum rpm at which f l u t t e r cannot y e t occur. Then t h e rpm i s gradually increased. Usually, t h i s i n c r e a s e i s accomplished i n s t e p s of a c e r t a i n quantity An, so t h a t n2 = n l + + An. Here nl i s t h e i n i t i a l value of t h e rpm and n2 t h e new value. The quantity A n i s generally taken as about 2% of t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r .

A t t h e new r p m n2, t h e r o t o r i s held f o r some time ( u s u a l l y 1 2 min) so t h a t v i b r a t i o n s can proceed up t o noticeable i n t e n s i t i e s ; i f f l u t t e r does not occur, t h e rpm i s again increased by t h e quantitysAn u n t i l f l u t t e r does develop. F l u t t e r tests are u s u a l l y greatly simplified i f , t o cause f l u t t e r , it i s not necessary t o c r e a t e i n i t i a l disturbances as it i s required i n hard f l u t t e r Therefore, an attempt with an e x c i t a t i o n threshold (see Sects.3.3 and 3.4).

should b e made i n t h e t e s t s t o c r e a t e conditions favorable f o r t h e occurrence of s o f t f l u t t e r . Such conditions usually a r e present i f a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e forced motion i s generated i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge. For t h i s , t h e c o n t r o l l e v e r , and along with it t h e swashplate, are deflected forward as far as possible. Usually, t h i s i s limited by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e blades begin t o s t r i k e t h e supports of t h e v e r t i c a l overhang guard. When a forced motion i s created i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge, f l u t t e r sets i n e a r l i e r with respect t o t h e r o t o r rpn. Thus, p u l l i n g t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k , i n a way, i s a means of generating f l u t t e r . Here, t h e start of f l u t t e r t e s t s i s as follows: The i n c r e a s e i n rotor rpm by A n i s c a r r i e d o u t a t neutral p o s i t i o n of/435 t h e swashplate, a f t e r which t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k i s pulled forward and t h e regime i s maintained with t h e s t i c k deflected. I f f l u t t e r does not occur, t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k i s returned t o t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n and t h e r o t o r rpm i s again increased, and so on, u n t i l f l u t t e r occurs. Upon t h e appearance of f l u t t e r , i f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s b u i l d up rapidly, it i s f i r s t necessary t o reduce t h e engine power sharply s o as t o cause a r a p i d drop i n r o t o r rpm. A n a d d i t i o n a l means of stopping f l u t t e r i s t o r e t u r n t h e control s t i c k t o t h e n e u t r a l position. I n f l u t t e r t e s t s , it i s of g r e a t importance t o achieve t h e maximum possible r o t o r rpm. To prevent t h e rpm from being l i m i t e d by t h e engine power, t h e r o t o r i s u s u a l l y lightened meaning t h a t t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g i s reduced. Eirperiments have shown t h a t t h e o v e r a l l angle of blade s e t t i n g has only a s l i g h t influence on t h e c r i t i c a l rpm of f l u t t e r and t h u s can be reduced without r i s k . However, one d e f i n i t e l i m i t a t i o n does exist. The lower t h e angle of r o t o r sett i n g , t h e sooner w i l l t h e blade begin t o s t r i k e t h e supports where t h e control s t i c k i s deflected. Furthermore, severe l i g h t e n i n g of t h e r o t o r i s unwarranted so t h a t t h e m a x i " rpm i n t h e t e s t s i s l i m i t e d not so much by t h e power as by t h e mechanical s t r e n g t h of t h e engine. Therefore, t h e angle of blade s e t t i n g i s selected as maximum i n t h e t e s t s but i s kept a t a value preventing t h e blades from s t r i k i n g t h e supports when t h e control s t i c k i s d e f l e c t e d while maintaining s u f f i c i e n t engine power f o r m a x i " possible rpm allowable for mechanical strength reasons. F l u t t e r t e s t s under ground conditions obviously are possible only i f t h e r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e such t h a t f l u t t e r will t a k e place under t h e s e condit i o n s . On h e l i c o p t e r s r a t e d f o r service, f l u t t e r cannot occur under ground cond i t i o n s . Therefore, t o conduct ground t e s t s f o r f l u t t e r , t h e r o t o r parameters must b e disturbed somehow. This i s usually accomplished i n t h e simplest way by d i s t u r b i n g t h e blade balance, which can b e achieved by a t t a c h i n g small weights t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge of t h e blade. Occasionally, t h e balance i s s h i f t e d by coati n g t h e surface of t h e blade close t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge with some kind of mat e r i a l w h o s e weight w i l l s h i f t t h e blade balance rearward. It i s a l s o possible t o introduce some e l a s t i c elements i n t o t h e control loop. Thus, i n conducting f l u t t e r tests, t h e r o t o r parameters must f i r s t be changed s o as t o make occurrence of f l u t t e r possible. When conducting t h e tests, it i s necessary t o provide f o r t h e recording of various parameters t o permit an accurate determination of c r i t i c a l rpm, frequency, v i b r a t i o n mode, and d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k a t which f l u t t e r b egan

