The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh (ICAB)

Course Name: Information Technology (IT) !rofessional Stage ("no#le$ge %evel) Course Teacher: '($ulla-'l-)ahmu$ *C', *CS, *C)', )+', %%+ Session: Sep-Nov, 20 Section: &I %ecture Synopsis-2

Chapter: Information Technology Architecture Topic: Information System Definition: 'n information system is organi,e$ com(ination of people, har$#are, soft#are, communication net#or- an$ $ata resources that collets, transforms an$ $isseminates information in an organi,ation. In other #ay Information system is a mechanism that helps people to collect, organi,e an$ use information. Major Types of Information Systems in the Organization: Information system may (e classifie$ four types from functional perspective an$ they are sales / mar-eting system, manufacturing / pro$uction system, finance / accounting system an$ human resource system. Sales and Marketing System: This system is responsi(le for selling the organi,ation0s pro$uct or services an$ mar-eting those to the customers. This system is engage$ in or$er processing, price analysis, sales tren$ forecasting etc. Manufacturing and Production System: This system is responsi(le for actual pro$ucing the firm0s goo$s an$ services. It inclu$es machine control, pro$uction planning, facilities location etc. Finance and ccounting System: The finance system is responsi(le for managing the firm0s financial assets an$ to ma1imi,e the return on the financial assets. This system inclu$es accounts receiva(les, (u$geting, profit planning etc. !uman "esource System: This system is responsi(le for attracting, $eveloping an$ maintaining the firm0s #or-force. It inclu$es training an$ $evelopment, compensation analysis, human resources planning etc. 2enerally the follo#ing four types of information systems are correspon$ to each organi,ational level from constituency perspective. The organi,ation has e1ecutive support systems (3SS) at the strategic level, mangement information systems ()IS) an$ $ecision support systems (4SS) at the management level an$ transaction processing systems (T!S) at the operational level. Systems at each level in turn are speciali,e$ to serve each of the ma5or functional areas. Transaction Processing Systems #TPS$: These are the (asic (usiness systems that serve the operational level of the organi,ation. ' transaction processing system is a computeri,e$ system that performs an$ recor$s the $aily routine transactions necessary to con$uct (usiness. 31amples are6 sales or$er entry, hotel reservation systems an$ payroll, employees0 recor$ -eeping etc. 't the operational level, tas-, resources an$ goal are pre$ifine$ an$ highly structure$. Transaction processing systems are often so central to a (usiness that T!S failure for a fe# hours can lea$ to organi,ation $emise an$ perhaps that of other organi,ations lin-e$ to it. )anagers nee$ T!S to monitor the status of internal operations an$ the organi,ation relations #ith the e1ternal environment. T!S are also ma5or pro$ucers of information for other types of systems. T!S involves the follo#ing activities: Capturing $ata to organi,e in files or $ata(ases6 !rocessing of files7$ata(ases using application soft#are6 2enerating information in the form of reports6 !rocessing of 8ueries from various 8uarters of the organi,ation.

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Management Information System #MIS$: 'n )IS can (e $efine$ as a net#or- of computer-(ase$ $ata processing proce$ures $evelope$ in an organi,ation an$ integrate$ as necessary #ith manual an$ other proce$ures for the purpose of provi$ing timely an$ effective information to support $ecision ma-ing an$ other necessary management functions. )IS usually generates regular perio$ic reports to fee$ management functional areas to help management $ecision ma-ing an$ operations. )IS also provi$es nee$e$ a$hoc an$ special 8uery reports. )IS reports must cater information #ith follo#ing attri(utes: 'ccuracy6 Timeliness6 Completeness6 Conciseness. )IS $esign must consi$er the three levels of management-the top level, the mi$$le level an$ the lo#er or supervisory level. Top level managers nee$ a general un$erstan$ing of the organi,ation0s activities. They nee$ the type of information that #ill support long-range strategic plans an$ $ecisions. )i$$le level managers are responsi(le for ma-ing the tactical $ecisions that #ill allocate the resources an$ esta(lish the controls nee$e$ to implement the top level plans. 'n$ lo#er level managers ma-e $ay-to-$ay operational $ecisions to sche$ule an$ control specific tas-s. The actual results of an operation may (e chec-e$ $aily against planne$, e1pectations an$ corrective actions may (e ta-en as nee$e$. ' manager may (e re8uire$ to perform follo#ing activities in an organi,ation: 4etermination of organi,ational o(5ectives an$ $eveloping plans to achieve them6 Securing an$ organi,ing the human an$ physical resources so that these o(5ectives coul$ (e accomplishe$6 31ercising a$e8uate controls over the functions6 )onitoring the result to ensure that accomplishments are procee$ing accor$ing to plan. Decision Support System #DSS$: 4ecision Support System (4SS) refers to the process in #hich the managers ta-e assistance of the components an$ facilities of the )IS har$#are an$ soft#are in or$er to ma-e some a$hoc analysis of some special pro(lems face$ (y them an$ generate useful insights into the $ecision criteria involve$. The analysis are totally a$hoc an$ not $one (y the )IS as a routine. The analysis help management to ma-e (etter $ecisions. This is common practice in case of relatively unstructure$ pro(lems #here there is a high $egree of uncertainty. 4SS often involves simulations e1pert systems an$ so calle$ information centers #here nee$e$. 4SS facilities are clustere$ together for use (y managers. 4SS concept re8uires that the managers get rea$y access to computer har$#are an$ soft#are tools near(y in or$er to ma-e $ecisions more effectively often in an interactive manner #ith concerne$ managers. )o$ern a$vancement in har$#are an$ soft#are technologies has (een of great help in this $irection. 4evelopment of !C9s, computer net#or-s, communication systems, internets, all types of soft#are0s has (asically helpe$ in #i$e use of 4SS concept in (usiness, in$ustry, management an$ many other fiel$s. 4SS has come of age an$ is prece$ing han$-inhan$ #ith )IS. )IS is the (ac-(one information system for management an$ 4SS is provi$ing the constant scope for a$hoc optimi,ation #ith management intervention. )anagement has to (e resourceful an$ #ell-e8uippe$ to $erive the (enefits. The evaluation of computer an$ communication technology is realty helping the process very #ell. DSS %oals and pplications: The $ecision support systems are characteri,e$ (y at least three properties: They support semi structure$ or unstructure$ $ecision ma-ing6 They are fle1i(le enough to respon$ to the changing nee$s of $ecision ma-ers6 an$ They are easy to use. &omponents of DSS: ' 4SS has four (asic components: The users6 4ata(ase6 !lanning languages6 )o$el (ase '(ample of DSS:

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Cost accounting system6 Capital (u$geting system6 +u$get variance analysis system6 2eneral $ecision support system

'(ecuti)e Support Systems #'SS$: The most practical an$ #i$ely implemente$ application of artificial intelligence in (usiness is the $evelopment of e1pert systems. 'n e1ecutive support system (3SS) is a -no#le$ge-(ase$ information system that uses its -no#le$ge a(out a specific, comple1 application area to act as an e1pert consultant to en$ users. 31ecutive support systems provi$e ans#ers to 8uestions in a very specific pro(lem area (y ma-ing humanli-e inferences a(out -no#le$ge containe$ in a speciali,e$ -no#le$ge (ase. They must also (e a(le to e1plain their reasoning process an$ conclusions to a user. So 3SS can provi$e $ecision support to en$ users in the form of a$vice from an e1pert consultant in a specific pro(lem area. Through using an e1pert system non-e1pert can achieve performance compara(le to an e1pert in that particular $omain.

