Site assessment and selection of type of dam General site appraisal A satisfactory site for a reservoir must fulfill

certain functional and technical requirements. Functional suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its natural physical characteristics and the purpose of the reservoir. Catchment hydrology, available head and storage volume etc. must be matched to operational parameters set by the nature and scale of the project served. Technical acceptability is dictated by the presence of a satisfactory site (or sites) for a dam, the availability of materials suitable for dam construction, and by the integrity of the reservoir basin with respect to leakage. The hydrological and geological or geotechnical characteristics of catchment and site are the principal determinants establishing the technical suitability of a reservoir site. To these must be added an assessment of the anticipated environmental consequences of construction and operation of the dam. The principal stages involved in site appraisal and leading to selection of the optimum dam site and type of dam for a major project are as indicated schematically in Fig. 1.

Fig.1 Stages in dam site appraisal and project development: major projects

The considerable time which can elapse between initial strategic planning, with identification of the project requirement, and commencement of construction on site will be noted. A significant proportion of that time may be attributable to the political decision-making processes and to arranging project funding. In the reconnaissance phase, which may extend over a substantial period, the principal objective is to collect extensive topographical, geological and hydrological survey data. Large-scale maps and any records already available provide the starting point, but much more detailed surveys will inevitably be required. Aerial reconnaissance, employing modern sensors in addition to the traditional photogrammetric survey techniques, has a particular rle to play in the preparation of accurate and large-scale site plans (e.g. 1:5000 and larger). In the hands of an experienced engineering geologist as interpreter, aerial surveys also provide valuable information on geology, on possible dam sites and on the likely availability of construction materials. Hydrological catchment and river surveys are directed to determining rainfall and run-off characteristics, and assessing historical evidence of floods etc. The feasibility report prepared at the conclusion of the reconnaissance phase assembles and interprets all available information, data and records, and makes initial recommendations with respect to the technical and economic viability of the reservoir. Options with regard to the location, height and type of dam are set out, and comparisons drawn in terms of estimated costs and construction programmes. Within the latter, account must be taken of the resource implications of each, i.e. financial outlay, labour and plant requirements etc. Further investigation of the reservoir basin is principally directed to confirming its integrity with respect to water retention. A thorough geological assessment is necessary for this purpose, particularly in karstic and similarly difficult formations and in areas with a history of mining activity. Investigation of the reservoir margins to confirm the stability of potentially vulnerable areas, e.g. adjacent to the intended dam, is conducted as required. The availability of possible construction materials, e.g. suitable fills, sources of aggregates etc., is also assessed in considerable depth.

Selection of type of dam The optimum type of dam for a specific site is determined by estimates of cost and construction programme for all design solutions which are technically valid. Where site circumstances are such that viable alternatives exist it is important that options are kept open, assessing the implications of each with respect to resources, programme and cost, until a preferred solution is apparent. It may also be necessary to take account of less tangible socio-political and environmental considerations in the determination of that solution. Four considerations of cardinal importance are detailed below. 1. Hydraulic gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic gradient, i, for seepage under, around or through a dam varies by at least one order of magnitude according to type. 2. Foundation stress: nominal stresses transmitted to the foundation vary greatly with dam type. 3. Foundation deformability: certain types of dams are better able to accommodate appreciable foundation deformation and/or settlement without serious damage. 4. Foundation excavation: economic considerations dictate that the excavation volume and foundation preparation should be minimized.

It may also be noted that local factors may assume greater relative importance for a specific site. Examples might include access, seismic risk, material processing and transportation costs, availability of plant and trained labour, ease of river diversion, risk of flood inundation during construction and construction period relative to the desired project commissioning date.

Loads on dams The primary loads and the more important secondary and exceptional sources of loading are identified. Not all the loads identified may be applicable to a specific dam; an element of discretion is left in formulating combinations of loading for analysis.

Concepts of loading

Concrete dam types and characteristics