472

Without a determination o f these parameters it i s impossible t o make a suff i c i e n t l y accurate evaluation of t h e f l u t t e r margin and t o i n d i c a t e what parameters should be changed t o increase t h i s margin. When conducting t h e tests, t h e onset of f l u t t e r i s detected by t h e p i l o t from t h e disturbance of t h e blade coning angle and from t h e increase i n fuselage v i b r a t i o n s and, i n t h e case of r e v e r s i b l e control, a l s o from v i b r a t i o n s of t h e control s t i c k . However, a l l t h e s e s i g n s are s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t i n c t only a f t e r t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes reach extremely high values and conduction of t h e t e s t becomes dangerous. Consequently, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o stop f l u t t e r t e s t s e a r l i e r , before o s c i l l a t i o n s have time t o develop. I n t h i s case, t h e p i l o t may e a s i l y / & confuse f l u t t e r with t h e u s u a l l y present d i s t o r t i o n of t h e blade coning angle. This i s promoted by v i b r a t i o n s which, as a r u l e , arise i n such t e s t s owing t o wind and lack of c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of t h e r o t o r . I n t h i s case, t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r can be judged.only by recordings of various f a c t o r s t h a t are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r vibration. To determine t h e onset of f l u t t e r and i t s parameters, t h e type of recordings made i n t h e t e s t s i s of great importance. It has been shown t h a t it i s not always easy t o determine t h e onset of f l u t t e r from a recording of t h e flapping motion of t h e blade i n t h e hub hinges, since f l u t t e r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e s e hinges lead o n l y t o a d i s t o r t i o n of t h e recording of t h e flapping motion caused by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e control s t i c k .
T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figs.4.33 and 4.34 which show a recording of blade motion i n t h e flapping hinge (angle p), with t h e recording of weak f l u t t e r shown A s follows from Fig.4.33, a i n Fig.4.33 and of stronger f l u t t e r i n Fig.4.34. determination of t h e onset of low-amplitude f l u t t e r would be d i f f i c u l t from a recording of t h e angle p. The same i s t r u e h i t h respect t o recording t h e hinge moment M b

The onset of f l u t t e r i s b e s t r e f l e c t e d i n t h e recording of f o r c e s i n t h e nonrotating control loops. The recording of f o r c e s i n t h e longitudinal c o n t r o l It i s easy t o define P l o n g i s shown i n t h e oscillograms (Figs.4.33 and 4.34). t h e onset of f l u t t e r from these recordings. It should be mentioned t h a t Figs.4.33 and 4.34 show t h e recordings of a n t i phase f l u t t e r w i t h an order m = 3 f o r a four-blade r o t o r . Consequently, t h e frequency of t h e variable f o r c e s i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l control i s governed by t h e relation where

When t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k i s deflected from t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n by even t h e can no s l i g h t e s t amount xp, t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e blade i n f l u t t e r pr longer be determined from recording t h e angle B (see Figs.4.33 and 4.34f, b u t can e a s i l y be calculated from eq.($.l) s i n c e t h e value of t h e frequency PIonr i s

473

f F-

Fig.4.33

Oscillogram of Hinge Moment Mb, Blade Flapping Angle B, Position of Control S t i c k xp, and Forces i n Longitudinal Control P l o n l li n t h e Presence of Weak F l u t t e r .

tick

Fig.4.34 Oscillogram of Hinge Moment Mb, Blade Flapping Angle B, Position of Control Stick xp, and Forces i n Longitudinal Control Plong i n t h e Presence of Stronger F l u t t e r .

r e a d i l y determined from t h e oscillograms.


I f , afte r occurrence of f l u t t e r , t h e control s t i c k i s returned t o neutral, t h e flapping motion caused by t i l t i n g of t h e swashplate will s t o p and t h e only motion i n t h e flapping hinge w i l l be t h a t due t o f l u t t e r (see Fig.4.34). In this case, t h e frequency of f l u t t e r can b e determined a l s o from t h e recording of B.

I n t h e t e s t s whose recordings are shown i n Figs.4.33 and 4.34, f l u t t e r w a s caused by an increase i n r o t o r rpm and by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k by an amount xp

I n t h e f i r s t case (see Fig.4.33), t h e rpn w a s r a i s e d t o nil,, = 184 and, as soon as weak f l u t t e r set in, it w a s stopped again by decreasing t h e r o t o r rpm. The p o s i t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k xp had not been changed. I n t h e second case ( s e e Fig.4.34), t h e rpm w a s r a i s e d somewhat more, up t o n = 186, causing stronger f l u t t e r t o occur. A t t h e start, t h e control s t i c k w a s returned t o n e u t r a l without a change i n rpm; t h i s caused t h e increase i n v i & b r a t i o n t o stop, a f t e r which t h e rpm w a s lowered and t h e f l u t t e r disappeared. It should be mentioned t h a t t h e recordings shown i n Fig.4.33 and 4.34 correspond t o r a t h e r weak f l u t t e r with a slowly increasing amplitude. Such f l u t t e r i s not always observed; often, t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude increases much more r a p i d l y and t h e manipulation of t h e control s t i c k , described above, becomes impossible.
A s an example of such abruptly developing f l u t t e r , Fig.4.35 shows an oscillogram of blade motion about t h e flapping hinge for another helicopter with a three-blade r o t o r . To s t o p f l u t t e r on t h i s helicopter it w a s necessary t o reduce t h e rpm as r a p i d l y as possible.

The f l u t t e r v i b r a t i o n mode whose recording i s shown i n Fig.4.35, i s of t h e in-phase type which means t h a t t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l i s loaded during t h e vibration. This makes t h e recording of t h e swashplate s l i d e vibrations, shown i n Fig.4.36, q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g . This recording w a s made with a CV-11 automatic recorder. The recordings shown i n Figs.4.33 - 4.36 a r e given only as an example and i n no way exhaust a l l possible t y p e s of f l u t t e r observed on helicopters. These types may d i f f e r i n modes of blade vibration, phase d i s t r i b u t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s over t h e blades ( d i f f e r e n t values of m), frequencies, r a t e and character ( s o f t and hard f l u t t e r ) of build-up of vibrations, and i n numerous other features. A l l t h e s e p e c u l i a r i t i e s must b e taken i n t o account i n f l u t t e r t e s t s and i n processing t h e obtained recordings.
2. F l u t t e r Tests i n F l i g h t

F l u t t e r t e s t s i n f l i g h t became necessary when it was found t h a t , during m a s s s e r v i c e of helicopters, t h e r e were individual cases of f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t when such f l u t t e r should not have been possible according t o concepts held a t t h a t time.

475

f cn

Fig.k.35

Oscillogram of Blade Flapping Motion during Violent F l u t t e r .

O n s e t of f l u t t e r

I I I I

1. I

. .
F l u . t t e r of ' h i g h amplitude

End of f l u t t e r

Fig.4.36

Recording of Forces i n Collective Pitch Control during Violent F l u t t e r .