Topic: Computer System &omputer: Computer is the most #on$erful machine create$ (y man. It has many characteristics that ena(le$ the man to a$$ to his mental po#er. The computer has ai$e$ the (rainpo#er to a man. To$ay0s computer is an electronic $evice that must have the follo#ing capa(ilities: 'ccepting $ata6 Store the accepte$ $ata in it0s memory6 !rocess the store$ $ata accor$ing to users instructions6 :utput the results. &omputers cti)ities: ;n$er a program $irection an$ control, computer performs four (asic functions calle$ the I!:S cycle: Input: 'ccepting $ata that has (een represente$ in a #ay that the computer can use. Processing: !erforming arithmetic or comparison operations on the represente$ $ata. Output: 4isplaying results. Storage: Storing results for later reuse. Main &haracteristics of &omputer: The main characteristics of computer are: Speed: <o# fast computer receive, store, process $ata an$ give response to the users. *or e1ample spee$ of latest computer is 2.== 2iga <ert,. Memory: <o# much $ata, a computer can store in its har$ $rive. *or e1ample storage capacity of personal computer (!C) is 207 =0 2+. ccuracy: Computers perform comple1 activities very accurately. Computer cannot commit any mista-e if the operator $oes not ma-e any mista-e. *ersatility: Computer can #or- any#here in the #orl$ in more fle1i(le #ay. The ')olution of Personal &omputer: >ith the invention of computer at its primitive level, it too- enormous space for very little calculations. +y the $egree of time, electronic #orl$ ma$e the change of computer s-eleton. *rom the electronic valve to transistor an$ transistor to silicon chip opene$ the $oor of a person to personali,e a computer that is -no#n as a personal computer. Since the primitive level of computers have $evelope$ in three $irections: i. Smaller si,e6 ii. )ore po#er6 an$ iii. %ess e1pense.

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Types of &omputers and Distinctions +et,een them: There are $ifferent types of computers #i$e sprea$ throughout the #orl$. The main computers that are concerne$ a(out are $iscusse$ (elo#: Digital &omputer: Computers are calle$ $igital (ecause they process $ata that is represente$ in the form of $iscrete values (e.g. 0, , 2, ? @.) (y operating on it in steps. 4iscrete value occurs at each step in the operation. 4igital #atches have special, tiny, $igital computers #ithin them. nalog &omputer: 'nalog computer serves (y processing $ata in the form of electrical voltages, #hich are varia(le li-e the varia(le positions of a pointer on a $ial. The o7p from analog computers is often in the form of smooth graphs from #hich information can (e rea$. !y+rid &omputer: Computers that have the com(ine$ features of $igital an$ analog computers are calle$ hy(ri$ computers. )o$ern #orl$ is so conscious a(out $igiti,ation an$ hence #e are mainly focuse$ to $iscuss a(out $igital computer. 'gain $igital computer (ase$ on the microprocessor $esign can (e of t#o types: i. CIS3 (Comple1 Instruction Set Computing)6 an$ ii. AIS3 (Ae$uce$ Instruction Set Computing). &IS': Support of many comple1 instructions (even may (e for matri1 multiplication). Instruction may (e of varia(le length an$ many a$$ressing mo$es. "IS': Support of only simple (ut very fast instructions. The compiler of such a machine may support a$$itional instructions #hich are converte$ to a series of simple instructions (y the complier. Instructions generally have fi1e$ length an$ a fe# a$$ressing mo$es. ;sually, a very fe# memory instructions (loa$ an$ store) here. :perations are generally performe$ among register. 'nother categori,ation of computers can (e $one (ase$ on the processors an$ they are: i) Single !rocessor Computer6 an$ ii) )ultiprocessor Computer. )o$ern processor use pipelining. ;sually computer instructions pass through several stages (instruction fetch, $eco$e, e1ecution, memory access, #rite (ac- etc.). So, multiple instructions can (e use$. The secon$ tren$ is to replicate internal components of the computer so that it can launch multiple instructions in every pipeline stage. Computers can (e classifie$ into $ifferent types (ase$ on their memory si,e an$ processing spee$: Supercomputers are the largest an$ fastest computers availa(le to$ay6 they have large memories an$ high processing spee$s an$ are capa(le of processing up to a (illion instructions per secon$. Mainframe is a large general purpose computer #hose large memory an$ e1cellent processing capa(ilities ma-e it $eal for applications that re8uire massive computations an$ large-scale processing. Minicomputer are small, po#erful, multi-user systems #ith e1cellent memory capa(ilities an$ processing spee$s6 although they are slo#er an$ often have less memory than mainframes, they are e1cellent #or-horses. -orkstation lie (et#een mi$range computers (minicomputers) an$ personal computers: they are faster an$ more sophisticate$ than !Cs. They are fairly po#erful machines that can (e use$ (oth (y in$ivi$uals an$ (y groups (if they are net#or-e$). Personal computers are versatile machines that are use$ for a num(er of (usiness applications. *inally they are laptops, note(oo-s, han$-hel$ computers an$ pen-(ase$ computers, all are #hich of (attery-operate$ an$ hence can (e use$ any#here at any time. Properties of &omputer System: ' computer system must satisfy the follo#ing properties: 3ach system consist of several components6 There must (e a logical relation (et#een the components6 The components of a system shoul$ (e controlle$ in a #ay such that the specific tas- can (e accomplishe$. .ey "esources/&omponent of Information System:

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'n Information system consists of five ma5or resources: har$#are, soft#are, human, $ata an$ net#or-s. !ard,are "esources: The concept of har$#are resources inclu$es all physical $evices an$ materials use$ in information processing. Specially, it inclu$es not only machines, such as computers an$ other e8uipment, (ut also all $ata me$ia, that is, tangi(le o(5ects on #hich $ata are recor$e$ from sheets of paper to magnetic or optical $is-s. 31amples of har$#are in computer-(ase$ information systems are: &omputer systems, #hich consists of central processing units containiing microprocessors an$ a variety of interconnecte$ peripheral $evices. 31amples are han$-hel$ laptop or $es-top microcomputer systems, mi$range computer systems an$ large mainframe computer systems. &omputer peripherals, #hich are $evices such as a -ey(oar$ or electronic mouse for input of $ata an$ comman$s, a vi$eo screen or printer for output of information an$ magnetic or optical $is-s for storage of $ata resources. Soft,are "esources: The concept of soft#are resources inclu$es all sets of information processing instructions. The generic concept of soft#are inclu$es not only the sets of operating instructions calle$ programs, #hich $irect an$ control computer har$#are, (ut also the sets of information processing instructions calle$ proce$ures that people nee$. The follo#ing are e1ample of soft#are resources: System Soft,are, such as an operating system program, #hich controls an$ supports the operations of a computer system6 pplication Soft,are, #hich are programs that $irect processing for a particular use of computers (y en$ users. 31amples are a sales analysis program, a payroll program, a #or$ processing program etc.6 Procedures, #hich are operating instructions for the people #ho #ill use an information system. 31amples are instructions for filling out a paper form or using a soft#are pac-age. !uman "esources: <uman are re8uire$ for the operation of all information systems.These human resources inclu$es en$ users an$ IS specialists. 'nd users-anyone else #ho uses information systems6 IS Specialists-systems analysts, soft#are $evelopers, system operators. Data "esources: 4ata are more than the ra# material of information systems. The concept of $ata resources has (een (roa$ene$ (y managers an$ information systems professionals. They reali,e that $ata constitute valua(le organi,ational resources. 0et,ork "esources: Telecommunications technologies an$ net#ro-s li-e the internet, intranets an$ e1tranets have (ecome essential to the successful electronic (usiness an$ commerce operations of all types of organi,ations an$ their computer-(ase$ information systems. Telecommunciation net#or-s consist of computers, communications processors an$ other $evices interconnecte$ (y communications me$ia an$ controlle$ (y communications soft#are. The concept of net#or- resources emphasi,es that communications technologies an$ net#or-s are fun$amental resource component of all information systems. Net#or- resources inclu$e communication me$ia an$ net#or- support. &omputer !ard,are: The mechanical $evices that ma-e up the computer are calle$ har$#are. <ar$#are is any part of the computer that can touch. ' computer0s har$#are consists of interconnecte$ electronic $evices that can use to control the computer0s operation, input an$ output. Computer har$#are can (e $ivi$e$ into five categories: ( ) Input, (2) !rocessing, (?) Storage, (B) :utput, an$ (C) Communications. Input !ard,are: The function of input har$#are is to collect $ata an$ convert it into a form suita(le for computer processing. The ma5or input $evices use$ at present are as follo#s:

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.ey+oards: "ey(oar$ is one of the important input $evices to get $ata into the computer. ' computer -ey(oar$ loo-s li-e the type#riter -ey(oar$. The num(er of -eys in a -ey(oar$ varies from mo$el to mo$el. In mo$ern -ey(oar$ the range of -eys is from 0?- 0D. There are $ifferent types of -ey in -ey(oar$. *unction -ey (* -* 2), these -eys have $ifferent functions $epen$ing on the program (eing use$. 3scape (3sc), generally use$ to cancel or interrupt an operation, Ta(ena(les to in$ent te1t, Caps loc--s#itches the -ey(oar$ (et#een all caps an$ normal mo$es, 'lt an$ Ctrl presse$ together #ith other -eys give comman$s to the program in use, Shift -eys-allo# to enter a capital letter or punctuation mar-, Num loc- s#itches the -eypa$ (et#een a num(er entry an$ cursor movement, 'rro# -ey these move the cursor aroun$ the screen etc. Mouse: The mouse is a palm si,e $evice #ith a (all (uilt into the (utton. The mouse may (e connecte$ to the computer (y a ca(le an$ may have from one to four (uttons. The mouse may (e mechanical or optical. )ouse comes in many shapes an$ si,es. >hen, the mouse move over a smooth surface, the (all rolls an$ the pointer on the $isplay screen moves in the same $irection. &licking: )ove the pointer to an item an$ clic- the left (utton. Dragging: Clic- something that see on the screen an$ hol$ $o#n the left (utton. Then move the mouse to E$rag0 the item across the screen. Dou+le1clicking: !oint to something an$ clic- the (utton t#ice, in rapi$ succession. The result $epen$s on the conte1t. In #in$o#s, for e1ample, $ou(le clic-ing a program launches the program. 2oysticks: ' Foystic- is a pointing $evice often use$ for playing games. The 5oystic- has a gearshift li-e lever that is use$ to move the pointer on the screen. :n most 5oystic-s, a (utton on the top is use$ to select options. In in$ustry an$ manufacturing 5oystic-s are use$ to control ro(ots. *light simulators an$ other training simulations also use 5oystic-s. Touch Screen: ' touch screen is an input $evice that allo#s users to e1ecute comman$s (y touching a specific location on the screen. Touch screens are popular, easy to use, intuitive an$ ine1pensive. They are use$ in grocery, fast-foo$ restaurants, information center, vi$eo stores an$ entertainment par-s. *or e1ample, at 4isneylan$, visitors can get information on various entertainment programs offere$ at the resort (y simply touching a menu on a computer screen. 3ight pen: The light pen uses a photoelectric cell to communicate the screen position to the computer. It can (e operate$ (y touching it to the screen. %ight pens are fre8uently use$ for computer ai$e$ $esign application. Digitizer: ' $igiti,ing system consists of a programma(le controller an$ a flat plotting ta(le, a$5usta(le for ra-e an$ elevation. The $igiti,ing ta(le or graphic ta(lets consists of a flat surface (elo# #hich there is gri$ or closely space$ hori,ontal an$ vertical #ires. Several pieces of e8uipment are use$ in con5unction #ith the graphics ta(let. These may inclu$e a stylus or pen, a push (utton cursor or puc- an$ a menu. The ta(let is availa(le in a #i$e range of si,es (GH 1 2H to BDH 1 I2H). The $igiti,ing ta(le may input graphical information $irectly an$ as such is use$ in such applications as map $ra#ing engineering an$ architectural plans, printe$ circuit $esign etc. OM": :)A stan$s for :ptical )ar- Aecognition have (een $evelope$ in the recent past to $etect the presence of or$inary pencil or pen mar-s ma$e on special $ocuments. *or accurate rea$ing charter shoul$ (e #ritten in specifie$ positions an$ shoul$ (e ma$e more precisely. It #or-s on the (asis of con$uctivity of graphics metho$ an$ $ata can (e transferre$ to the computer $irectly. Typical transfer spee$ is B00 characters7minute. O&": :CA stan$s for :ptical Character Aea$er #or-s on the (asis of reflection of light. ;sing :CAs each charter is scanne$ photo electronically an$ converte$ into a pattern of electronic signals. :CA not only $etects the presence of characters (ut also $ifferences them (y their shapes. Aea$ers #ith spee$s varying from 00 to ,C00 $ocument7minute or 2,000-?0,000 character7minute are availa(le. *oice "ecognition: &oice recognition $evices recogni,e an$ e1ecute a set of instructions (ase$ on voice comman$s. In a voice recognition system, the human speech is first converte$ into a $igital pattern an$ is then compare$ to a set of pre-recor$e$ patterns. If a match is foun$, the comman$ is e1ecute$.