Tests were carried out, which showed t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n f l i g h t i s appreciably lower t h a n i n ground tests.
The r e l a t i o n between t h e c r i t i c a l rpm i n f l i g h t and on t h e ground was calculated and it became possible t o define t h e characterist i c s , checked i n ground t e s t s , t h a t were needed f o r prevention of f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t . The obtained conclusions can be used i n developing new helicopter, making f l u t t e r t e s t s i n f l i g h t f o r each type of helicopter unnecessary. It should b e borne i n mind t h a t t e s t s with e x c i t a t i o n of f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t are extremely dangerous. Such t e s t s should b e performed only i f absolutely necessary and should be organized with maximum s a f e t y f o r t h e crew. Primarily, before s t a r t i n g t h e t e s t s t h e researchers should c o l l e c t data ensuring t h a t abrupt development of f l u t t e r will not occur i n f l i g h t and t h a t , i f it does start, it can be stopped again. Such d a t a can be obtained i n cases i n which unscheduled f l u t t e r s e t s i n during f l i g h t t e s t s o r during service on some helicopter of t h e type i n question. This occasionally occurs as a consequence of some operating e r r o r , f o r example, i f t h e r o t o r i s r e w e d t o an rpm by far exceeding t h e permiss i b l e maximum. Ground t e s t s can b e used as an i n d i r e c t c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e degree of abruptness of f l u t t e r . Experience has shown t h a t t h e r a t e of build-up of v i b r a t i o n on t h e ground and /4rco i n f l i g h t i s determined t o some extent by t h e o v e r a l l parameters. Therefore, i n some cases d a t a of ground t e s t s can be used as b a s i s . The only r e l i a b l e measure f o r stopping f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t i s a sharp reduction i n rpm. Therefore, t o ensure d e f i n i t e stopping of f l u t t e r it i s necessary t o have a l a r g e rpm excess i n a regime where f l u t t e r begins i n commrison with t h e minimum r m n a t which f l i g h t i s possible. During t h e t e s t s , t h e p i l o t should induce f l u t i e r by r a i s i n g t h e r p and stop f l u t t e r by sharply reducing t h e rpm t o t h e minimum possible f o r continuation of t h e f l i g h t .
A l l considerations r e f e r r i n g t o recording i n ground t e s t s hold a l s o f o r f l i g h t t e s t s , However, we should point out one p e c u l i a r i t y of v i b r a t i o n s during

477

f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t , which d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s from those observed i n ground tests. I n ground t e s t s , forced flapping motion i n t h e hinges caused by t i l t i n g of t h e swashplate takes place almost exclusively a t t h e frequency of t h e f i r s t harmonic of t h e r o t o r rpm. I n f l i g h t , t h e flapping motion contains a l s o t h e second and higher harmonics. Therefore, blade v i b r a t i o n i n flapping f l u t t e r usually generated at frequencies close t o t h e second harmonic but generally not equal t o it, will lead t o b e a t s between t h e second harmonic of flapping and f l u t t e r v i bration. Therefore, f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t i s o f t e n perceived as beats.

A s a t y p i c a l example, Fig.4.37 shows t h e recording of f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t i n a regime where flapping i n t h e axes of t h e s h a f t c o n s i s t s almost exclusively of This i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t attacht h e second harmonic (see Fig.4.37b). ment of t h e s h a f t w a s s e l e c t e d such t h a t v i b r a t i o n s of t h e first harmonic are
eliminated i n c r u i s i n g f l i g h t . The v i b r a t i o n s during - f l u t t e r i n t h i s regime have well-defined b e a t s ( s e e Fig.4.37a) I n a l l other cases, i f t h e lower c r i t i c a l rpm i s disregarded, f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t w i l l not d i f f e r from t h a t observed on t h e ground.

&

3. Comparison of Calculation and Experiment under Conditions of Axial Flow

past t h e Rotor

I n comparing c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment, t h e i n i t i a l r o t o r parameters used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a r e of prime importance, along with type of blade balancing, r i g i d i t y of t h e control system, and magnitude of f r i c t i o n i n r o t o r rpn, i n c l . 100 t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e hub, as w e l l as r e l i a b i l i t y with which t h e l o cation o f t h e p r o f i l e focus i s known. E r r o r s i n determining t h e i n i t i a l d a t a n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t t h e accuracy of d e t e r feff mining There- t h e f l u t t e r parameters. Fig.4.38 Comparison of Experimental fore, i n comparing c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment it i s d e s i r a b l e t o eliminate and Calculated Values of Vibration e r r o r s i n determining t h e i n i t i a l paraFrequency and C r i t i c a l F l u t t e r R p . meters. For t h i s , t h e parameters should be checked experimentally. Balancing should be determined by weighing individual segments of t h e blade obt a i n e d after c u t t i n g it.

To determine t h e c o n t r d r i g i d i t y a s p e c i a l method of measuring dynamic r i g i d i t y should b e used, which Will b e taken up i n greater d e t a i l i n Section 6 . The use of other methods generally l e a d s t o misunderstandings and f a l l a c i e s and

4.78

t h e r e f o r e should be discarded. To check t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e a.c. a segment of a f u l l - s c a l e blade should be exposed t o t h e a i r stream i n a wind tunnel. I n t h i s case, it can b e expected t h a t deviations i n t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s due t o design e r r o r s of t h e blade p r o f i l e and deformation i n work w i l l b e r e f i n e d t o some extent. Figure 4.38 gives t h e r e s u l t s of a comparison o f c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment f o r t h e M i - 4 helicopter. The s o l i d curve shows t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y obtained dependence of t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpn on t h e e f f e c t i v e blade balancing. The c i r c l e s mark t h e experimental results. Circle 1with t h e forwardmost blade balancing corresponds t o t h e maximum rpn obtainable with a helicopter engine. There w a s no f l u t t e r i n t h i s case. After attaching 0.46-kg weights t o t h e blade f l a p s , t h e experiment w a s repeated. There again w a s no f l u t t e r ( c i r c l e 2). Attachment of weights of 0.86 and 1.3 kg t o t h e blade f l a p caused f l u t t e r at rotor r p m of n = 187 and n = 173 r e s p e c t i v e l y (squares 3 and 4 i n Fig.4.38). The frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n during f l u t t e r i s indicated i n t h e dia- /442 gram by squares 5 and 6, which should be compared with t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y determined frequency values shown by t h e dashed curve. After t h e experiments, t h e blades were cut i n t o segments and t h e i r e f f e c t i v e balancing w a s determined, which i s noted on t h e graph i n Fig.4.3$. The dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e control system w a s determined on t h e same helicopter. The magnitude of f r i c t i o n i n t h e feathering hinge, which w a s highly s t a b l e , w a s measured i n t h e laboratory on another hub of t h e same design. These d a t a i n d i c a t e s a t i s f a c t o r y (with an accuracy t o within 0.5% of t h e chord f o r t h e value of e f f e c t i v e balancing) agreement of calculation and experiment. W e note t h a t such a good agreement w a s observed i n a l l other experiments c a r r i e d out on other h e l i copters. This c r e a t e s confidence i n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e r e s u l t s obtained from c a l c u l a t i o n and i n t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e i n i t i a l assumptions, including t h a t of t h e p e r m i s s i b i l i t y of determining aerodynamic f o r c e s by formulas based on t h e "steadys t a t e hypothesis".

Fig.k.39 Comparison of Experimental and Calculated Data i n Flight.

It should b e added t h a t t h e f l u t t e r c a l c u l a t i o n p e r t a i n s t o a case q u i t e rare i n r o t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s when good agreement with experiment i s observed. Probably, t h i s i s due primarily t o t h e f a c t t h a t even s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s i n determining t h e magnitudes of aerodynamic f o r c e s have no great e f f e c t on t h e f i n a l r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n a t c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpn.

479

4. Comparison of. CalcuLation and Fxperiment . . i n F li ght


.. . -

Comparisons of c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment i n f l i g h t do not show such good agreement as i n similar comparisons of r e s u l t s obtained under conditions of &a1 flow past t h e r o t o r i n ground t e s t s . I n f l i g h t , t h e decrease i n c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i s f e l t more strongly t h a n on t h e b a s i s of calculation. Figure 4.39 gives two curves obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a regime with axial flow ( p = 0) and f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t with p = 0.25. The curves do not d i f f e r g r e a t l y . Conversely, t h e experimental r e s u l t s d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y . I n Fig.4.39 point 1 marks t h e c r i t i c a l rpm obtained i n a ground t e s t with a 0.86-kg weight attached t o t h e f l a p s while point 2 r e f e r s t o t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm obtained on t h e same h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t b u t without weights on t h e f l a p s . The t e s t p o i n t s i n Fig.4.39 were obtained i n t e s t s l a i d out by S.B.Bren and A.A.Dokuchayev and performed by t h e p i l o t V.V.Vinit skiy.
The diagram i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e f l i g h t and ground t e s t s i s appreciably greater than t h a t obtained by calculation. The cause f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t , i n calculations, t h e amplitude of t h e /443 forced motion i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge w a s taken t o b e t h e same on t h e ground and it w a s assumed t h a t i n ground t e s t s t h e amplitude of t h e angular i n f l i g h t , i.e., v e l o c i t i e s of blade v i b r a t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge, as a r e s u l t of d e f l e c t i n g t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k , w a s t h e same as i n f l i g h t as a consequence of ordinary flapping motion. Here, it w a s disregarded t h a t , i n f l i g h t , t h e d i f f e r e n t v i b r a t i o n s and o s c i l l a t i o n s with harmonics of higher o r d e r s may noticeably reduce t h e eff e c t i v e n e s s of damping of o s c i l l a t i o n s due t o f r i c t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge. This assumption i s u s u a l l y made t o explain t h e more abrupt drop i n c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm i n f l i g h t i n comparison with t h e calculation.

5. Check f o r F l u t t e r
It has been noted above t h a t , f o r a r e l i a b l e elimination of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f l u t t e r under s e r v i c e conditions, t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r should have a w e l l defined f l u t t e r margin. This margin should b e checked on t h e ground and, i f t h e margin i s below some standard value, t h e h e l i c o p t e r should not b e allowed t o f l y . I n t h i s approach, t h e required margin before f l u t t e r , checked on t h e ground, should t a k e i n t o account a decrease i n c r i t i c a l rpm i n f l i g h t , possible deterior a t i o n i n f l u t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s due t o moisture penetrating i n t o t h e blade, and other f a c t o r s , and should secure t h e necessary s t a b i l i t y of blade v i b r a t i o n at maxknum approach t o t h i s margin.
The idea of f l u t t e r checking w a s f i r s t expressed by M.L.Milt who proposed t o e x c i t e r o t o r o s c i l l a t i o n s by i n s t a l l i n g an e c c e n t r i c i n t h e c y c l i c p i t c h cont r o l system and t o measure t h e s t a b i l i t y margin i n terms of t h e amplitude of t h e obtained resonance vibrations, which should b e g r e a t e r t h e smaller t h e f l u t t e r margin. Such experiments were c a r r i e d out and yielded i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . Figure 4.40 shows t h e experimentally obtained dependence of t h e amplitude of t h e hinge moment on t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequency of t h e e c c e n t r i c f o r various r o t o r rpm. The diagram shows t h a t the' higher t h e r o t o r rpm and hence t h e closer t o f l u t t e r , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l b e t h e amplitude of t h e hinge moment. The same dependence i s obtained f o r blade balancing. During experiments on t h e Mi-4 h e l i -