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Scanner: ' scanner can copy a printe$ page of te1t or a graphic into the computer0s memory, freeing from creating the $ata from scratch. Processing !ard,are: The function of processing har$#are is to retrieve an$ e1ecute (interpret) instructions (soft#are) provi$e$ to the computer. !rocessing may consist of performing calculations an$ other logical activities, such as comparing sales figures to see #hich musical instruments or #hich salespeople have higher sales. The most essential components of processing har$#are are the Central !rocessing ;nit, '%; an$ )ain )emory. &entral Processing 4nit #&P4$: It is the (rain of the computer. The control unit supervises all other units of the computer. It selects appropriate input an$ output $evice an$ causes $ata to flo# (et#een this $evice an$ memory unit. It fetches the proper computer instruction from memory unit an$ routes $ata reference$ (y the instruction from the memory unit to the arithmetic unit an$ (acto the memory unit. The $esign of the C!; affects the processing po#er an$ the spee$ of the computer, as #ell as the amount of main memory it can use effectively. The C!; is also referre$ to as a processor. 34: 'rithmetic an$ %ogic ;nit is #here the arithmetic an$ logical operation are performe$ as $escri(e$ (y the control unit in accor$ance #ith the computer instructions. To assist the processor it has fe# parts li-e Cache )emory, +;S etc. Memory 4nit/Main Memory: The memory unit is the place #here the computer program an$ the $ata are store$ $uring processing. It is a ran$om access $evices consisting of thousan$s upon thousan$s of storage location. )ain memory-also -no#n as memory, primary storage, internal memory or A') (for Aan$om 'ccess )emory) is #or-ing storage. It has three tas-s. ( ) It hol$s $ata for processing, (2) It hol$s instructions (the programs) for processing the $ata, an$ (?) It hol$s $ata that has (een processe$ ((ecome useful information) an$ is #aiting to (e sent to an output or storage $evice. )ain memory is containe$ on chips calle$ A') chips. There are t#o important facts to -no# a(out main memory: It5s contents are temporary: :nce the po#er to the computer is turne$ off, all the $ata an$ programs #ithin main memory simply vanish. This is #hy $ata must also (e store$ on $is-s an$ tapes-calle$ secon$ary storage to $istinguish them from main memory0s primary storage. Thus, main memory is sai$ to (e volatile. Its capacity )aries in different computers: The si,e of main memory is important. It $etermines ho# much $ata can (e processe$ at once an$ ho# (ig an$ comple1 a program may (e use$ to process it. This capacity varies #ith $ifferent computers, #ith ol$er machines hol$ing less. !hysically all the element in the C!; is attache$ upon a circuit (oar$ is calle$ )other(oar$. 6IOS: The +I:S chip in the !C is a strange (east. !art soft#are, part har$#are, it is one of the most fre8uently use$ an$ least un$erstoo$ components of the computer. +I:S stan$ for +asic Input :utput System. It is a set of instructions permanently enco$e$ on a computer chip. Computer operating systems (li-e 4:S) an$ other application can use the +I:S instructions to communicate #ith the computer input an$ output $evices such as -ey (oar$s an$ printers. The +I:S instructions are J(urne$H, or permanently enco$e$, into a A:) chip. A:) stan$s for Aea$-:nly )emory, #hich means that the computer can rea$ instruction from the chip, (ut cannot #rite to it. >riting or a$$ing information to the chip #oul$ alter or erase the instructions. Sometimes the +I:S is referre$ to as the A:) +I:S. ;nli-e A') or Aan$om-'ccess )emory, #hich is temporary electrical storage space, A:) an$ its contents are permanent components of the computer. +I:S instructions spring into memory as soon as turn on the computer. A:) +I:S contains co$e$ instructions, so it0s li-e soft#are. +ecause the instructions are permanent component of !C, the +I:S is li-e har$#are. >hen turn on !C, the computer0s (rain chip, calle$ the Central !rocessing ;nit (C!;), han$s over controls to the +I:S. The first 5o( the +I:S has at start-up is to run the !o#er-:n Self-Test or !:ST. The !:ST ma-es sure all the chips on the computer0s system (oar$ are #or-ing. It runs $iagnostic tests on the C!;, on various timers an$ controllers, an$ on the computer0s memory chips. >hen see the computer JcountingH its (ytes of memory at start-up, that0s the +I:S testing for error in memory chip. Ne1t +I:S try to communicate #ith all har$#are $evices an$ if it cannot fin$ any particular $evice than an error unusually register on screen. *inally, the +I:S (oots (starts) the computer operating system.

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Storage !ard,are: The function of storage har$#are is to provi$e a means of storing soft#are an$ $ata in a form that is relatively permanent or nonvolatile-that is, the $ata is not lost #hen the po#er is turne$ off an$ easy to retrieve #hen nee$e$ for processing. Storage har$#are serves the same (asic functions as $o office filing systems e1cept that it stores $ata as electromagnetic signals or laser-etche$ spots, commonly on magnetic $is- or optical $is- storage $evice, rather than on paper. !eripheral 38uipment )agnetic $is- $rive )e$ia )agnetic $ispac-, 4iscartri$ge, *i1e$ 4is)agnetic $is-ette, C K an$ ? L inch $iameters :ptical $is-: C4-A:), >:A) !rimary *unctions Secon$ary storage an$ I7: Secon$ary storage an$ I7: Secon$ary storage an$ archival storage Secon$ary storage, I7: an$ $is(ac-up Spee$ an$ Capacity Aanges 'ccess time: 0- 00 m7sec. 4ata transfer: 200,000 to C million (ytes per secon$ Capacity: 0 m- C( (ytes per $is- $rive. 'ccess time: 00-=00m7sec. 4ata transfer: 0,000?0,000 (ytes per secon$ Capacity: ?=0,000-several million (ytes per $is-. 'ccess time: ?0-200 m sec. 4ata transfer: C0,000 to C00,000 (ytes per secon$ Capacity: C4-A:)-up to I00 million, >:A)-up to ? (illion (ytes. 4ata transfer: C0,000 to 2 million (ytes per secon$ Capacity: up to (illion (ytes per tape reel or cartri$ge. )a5or '$vantage an$7or 4isa$vantage %arge capacity, fast, 4irect 'ccess Storage 4evice (4'S4) (ut relatively e1pensive. Small, ine1pensive (ut slo#er capacity than other 4'S4s. %arge capacity, high 8uality storage of $ata, te1t an$ images. !rimarily a rea$ only me$ium. Ine1pensive #ith a fast transfer rate (ut se8uential access.