480

copter with a four-blade r o t o r , we noted t h e occurrence of two modes of resonance v i b r a t i o n s of frequencies p1 = pecc + n and p2 = peoc - n ( p e c c i s t h e frequency of e x c i t a t i o n from t h e eccentric), which agrees n i c e l y with t h e t h e o r e t i c a l notions presented i n Section 4. The experiments confirm t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of using t h e described method f o r checking t h e s t a b i l i t y margin of t h e r o t o r . However, some time l a t e r a simpler method f o r checking t h e necessary margin i n terms of blade balancing w a s developed. This method provides f o r checking t h e helicopter on t h e ground with blades whose balancing i s s h i f t e d rearward by a c e r t a i n predetermined quantity. The balance i s s h i f t e d by means M 6 kg-m of s p e c i a l weights placed on t h e t r a i l i n g edges of t h e blade during t h e check. I f , on r a i s i n g t h e rpm t o a prescribed maximum, f l u t t e r does not set i n , t h e weights a r e removed and t h e h e l i copter i s admitted t o service. The weights were o r i g i n a l l y selected on t h e b a s i s of /Iss, c a l c u l a t i o n s and l a t e r corrected f o r d i f f e r e n t experiments and service conditions. Two magnitudes of t h e required margins a r e usually established. When t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s released from t h e plant, an increased margin i s established which can be p a r t i a l ly expended i n service. Therefore, i n a number of cases f l u t t e r check i s a l s o introduced i n service, but t h e n a smaller r e -

I DO

200

300

Fig.4.40 Hinge Moment Amplitude as a Function of Vibration Frequency of t h e Eccentric. quired margin i s established.

The introduction of a f l u t t e r check has proved a u s e f u l measure, a f t e r which cases of t h e development of f l u t t e r i n s e r v i c e completely stopped.

6. Experimental Determination of Control System R i g i d i t x


It w a s already pointed out above t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r rpm g r e a t l y depends on t h e magnitude of t h e control system r i g i d i t y . It can be approximately p m i s d i r e c t l y proportional t o Kn. Hence assumed t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r r it i s obvious t h a t it i s important t o determine c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y as accurately as possible f o r a successful calculation. H o w does one determine t h e magnitude of t h i s r i g i d i t y ? When performing t h e f i r s t c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r f l u t t e r , c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y i s o f t e n calculated t h e o r e t i c a l l y by summing t h e design r i g i d i t i e s of a l l components entering t h e c o n t r o l loop. F i r s t measurements of t h i s r i g i d i t y showed t h a t t h e calculated values a r e much higher t h a n t h e experimental values. Therefore, it w a s necessary t o r e j e c t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of control r i g i d i t y .

However, t h e problem of t h e manner of experimental determination of c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y a l s o proved d i f f i c u l t . A t first, t h e c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y w a s determined s t a t i c a l l y , i.e., by t h e slope of t h e dependence of t h e magnitude of deformations on t h e external load. However, t h i s method d i d not c l a r i f y t h e mode of accounti n g f o r play i n t h e c o n t r o l system, f r i c t i o n , and i n e r t i a of t h e components e n t e r i n g t h i s system. Therefore, t h e so-called dynamic method of determining c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y w a s used, i n which t h e external f o r c e s exerted a t t h e c o n t r o l by t h e blades were applied dynamically, a t a frequency equal o r close t o t h e frequency of f l u t t e r . With t h i s method of measurement, t h e control r i g i d i t y& J !,/, w a s by a f a c t o r of 2 2.5 l e s s t h a n with t h e s t a t i c method.

It i s n a t u r a l t h a t t h e r e s u l t s obtained i n s t a t i c a n a l y s i s cannot b e used f o r t h e f l u t t e r calculations.


What i s t h e simplest way of determining t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e control system? For t h i s , we used t h e following method: On a h e l i c o p t e r with a nonrotating r o t o r we replaced t h e blades by s p e c i a l weights whose moments of i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge were equal t o t h e moments o f i n e r t i a of t h e removed blades. B y measuring t h e n a t u r a l vibrat i o n frequency of t h i s system, t h e magnitude of t h e corresponding hinge c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y can be completely defined. These r i g i d i t i e s can obviously b e calculated by means of t h e formula
Ccon

=P 2 L p 9

(8.2)

where p
=

coon=

one of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h i s system, which should be considered equivalent t o a r o t o r with blades absolutely rigid i n torsion; hinge c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y corresponding t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode f o r which t h e frequency p i s determined.

The necessary values of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies can be determined by t h e usual method of forced v i b r a t i o n s with e x c i t a t i o n by a v i b r a t o r o r eccentric. Since t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l s on a h e l i c o p t e r i s usually not t h e same, two d i f f e r e n t values of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency w i l l correspond t o loading of t h e s e c o n t r o l s [see eq.(4.19)].

L e t us present t h e values of t h e frequencies corresponding t o loading of d i f f e r e n t control l o o p s obtained on t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r with a nonrotating rotor:
pr =400 +420 osc/min p, =440 +450
OJC/~;~

pa.6 =590 + 620 m c / m i n


pap

=920 +940 osc/min.

The notations used here a r e t h e same as those used i n eqs.(b.l9).

This r a i s e s t h e question whether t h e c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y t h u s measured depends on t h e amplitude of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e control system. To check t h i s , we c a r r i e d out experiments with t h e maximum permissible ( i n terms of strength) magnitudes of hinge moments a c t i n g on t h e control, approximately t h e same as those which a c t a t t h e maximum f l y i n g speed, and witH moments lower by a f a c t o r of 10. There was no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e value of t h e obtained f r e quencies. Dynamic c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y may depend on t h e frequency of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e control cables. By changing t h e moments of i n e r t i a of t h e weights ins t a l l e d i n place of t h e blades and measuring t h e new n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequenc i e s of t h e system, it becomes possible t o define t h e mode of v a r i a t i o n of r i g i d i t y with v a r i a t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency. Figure 4.41 shows t h e res u l t s of such measurements. The abscissa gives t h e n a t u r a i v i b r a t i o n frequency f o r t h e control system which v a r i e s as a function of t h e magnitude of t h e moment of i n e r t i a of t h e weights, while t h e ordinate gives t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y expressed i n t e r m s of t h e corresponding n a t u r a l vibrat i o n frequency i n agreement w i t h eqs.(4.19). Figure 4.41 i n d i c a t e s t h e approximate values of t h e frequencies of v a r i a b l e /446 f o r c e s acting' i n t h e nonrotating p a r t s of t h e l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l s during f l u t t e r with modes of t h e f i r s t (m = 1) and t h i r d order ( m = 3). These r e s u l t s i l l u s t r a t e t h e above assumption ( s e e Sect.4.3) t h a t t h e magnitude of cont r o l r i g i d i t y may depend on t h e frequency of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g i n it. For comparison, Fig.4.W a l s o gives t h e values of t h e s t a t i c control r i g i d i t y obtained from t h e slope of t h e dependence of c o n t r o l deformations on t h e magnitude

4UU

600p osc/m/n

Fig.4.41 Control R i g i d i t y as a Function of Vibration Frequency. of e f f e c t i v e forces.

The dynamic method described here f o r determining control r i g i d i t y has been s u f f i c i e n t l y checked and can b e recommended f o r p r a c t i c a l use.

7. Experiments on_DynamiiaUy Similar Models


For conducting experiments on f u l l - s c a l e h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e researcher usuall y runs i n t o many d i f f i c u l t i e s having t o do w i t h observance of s a f e t y r u l e s , s i n c e f u l l - s c a l e experiments are u s u a l l y c a r r i e d out by a p i l o t o r mechanic i n t h e helicopter. This imposes c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r f l u t t e r t e s t s i n f l i g h t where, f o r s a f e t y considerations, f l u t t e r i s u s u a l l y generated only once i n some regime or, i n t h e extreme case, three t o four times but never more

'$33

often.

It i s impossible t o o b t a i n any dependences f o r t h e parameter.

Furthermore, t h e r e are l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i n v e s t i g a t i n g various f l i g h t regimes, due t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on which t h e experiment i s c a r r i e d out. The engineer i s almost always i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e f l u t t e r margin with respect t o rpm. However, t h e maximum r p achievable i n experiments i s l i m i t e d by t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e engine. For example, t h e m a x i mum f l y i n g speed i s limited. Therefore, t h e researcher n a t u r a l l y w i l l attempt t o make wind-tunnel t e s t s on dynamically similar models. Such t e s t s o f t e n y i e l d i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . However, t h e i r wide use i s r e s t r i c t e d by a number of b a s i c shortcomings. To estimate t h e need f o r such t e s t s i n each individual case, l e t u s discuss t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s underlying t h e simulation i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . I n producing a reduced-scale r o t o r model, geometric s i m i l i t u d e of t h e ext e r n a l blade shape and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i n e a r dimensions of r o t o r blade and hub are of prime importance. W e are thinking here of l i n e a r dimensions determining t h e planform of t h e blade; d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r o f i l e s and t h e i r s e t t i n g angles over t h e blade length; dimensions of i t s components determining, f o r example, t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge axis along t h e blade length; r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of other hub hinges; and many other dimensions. Next, it i s necessary t h a t a l l r e l a t i o n s between aerodynamic, i n e r t i a , and e l a s t i c f o r c e s remain constant. I n t h i s case, t h e v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads s e t up at t h e model blade lead t o t h e same r e l a t i v e deformations as on t h e o r i g i n a l blade.

Let us examine t h i s i n greater d e t a i l f o r t h e example of bending v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n t h e flapping plane. It can be demonstrated t h a t bending deformat i o n s of a blade with respect t o some n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n harmonic a r e determined by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation calculated by t h e formula ( s e e Vol.11)

where pj
yj
= =

frequency of t h e j-th harmonic of n a t u r a l blade bending v i b r a t i o n ; mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade i n v i b r a t i o n s of t h e j-th harmonic [see eq.(7.55) of Chapt.1 i n VOI.II]

cyJ

dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t , characterizing t h e magnitude of work done by t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s i n displacements of t h e blade during deformation with respect t o t h e j-th harmonic:

Let u s d e f i n e t h e mode of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r e l a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade bending deformations 6) upon a similar change i n a l l i t s geometric dimensions.

484

The r e l a t i o n between aerodynamic and i n e r t i a parameters of termined by t h e values of t h e m a s s c h a i a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade metric dimensions of t h e blade change t h e same number of t i m e s , then, as follows from eq.(8.4), t h e m a s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e change.

t h e blade i s deyj I f a l l geonamely, KL times, blade do not

However, we see from eq.(8.3) t h a t , t o r e t a i n s i m i l i t u d e i n bending deformations, t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency pj and t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r w must b e retained. This requirement i s equivalent t o keeping t h e Strouhal number constant:
b Sh= ! ! -

where p U
= =

v i b r a t i o n frequency; v e l o c i t y of flow.

The n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency p~ i s determined by t h e formula

Upon a similar change i n a l l geometric dimensions of t h e blade, t h e quantity of t h e e l a s t i c moment of i n e r t i a of i t s s e c t i o n I changes Kt times. I n t h i s case, as e a s i l y seen from eq.(8.7), t h e magnitude of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n f r e quency of t h e nonrotating blade pol changes K L times. Consequently, t h e r e l a t i o n between t h i s frequency and t h e angular 7ielocity of r o t a t i o n remains cons t a n t i f t h e angular v e l o c i t y changes t h e same number of times. Thus, t o r e t a i n s i m i l i t u d e i n aerodynamic, i n e r t i a , and e l a s t i c forces, a l l geometric blade dimensions must change t h e same number of times (KL) and t h e peripheral blade speeds must remain constant. Such dynamically similar models a r e c a l l e d Mach-similar models since s i m i l a r i t y with respect t o t h e Mach number i s r e t a i n e d i n a l l blade sections. The requirement of changing a l l geometric dimensions t h e same number of times i s e a s i e s t t o meet by keeping t h e blade design unchanged. Therefore, t h e development of such models a c t u a l l y reduces t o t h e development of models similar i n design. This i s a d i f f i c u l t problem, r e q u i r i n g t h e s o l u t i o n of many highly complex t e c h n i c a l problems and t h e organization of a s p e c i a l production of s m a l l dimension designs. A s u f f i c i e n t l y high accuracy i s necessary i n t h e i r manufacture. Considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s a l s o arise i n developing hub hinges. It i s necessary t o s t a t e t h a t such models are a l s o under considerable s t r e s s relative t o mechanical s t r e n g t h and do not permit much widening of t h e regimes i n which i n v e s t i g a t i o n s can b e c a r r i e d out, i n comparison with those on f u l l - s c a l e helicopters