*loppy $is$rive

:ptical $is$rive

)agnetic tape

)agnetic tape reel an$ cartri$ge

Output !ard,are: The function of output har$#are is to provi$e the user #ith the means to vie# information pro$uce$ (y the computer system. The 5um(le of unorgani,e$ sales figures no# processe$ into meaningful form is $isplaye$ on a computer screen or printe$ out on paper. 'nother type of softcopy output is au$io output, such as voice. Some output $evices are: Monitor: )onitor is one of the man$atory output $evices of computer. The on screen $isplay ena(les to see ho# applications are processing $ata, (ut it is important to remem(er that the screen $isplay isn0t permanent recor$. To $rive home this point screen output is sometimes calle$ soft copy as oppose$ to har$ copy. )onitors that loo- li-e television screens use the T&s &athode "ay Tu+e #&"T$ technology in #hich the image is forme$ (y an electron Egun0 shooting a stream correspon$ing to the three primary color (re$, green an$ (lue) are com(ine$ in varying intensities to pro$uce on screen colors. The thinner monitor use$ on note(oo- an$ other small computer is -no#n as flat panel $isplays. )ost flat panel $isplays use 3i7uid &rystal Display #3&D$ . *or presentations %C4 pro5ectors are increasingly popular. )onochrome monitors $isplay only t#o colors: typically green or am(er characters against (lac(ac-groun$s. 2rayscale monitor $isplay (ac-, #hite an$ $o,ens or thousan$s of sha$es of gray. )onitors are also categori,e$ (y their si,e. Si,e of the CATs front surface measure$ $iagonally. *or this reason it0s important to $istinguish (et#een the monitors 8uote$ si,e an$ the vie#a(le si,e. Printers: !rinter is the $evice (y #hich computer gives printe$ output naturally in the paper. !rinters are (ase$ on three $ifferent types of technology: $ot matri1, in-5et, an$ laser. The cheapest in terms of price an$ operational costs is the Dot Matri( Printer, #hich uses a rectangle of G or 2B printing #ires, also calle$ pins. The pins stri-e a ri((on an$ #hen the ri((on is presse$ against the paper, it forms a letter. ' 2B-pin printer can print 2B $ots per character #hile a G-pin printer can print only G $ots per character. Thus, the higher the num(er of pins, the (etter the 8uality of print. !rinting spee$ is measure$ in Characters !er Secon$ (C!S). *or e1ample, the

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3pson %M-CI0N is a 2B-pin printer that can print IC to ??Icps. Clearly, printers #ill higher cps is more $esira(le. Inkjet Printers use a print-hea$ no,,le to spray $rops of in- that form characters on the page. In-5ets lie some#here (et#een $ot matri1 printers an$ laser printers in terms of price an$ print 8uality6 they are also 8uieter than $ot matri1 printers. >hile most in-5et printers print in (lac-, a fe# mo$els also print in color. They only $ra#(ac- is that in-5ets have high operating costs-a(out B to D cents per page. <e#lett-!ac-ar$0s 4es-5et is one of the most popular in-5et printers. 3aser Printers are the high-en$ computer printers. They can print =00 4ots !er Inch (4!I $ or more. The in$ustry stan$ar$ for a laser printer is ?00 $pi, a far cry from the $ot matri1 printer0s 2B $ots per character. The =00-$pi mo$els are sophisticate$ printers #hose output is of the same 8uality as that of a maga,ine or ne#spaper. %aser printer spee$ runs from a(out B !!) (!ages !er )inute) to = ppm6 net#or- printers are even faster. Sound 6oards: Soun$, generate$ (y a soun$ (oar$ can a$$ a ne# $imension to many computer applications, from computer games to (usiness applications. Spea-ers are an important part of a soun$ (oar$6 the (oar$ is only as goo$ as its spea-ers. There are three important factors to consi$er #hen selecting a soun$ (oar$. They are the sampling rate, the amount of $ata store$ in each sample an$ the )usical Instrument 4igital Interface ()I4I) capa(ility. Plotter: It is one -in$ of special printing $evice, use$ for $esign an$ $ra#ing. 6ar &ode Printer: This is use$ to print (ar co$e. Other Output De)ices: )any li(raries use microfiche an$ microfilm, #hich can store large volumes of information in a small amount of space an$ are also relatively ine1pensive. )icrofiches are i$eal for outputting information relate$ to transactions processing applications, such as invoices, chec-s, an$ accounts receiva(le. &ommunications !ard,are: The function of communications har$#are is to facilitate the connections (et#een computers an$ (et#een groups of connecte$ computers (net#or-s). Communications har$#are #oul$ use to receive on computer the guitar sales $ata from computers locate$ throughout the #orl$ li-e ;nite$ States or Cana$a to use the $ata to create a summary report. Common communications har$#are components are the mo$em, ca(le an$ fa1 mo$em. Modems: To convert a computer0s digital signals to analog signals an$ vice versa, nee$ a $evice calle$ a mo$em (pronounce$ Jmoh-$emH). ' mo$em allo#s computers to communicate #ith each other over telephone lines. )any microcomputers come #ith a mo$em alrea$y (uilt-in. :ther#ise, for O 00 or less one can (uy this that is simply plug into the computer an$ connect to the telephone 5ac-. PDigital refers to communications signals or information that is represente$ in a (inary or t#o-state on7off, open7close$, present7a(sent, positive7negative, yes7no arrangement6 the JonH state can (e co$e$ as a $igit an$ the JoffH state as a 0 $igit. Computers use $igital signals-strings of on an$ off electrical pulses represente$ in co$es of s an$ 0s to represent soft#are instructions an$ $ata. <o#ever, most phenomena of the #orl$ are analog, representing continuously varia(le 8uantities. Soun$, light, temperature an$ pressure values for instance can fall any #here on a continuum or range. Stan$ar$ telephone lines are an analog me$ium that is6 they transmit only analog signals, such as voice messages an$ Jon-hol$H music.Q &a+le: Computers can communicate $irectly #ith each other, via a ca(le, if the signal $oesn0t go over the tra$itional telephone lines. This is common #hen computers are part of a specially #ire$ small net#or- (a local area net#or-) on a college campus, for e1ample. Fa( Modem: The stan$ar$ fa1 machine scans a paper $ocument an$ converts its image into co$e for transmission over a telephone line to another fa1 machine. The receiving fa1 machine then reconverts the co$es an$ prints out a facsimile ($uplicate) of the original. There is another -in$ of fa1 har$#are that can (e installe$ insi$e the computer ca(inet. This -in$ is much 8uic-er an$ may (e i$eal for anyone #ho regularly #rites an$ fa1es reports. ' fa1 mo$em #ith a fa1 capa(ility that ena(les to sen$ signals $irectly from computer to someone else0s fa1 machine or computer fa1 mo$em. That is, one $on0t has to printout the material (efore sen$ it. The