Upon a reduction of t h e geometric blade dimensions, t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e blade weight and i t s aerodynamic and e l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s drops by K L t i m e s . This l e a d s t o a reduction of t h e influence of t h e blade weight parameters i n comparison with t h e value for a f u l l - s c a l e helicopter. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,

485

t h e r e l a t i v e overhang of t h e blade of a nonrotating r o t o r decreases by KL times. The blade, so t o speak, becomes more r i g i d " t o t h e eye". However, t h i s disturbance of s i m i l i t u d e i s observed only when t h e r o t o r i s not r o t a t i n g . Upon r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r t h e e f f e c t of t h e weight f o r c e s i s generally negligible. Therefore, a disturbance of t h e i r s i m i l i t u d e has p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e behavior of t h e blades. The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n developing Mach-similar and design-similar b l a d e s res u l t e d i n t h e i r being used infrequently. Most often, dynamically similar b l a d e s are developed with disturbance i n s i m i l i t u d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e Mach number. The p e r i p h e r a l blade speeds on a model are reduced i n comparison with t h e f u l l s c a l e blade by s e v e r a l times. I n so doing, t o r e t a i n t h e r a t i o of n a t u r a l blade t o angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n w, t h e blade r i g i d i t i e s v i b r a t i o n frequency times, as i s required by geometric similitude, b u t by a a r e reduced not by g r e a t e r number of t i m e s , most o f t e n by KF. I n t h i s case, t h e necessary r a t i o of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n p j t o angular v e l o c i t y i s achieved a t p e r i p h e r a l speedsfiL smaller than t h o s e on a f u l l - s c a l e helicopter. Presumably, t h e r e s u l t s of t e s t s on such models can be extrapolated i n t o t a l i t y t o f u l l - s c a l e units only a t A t M = 0.5 - 0.9, t h e t e s t r e s u l t s of such models can be M < 0.4 ( s e e Fig.k.3). used only f o r q u a l i t a t i v e estimates. I n t h i s connection, non-Mach-similar models are used i n only a l i m i t e d volume for p r a c t i c a l purposes.

EEFEEENCES Theoretical Determination of t h e Effect of Wind Blowing 1 . Zhukovskiy, N.Ye.: i n t h e Plane of a Helicopter Rotor (1909) [Opyt teoreticheskogo opredeleniya eff ekta v e t r a , duyushchego v p l o s k o s t i gelikopternogo v i n t a (1909) 1. Collected Works (Sobr. soch.), Vol.VI, p.68, 1937; Vol.IV, p.388, 1949. 2. Yurfyev, B.N. : Aemldnamic Calculation of Helicopters (Aerodinamicheskiy raschet vertoletov) Oborongiz, 1956. 3. Yurtyev, B.N. : Investigation of t h e F l i g h t Characteristics of Helicopters Tr. WIA im. Zhukovskogo, (Issledovaniye letnykh svoystv gelikopterov)

4. M i l t , M.L.:
5.

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Takeoff Run of an Autogiro (0 razbege avtozhira). Tekhnika Vozdushnogo Flota, No .5, 1934. M i l ' , M.L. : Autogiro Balancing and S t a b i l i t y (Balansimvka i ustoychivost' avtozhira). Tekhnika Vozdushnogo Flota, N o .lo, 1934. Dynamic Twisting of an Autogiro Rotor Blade i n F l i g h t (0 dinaM i l t , M.L.: Tekhnika micheskom zakruchivanii l o p a s t i r o t o r a avtozhira v polete) Vozdushnogo Flota, No . 2 , 1937. The Aerodynamics of an Autogiro Rotor i n Curvilinear Flight M i l t , M.L.: Tekhnika (Aerodinamika r o t o r a avtozhira p r i krivolineynom dvizhenii) Vozdushnogo Flota, No . 1 , 1939. M i l t , M.L. : Aerodynamics of a Rotor with a Hinged Blade i n Curvilinear F l i g h t (Aerodinamika nesushchego v i n t a s sharnirnym krepleniyem lopastey o .465, p r i krivolineynom dviahenii). T r . Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. I n s t . , N 1940 Aerodynamic Calculation of a Helicopter Milt, M.L. and Yaroshenko, V.N.: Tekhnika Vozdushnogo Flota, (Aerodinamicheskiy raschet gelikoptera) No.11, 1946. M i l ' M.L. : Helicopters (Vertolety). Izd. Znaniye, 1957. Bratukhin, I.P.: Autogiros (Avtozhiry) Gosmashmetizdat, 1934.. Design and Structure of Helicopters (Proyektimvaniye i Bratukhin, I.P.: Oborongiz, 1956. konstruktsiya vertoletov) H f e c t of Unsteady Flow on t h e Aerodynamics of t h e Proskuryakov, A.P.: Autogiro Blade (Vliyaniye n e s t a t s i o n a r n o s t i p t o k a na aerodinamiky l o p a s t i avtozhira) Tr. Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. Inst., N o 4 6 0 , 1939. Aerodynamic Calculation of a Rotor with a Blade P i t c h Proskuryakov, A.P.: Variable i n Azimuth (Aerodinamicheskiy raschet nesushchego v i n t a s pereTr. =I, N o. l 6 , 1946. mennym PO a z k t u uglom ustanovki lopastey) Theory of t h e Autogiro Rotor with a Variabie Setting Mikhaylov, A.N.: Tekhnika Angle (Teoriya r o t o r a avtozhira s peremennym uglom ustanovki) Vozdushnogo Flota, No .3, 1940. Induced V e l o c i t i e s of a Propeller Exposed t o Flow a t an Angle Baskin, V.E.: t o i t s Axis (Induktivqyye s k o m s t i vozdushnogo vinta, obduvayemogo pod Report a t t h e All-Union Congress on Theoretical and uglom k yego osi). Applied Mechanics, Moscow, 1960 (Doklad na Vsesoyuznom sttyezde po teoreticheskoy i prikladnoy mekhanike, Moskva, 1960). Baskin, V.E., D'yachenko, A.S., Maykopar, G.I., and Martynov, A.I.: Invest i g a t i o n of A i r f l o w and loads on t h e Helicopter Rotor Blade i n Horizontal Flight (Issledovaniye techeniya vozdukha i nagmzok l o p a s t i v i n t a verto-

N0.49, 1939.