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fa1 mo$em allo#s transmitting information much more li-ely that ha$ to fee$ it page (y page into a fa1 machine. ;ltimately, it is hope$, such communications $evices #ill free us from the torrent of paper #ith #hich most of us $o (usiness. In$ee$, for years e1perts have (een pre$icting the arrival of the Jpaperless officeH once electronic communications are fully phase$ in. Soft,are: Soft#are consists of the step-(y-step instructions that tell the computer ho# to perform a tas-, e.g. operate an$ give re8uire$ output. In the other #or$, soft#are is the computer instructions or $ata. 'nything that can (e store$ electronically is soft#are. The storage $evices an$ $isplay $evices are har$#are. There are t#o (asic types of soft#are: i. Systems soft#are6 an$ ii. 'pplications soft#are. Systems Soft,are: This is the soft#are that inclu$es the operating system, all the utilities an$ language translators that ena(le the computer to function an$ to run the applications soft#are. The very special tas-s performe$ (y the operating system are, it first interacts #ith +I:S an$ forming a shell e1ecutes applications an$ provi$es interfaces allo#ing user to interact #ith the !C. So, the operating system manages files, (ri$ges the relationship (et#een user an$ application #ith har$#are through +I:S an$ loa$s the application soft#are. Some comman$ (ase$ operating systems are 4:S, ;NIR, %IN;R an$ client server (ase$ operating systems #ith graphical user interface are >in$o#s 2000 !rofessional, >in$o#s 2000, >in$o#s NT etc. &lassification of System Soft,are: System Soft#are can (e (roa$ly classifie$ into ? classes: System )anagement Soft#are6 System Support Soft#are6 System 4evelopment Soft#are. System Management Soft,are: System management soft#are is use$ to manage the overall computer system as a #hole an$ can (e classifie$ into follo#ing categories: :perating System6 Net#or- )anagement6 4ata(ase )anagement. System Support Soft,are: System support soft#are is use$ to support the computer system to #or- properly an$ can (e classifie$ into follo#ing categories: System ;tility Soft#are6 System !erformance Soft#are6 System Security )onitor !rogram. System De)elopment Soft,are: System $evelopment soft#are is use$ to $evelop the system soft#are for the computer system an$ can (e classifie$ into follo#ing categories: !rogramming %anguage Translator6 !rogramming 3$itor / Tools6 Computer 'i$e$ Soft#are 3ngineering. pplication Soft,are: The soft#are that e1ecutes the application is calle$ the application soft#are. In other #or$s applications soft#are, #hich may (e custom #ritten or pac-age$, ena(les users to perform their #or-. 'pplications such as #or$ processor, sprea$sheets an$ games are normally loa$e$ an$ e1ecute$ (y the operating system. :ffice GI, 2000 an$ R! are $esignate$ to provi$e pac-age applications #here )S 31cel provi$es sprea$sheets, )S >or$ provi$es #or$ processing. 'pplication soft#are may (e $ivi$e$ into J(asic toolsH an$ Ja$vance$ toolsH. )any application soft#are pac-ages share common features such as cursors, menus, help screens, $ialog (o1es, micros, tutorials an$ $ocumentation. Different Types of pplication Soft,are:

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>or$ processing soft#are6 4ata(ase soft#are6 Sprea$sheet soft#are6 )ultime$ia soft#are6 !resentation soft#are6 3nterprise soft#are6 Information #or-er soft#are6 3$ucational soft#are6 Simulation soft#are6 Connect access soft#are.

&lassification of pplication Soft,are: 'pplication Soft#are can (e classifie$ into 2 Classes: 2eneral 'pplication !rogram6 'pplication Specific !rogram. 4tility Soft,are: ;tility soft#are is the a$$itional )icrsoft pro$ucts those are inclu$e$ #ith operating systems. This pac-age has (een a$$e$ for trou(leshooting the har$#are an$ soft#are. ;tility programs are generally use$ to support, enhance or e1pan$ e1isting programs in a computer system. 31amples of utility programs are: Screen Sa)er: ' screen saver is a utility that suppose$ly prevents a monitor9s $isplay screen from (eing etche$ (y an unchanging image. Screen savers automatically put some moving patterns on the screen, suppose$ly to prevent (urnout. Data "eco)ery: ' $ata recovery utility is use$ to un$elete a file or information that has (een acci$entally $elete$. ;n$elete means to restore the last $elete operation that has ta-en place. The $ata or program that is trying to recover may (e on a har$ $is- or a $is-ette. 6ackup: Su$$enly the har$ $is- $rives fails an$ have no more programs or files. If here a utility has use$ to ma-e a (ac-up or $uplicate copy of the information on the har$ $is-. 4:S has comman$s to help in ma-ing (ac-ups on $is-ettes, (ut they are not easy to use. 31amples of (ac-up utilities are Norton +ac-up from symantec Corp. *irus Protection: ' virus consists of hi$$en programming instructions that are (urie$ #ithin an application or systems program. They copy themselves to other programs, causing havoc. Sometimes the virus is merely a simple pran- that pops up a message. Sometimes, ho#ever, it can $estroy programs an$ $ata. &iruses are sprea$ #hen people e1change $is-ettes or $o#nloa$ (ma-e copies of) information from computer net#or-s. *ortunately, antivirus soft#are is availa(le. 'ntivirus soft#are is a utility program that scans har$ $is-s, $is-ettes an$ the microcomputer9s memory to $etect viruses. Some utilities $estroy the virus on the spot. :thers notify the possi(le viral (ehavior, in case the virus originate$ after the soft#are #as release$. 31amples of antivirus soft#are are 'nti-&irus from Central !oint Soft#are Inc., The Norton 'nti&irus from Symantec Corp. an$ &iruCi$e from !arsons Technology. Data &ompression: In case of continue to store files on our har$ $is-, it #ill eventually fill up. Then there may (e three choices. Those are $elete ol$ files to ma-e room for the ne# or can (uy a ne# har$ $is- #ith more capacity an$ transfer the ol$ files an$ programs to it or can (uy a $ata compression utility. 4ata compression removes re$un$ant elements, gaps an$ unnecessary $ata from a computer9s storage space so less is re8uire$ to store or transmit $ata. Memory Management: 4ifferent microcomputers have $ifferent types of memory an$ $ifferent applications programs have $ifferent memory re8uirements. )emory-management utilities are programs that $etermine ho# to efficiently control an$ allocate memory resources. )emory management programs may (e activate$ (y soft#are $rivers. ' $river is a series of program instructions that stan$ar$i,es the format of $ata transmitte$ (et#een a computer an$ a peripheral $evice, such as a mouse or printer. Defragmentation: >hen a file is store$ on a $is-, the computer tries to put the elements of $ata ne1t to one another. <o#ever, this is not al#ays possi(le (ecause previously store$ $ata may (e ta-ing up locations that prevent this. Then, after the user has save$ an$ $elete$ many files, there remain many scattere$ areas of store$ $ata that are too small to (e use$ pro$uctively. (This is calle$ fra8mentation) This situation causes the computer to run slo#er than if all the $ata in a file #ere store$ together in one location. ;tility programs are availa(le to $efragment the $is-, thus
rearranging the $ata so that the $ata units of each file are repositione$ together in one location on the $is-.

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nother &lassification of Soft,are: *rom the commercial perspective soft#are can (e classifie$ into three ma5or classes: Commercial Soft#are6 *ree#are7:pen Source6 Share#are. &ommercial Soft,are: It refers to any soft#are that is $esigne$ for sale to serve a commercial nee$. This type of soft#are re8uires payment (efore it can (e use$ an$ inclu$es all the program features #ith no restrictions or time limit. Free,are/Open Source: *ree#are is free to use an$ $oes not re8uire any payment from the user. :pen source soft#are (:SS) is computer soft#are that is availa(le in source co$e form for #hich the source co$e an$ certain other rights normally reserve$ for copyright hol$ers are provi$e$ un$er a soft#are license that permits users to stu$y, change an$ improve the soft#are. Share,are: Share#are is (asically Jtry (efore you (uyH soft#are. Share#are is soft#are that is $istri(ute$ free on a trial (asis #ith the un$erstan$ing that the user may nee$ or not to pay for it later. People -are: This is nothing (ut the user (human). >ithout a user computer $o nothing. Computer system is incomplete #ithout a user. Firm,are: *irm#are is a -in$ of soft#are (programs or $ata) that has (een #ritten onto rea$-only memory (A:)). *irm#are is a com(ination of soft#are an$ har$#are. A:)s an$ !A:)s that have $ata or programs recor$e$ on them are firm#are. 31amples of firm#are inclu$e: The +I:S foun$ in I+)-compati(le personal computer6 :pen firm#are use$ in computers from Sun )icro systems an$ 'pple Computer6 'ACS use$ in computers from Silicon 2raphics6 AT'S (Aun Time '(straction Services) use$ in computers from I+)6 3!A:) chips use$ in the 3venti$e <-?000 series of $igital music processors. Topic: Data Structure Data nalysis: 4ata analysis is a process in #hich $ata is or$ere$ an$ organi,e$ so that useful information can (e e1tracte$. The $ata in a computer system are organi,e$ in a hierarchy, -no#n as $ata hierarchy chain. The $ata hierarchy comprises (its, (ytes, fiel$s, recor$s an$ files, #hich are the elements of a $ata(ase. 6it and 6yte: +it (short for (inary $igit or single (inary $igit) is the smallest unit of $ata in a computer. ' (it has a single (inary value, either 0 or . 'lthough computers usually provi$e instructions that can test an$ manipulate (its, they generally are $esigne$ to store $ata an$ e1ecute instructions in (it multiples calle$ +yte. In most computer systems, there are eight (its in a (yte. The value of a (it is usually store$ as either a(ove or (elo# a $esignate$ level of electrical charge in a single capacitor #ithin a memory $evice. <alf a (yte (four (its) is calle$ a ni++le. Field 8 "ecord: field is a unit of $ata consisting of one or more characters. record is a collection of relate$ fiel$s. 'n e1ample of a recor$ #oul$ (e our name an$ a$$ress an$ social security num(er. 'll ta(les consist of recor$ an$ fiel$s. The ro# of a ta(le calle$ recor$s an$ column is calle$ the fiel$s. The ro#7recor$ $escri(es all the attri(utes of a single element of a ta(le #here column7fiel$ is the in$ivi$ual attri(ute of the element. The fiel$ is fi1e$ or pre-$esigne$ for specific attri(ute an$ has name to $istinguish. To a$$ element, recor$ is increase$ at the time of operation an$ recor$ is i$entifie$ #ith the fiel$ value. 's for e1ample this is an instance of a ta(le: !ersonal I4, '$$ress I4, *irst Name, %ast Name etc. is the fiel$s of the ta(le an$ every ra# is representing a person. The ra#7recor$ is i$entifie$ (y %ast Name or !erson I4.

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File: *ile is the (unch or collection of $ata or instruction that can (e i$entifie$ (y the operating system. In the computer file can (e any type i.e. e1ecuta(le, system, application etc. The file is organi,e$ (y operating system an$ can (e accesse$ $irectly (y operating system or #ith the association of any other application soft#are. The file management system is totally controlle$ (y operating system. The typical file processing system is supporte$ (y a conventional operating system. The system stores permanent recor$s in various files an$ it nee$s $ifferent application programs to e1tract recor$s from an$ a$$ recor$s to the appropriate files. +efore $ata(ase management systems (4+)Ss) came along, organi,ations usually store$ information in such systems. "eeping organi,ational information in a file-processing system has a num(er of ma5or $isa$vantages: Data redundancy and inconsistency: Same attri(ute7value may store in $ifferent files an$ that must (e up$ate$ at the same time. Difficulty in accessing data: *or e1ample, information is scattere$ in t#o or more files, so to up$ate one has to access in all file. Data isolation: +ecause $ata scattere$ in various files an$ the files may (e in $ifferent format. Integrity pro+lem: 4ue to consistency constrains $ata integrity is a pro(lem. &oncurrent access anomalies: 'ccessing to $ifferent of same $ata at a time pro$uce critical error. Security pro+lem: Controlling of accesses is $ifficult. Data *alidation: 4ata &ali$ation is the process of ensuring that a program operates on clean, correct an$ useful $ata. It uses routines, often calle$ J&ali$ation AulesH or JChec- AoutinesH that chec- for correctness, meaningfulness an$ security of $ata that are input to the system. The rules may (e implemente$ through the automate$ facilities of a $ata $ictionary or (y the inclusion of e1plicate application program vali$ation logic. *or (usiness applications, $ata vali$ation can (e $efine$ through $eclare$ly $ata integrity rules or proce$ure-(ase$ rules. 4ata that $oesn0t conform to these rules must negatively affect (usiness process e1ecution. Therefore $ata vali$ation shoul$ start #ith (usiness process $efinition an$ set of (usiness rules #ithin this process. *alidation Method: 'llo#e$ Character Chec-: Consistency Chec-6 Control Totals6 4ata Type Chec-6 *ile 31istence Chec-6 *ormat or !icture Chec-6 %imit Chec-6 %ogic Chec-6 )issing 4ata Test6 Aange Chec-6 ;ni8ueness Chec-.

Topic: Database Management System Data+ase: ' $ata(ase is a collection of $ata. >hen ra# $ata is store$ in a structure$ format is calle$ $ata(ase. 'n a$$ress (oo- or a phone $irectory is #ell -no#n $ata(ases. ;nli-e one of these #ritten or printe$ $ata(ases #ith a computeri,e$ $ata(ase any(o$y is not stuc- #ith a single format. Not only a(ility to search for a phone num(er, also search for an a$$ress, a first name or #hatever other $ata or com(ination of $ata is in the collection. The fact that a computer $ata(ase is not restricte$ to certain $ata li-e name, a$$ress an$ phone num(er, can collect any $ata that specify, such as part num(ers, or$er num(ers, $ates or pro$uct prices. ' $ata(ase may (e fairly small, containe$ entirely #ithin o#n personal computer or it may (e massive, availa(le online to us