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l e t a v gorizontaltnom polete).

Inzh. Zh.,

V01.111,

No.3, Akad. Nauk SSSR,

18. Maykopar, G.I.:

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Application of t h e Vortex Rotor Theory (Prilozheniye vikhrevoy t e o r i i v i n t a ) . T r . Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. Inst., No.613, 194.7. Maykopar, G.I. : Vortex Rotor Theory (Vikhrevaya t e o r i y a nesushchego v i n t a ) ; Collection of Works on P r o p e l l e r Theory (Sbornik rabot po t e o r i i vozdusk nykh vintov) BNI Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. I n s t 1958. Determination of t h e F l i g h t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a HeliViltdgrube, L.S.: copter i n a l l Regimes and a t a l l Altitudes and Selection of i t s Design Parameters (Opredeleniye letnykh k h a r a k t e r i s t i k gelikoptera na vsekh rezhimakh i vysotakh i vybor yego parametrov p r i proyektirovanii). Tekhnika Vozdushnogo Flota, No.6, 1947. Theory of an I d e a l Helicopter Rotor (Teoriya idealtnogo Braverman, A.S.: nesushchego v i n t a v e r t o l e t a ) . Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otd. Tekhn. Nauk, Mekhan. i Mashinostr., No.2, 1959. Wan Shi-Tsun: Generalized Vortex Rotor Theory. Problems of Helicopter Rotor Aerodynamics (Obobshchennaya vikhrevaya t e o r i y a nesushchego vinta. Voprosy aerodinamiki nesushchego v i n t a v e r t o l e t o v ) Oborongiz, 1961. Durend, V.F. : Aerodynamics (Aerodinamika). Vol.IV, Oborongiz, 1939. Hessow and Meyers: Aerodynamics of t h e Helicopter (Aerodinamika v e r t o l e t a ) Oborongiz, 1954.. /450 Dynamics and Aerodynamics of t h e Helicopter (Dinamika i aeroPeyn, P.R.: dinamika v e r t o l e t a ) Oborongiz, 1963. Tinyakov, G.A. : P i l o t i n g t h e Helicopter (Pilotirovaniye v e r t o l e t a ) . Voyenizdat, 1960. Izakson, A.M. : Soviet Helicopter Engineering (Sovetskoye vertoletostroyeniye). Oborongiz, 1954.. Lecture on A i r f o i l Theory ( L e k t s i i po t e o r i i kryla). Izd. Golubev, V.V.: Tekhn.-Teoret. L i t . 194.9. Keldysh, M.V. : Hydrodynamic Derivation of Rauscherfs Formula (Gidrodinamicheskiy vy-vod formuly Raushera). Tekhn. Zametki, No.52, P a r t 2, Tsentr. Aero-Gidrodinam. I n s t . , 1935. A i r f o i l Theory i n Unsteady Flow (Teoriya k r y l a v n e s t a t s i Nekrasov, A.I.: onarnom potoke). Akad. Nauk SSSR, 194.7. Lamb, G. : Hydrodynamics (Gidrodinamika) OGIZ-Gostekhizdat, 194.7. A Course on Vibrations of A i r c r a f t Components (Kurs vibGrossman, Ye.P.: r a t s i y chastey samoleta) Oborongiz, 194.0. Vibrations and Dynamic Strength of ProRiz, P.M. and Pozhalostin, A.I.: p e l l e r s ( V i b r a t s i i i dinamicheskaya prochnostt vozdushnykh vintov) Tr. Tsentr. Aero-Gidmdinam. I n s t . No .609, 194.7. Ryzhik, I.M. and Gradshteyn, M.S.: Tables of I n t e g r a l s , Schemes, Series, and Products ( T a b l i t s y integralov, skhem, ryadov i proizvedeniy) GITTL,

1963

.,

Watson, G.N.: Theory of Bessel Functions. Izd. I n o s t r . L i t . , 194.9. Glauert, H.A.: General Theory of t h e Autogiro. R & M y N o . U , Nov. 1926. Lock: Further Development of t h e Autogiro Theory. R & M y No.1127. Shapiro, Jacob: P r i n c i p l e s of Helicopter Engineering. Temple Press Ltd., Bowling Green Lane, London, E.C .I. A Preliminary Theoretical Study of Helicopter Blade F l u t t e r 39. Coleman, R.P.: Involving Dependence upon Coning Angle and P i t c h Setting. NACA Rept., N o .4.08, 194.6. Blade Vibration and F l u t t e r . J. Am. Heli40. Miller, R.H. and E l l i s , C.W.:

35. 36. 37. 38.

1951.

488

copter Soc., V o l . 1 , pp.19-38, July 1956. DuWaldt, F., and Gates,. C.: I n v e s t i g a t i o n of Helicopter Blade F l u t t e r and Load Amplification Problems. Pnst. Aeron. Sci. Prep r i n t , No.705, Jan. 1957; J. Am. Helicopter SOC., V 0 1 . 2 , No.3, J u b 1957. 42. Hooper, M.S.: The Theoretical Approach to some Rotor Blade F l u t t e r and Forced Vibrations Problems. J. Helicopter Assoc. Great B r i t a i n , Vol.I.2,

4 1 . Daughaday, H.,

1958Translated for t h e National Aeronautics and Space Administration by t h e 0 .W .Leibiger Research Laboratories, Inc.

F-494

NASA-Langley, 1967

-2

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