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from an information service. >ith a computer $ata(ase, #e can report e1actly the information #e #ant in the chosen format. 4ata(ases are #i$ely use$. *ollo#ing are some representative applications: +an-ing: No# a $ays most effective use for all sorts of (an-ing operations. 'irline: *or reservation an$ sche$ule information, it is use$ centrally for all airlines. So, any(o$y can reserve to any airline from any#here in the #orl$. Cre$it an$ Transaction: )ostly use$ for customer $e(t position an$ payment sche$ule. Telecommunication: *or -eeping recor$s of all sorts of uses it is almost man$atory no# a $ay. 2enerally recor$s ($ata) are create$ automatically. +illing: &arious type of service-oriente$ (illing (3lectricity, >ater, Telephone (illing) is use$ $ata(ase for efficient operation. 'ccounts: )ost of the organi,ation use for its 2eneral le$ger. ;niversities an$ e$ucational institute: ;se for their stu$ent9s information. Data+ase Management System #D6MS$: ' $ata(ase management system is a computer-(ase$ system for $efining, creating, manipulating, controlling, managing an$ using $ata(ases. ' $ata(ase is a collection of integrate$ $ata organi,e$ as (ytes, fiel$s, recor$s, an$ files. 4ata(ase management systems are replacing ol$ file management systems an$ are there(y improving $ata integrity an$ in$epen$ence an$ re$ucing $ata re$un$ancy. d)antages and 3imitations of the D6MS: ' 4+)S can minimi,e $ata re$un$ancy, allo# easy file up$ating, ma1imi,e $ata integrity an$ in$epen$ence, simplify maintenance, increase user pro$uctivity an$ $ata security, an$ stan$ar$i,e $ata $efinitions. <o#ever, 4+)S re8uires comple1 planning an$ e1pertise to create an$ maintain. They can also (e e1pensive. The principal a$vantages of the 4+)S approach inclu$e: Minimization of data redundancy: )ore storage (ecomes availa(le #hen maintenance of re$un$ant $ata elements among tra$itionally separate application files is minimi,e$. 'asy file updating and ma(imization of data integrity: In tra$itional systems, in #hich the same element of $ata #as -ept in several $ifferent files, ensuring that all copies of the $ata elements #ere up$ate$ #hen changes #ere ma$e #as a pro(lem. >hen a $ata fiel$ nee$e$ to (e change$, it ha$ to (e up$ate$ in all the files in #hich it occurre$. If some files #ere misse$, $ata (ecame inconsistent. >hen $ata is inconsistent, $ata integrity is not maintaine$ an$ reports #ill (e pro$uce$ #ith erroneous information. 4ata is no longer accurate, relia(le an$7or timely. 4+)Ss ma-e up$ating files much easier an$ so improve the consistency of $ata, thus ensuring $ata integrity. Data independence and simplification of program maintenance: In a 4+)S, the programs are much more in$epen$ent of the $ata than in tra$itional file processing systems. !reviously, programs ha$ to inclu$e a su(stantial amount of information a(out the format an$ structure of the fiel$s an$ recor$s in each file accesse$. In a 4+)S, this information is containe$ in the $ata $ictionary. Increased user producti)ity: The a(ility of a 4+)S to respon$ 8uic-ly to user re8uests for a$$itional information #ithout involving the user in technical language manipulation, encourages faster an$ more efficient #or-. The report generators an$ 8uery languages associate$ #ith $ata(ase management systems ma-e them easy to use. Increased security: Control of access to an$ use of the $ata(ase is easily esta(lishe$. >ith tra$itional file processing systems, the $ata #as too fragmente$ for effective security to (e e1ercise$. Standardization of data definitions: +efore $ata(ase management systems, each application program coul$ $efine similar elements of $ata #ith $ifferent names. <o#ever, the use of $ata $ictionaries stan$ar$i,es the names an$ $escriptions of $ata elements. There are $isa$vantages to using a $ata(ase management system: 4ata(ase management systems are comple1, e1tensive planning an$ a su(stantial amount of technical e1pertise are nee$e$ to implement an$ maintain a system6 The costs associate$ #ith the $evelopment an$ operation of a corporate #i$e 4+)S can (e su(stantial in terms of soft#are an$ har$#are ac8uisition, technical support personnel an$ operations personnel6

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The consoli$ation of an entire (usiness9s information resources into a 4+)S can create a high level of vulnera(ility. ' natural $isaster, a fire or even a har$#are or soft#are-relate$ pro(lem can cause the loss of the current version of the $ata(ase files. This coul$ (e fatal for a (usiness unless proper precautions are ta-en. ' very thorough frame#or- of policies an$ proce$ures must (e esta(lishe$ to ensure that (ac-up copies of the $ata(ase files are ma$e on a regular (asis that a transaction log is maintaine$ an$ that $ocumentation e1ists for recovery proce$ures. 4amage to $ata(ase affects virtually all application programs.

Features of D6MS: *eatures commonly offere$ (y $ata(ase management systems inclu$e: Muery '(ility6 +ac--up an$ Aeplication6 Aule 3nforcement6 Security6 Computation6 Change an$ 'ccess %ogging6 'utomate$ :ptimi,ation6

Topic: Processing Techni7ues: 6atch Processing: ' metho$ of collecting an$ processing $ata in #hich transactions are accumulate$ an$ store$ until a specifie$ time #hen it is convenient or necessary to process them as a group. +atch processing has follo#ing (enefits: It allo#s sharing of computer resources among many users an$ programs6 It shifts the time of 5o( processing to #hen the computing resources are less (usy6 It avoi$s i$ling the computing resources #ith minute (y minute manual intervention an$ supervision6 +y -eeping high overall rate of utili,ation, it (etter amorti,es the cost of a computer especially an e1pensive one. Distri+uted Processing: ' form of $ecentrali,ation of information processing ma$e possi(le (y a net#or- of computers $isperse$ throughout an organi,ation. !rocessing of users applications is acomplishe$ (y several computers interconnecte$ (y a telecommunications net#or-, rather than relying on one large centrali,e$ computer facilities or on the $ecentrali,e$ operation of several in$epen$ent computers. The ma5or a$vantages of $istri(ute$ processing are as follo#s: ' $istri(ute$ system attempts to capture the a$vantage of (oth a centrali,e$ an$ a $ecentrali,e$ system6 It allo#s greater fle1i(ility in placing true computer po#er at the location #here it is nee$e$6 It facilitates 8uic- an$ (etter access to $ata an$ information especially #here $istance is a ma5or factor6 +etter computer resources are easily availa(le to the en$ users6 The availa(ility of multiple processors in the net#or- permits pea- loa$ sharing an$ provi$es (ac-up facilities in the event of e8uipment failure. "eal1time Processing: It is also calle$ online processing, #here $ata are processe$ imme$iately after a transaction occurs. 'll online transaction processing systems incorporate real-time processing capa(ilities. )any online systems also $epen$ on the capa(ilities of fault tolerant computer systems that can continue to operate even if parts of the system fail.

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Timesharing: It is a system that supports many user stations or terminals simultaneously. ' front-en$ processor may (e use$ to sche$ule an$ control all user re8uests entering the system from the terminals, ena(ling the main computer to concentrate solely on processing. '$vantages: Ae$uces C!; i$le time6 :ffers computing facility to small users6 !rovi$es a$vantages of 8uic- response6 Ae$uces the output of paper6 'voi$s $uplication of soft#are. 4isa$vantages: Muestion of security6 !ro(lem of relia(ility6 !ro(lem of $ata communication6 Muestion of overhea$ involve$. Multiprogramming: )ultiprogramming is the name given to the interleave$ e1ecution of t#o or more $ifferent an$ in$epen$ent programs (y the same computer. The ma5or a$vantages of multiprogramming are as follo#s: Increase throughput6 %o#ere$ response time. To incorporate multiprogramming in the operating system, the follo#ing har$#are an$ soft#are features are re8uire$: %arge memory6 )emory protection6 !rogram status preservation6 !roper 5o( mi1. Multiprocessing: )ultiprocessing is use$ to $escri(e interconnecte$ computer configurations or computers #ith t#o or more in$epen$ent C!;s that have the a(ility to simultaneously e1ecute several programs. '$vantages: It improves the performance of computer systems (y allo#ing parallel processing of the segments of programs6 It also facilitates more efficient utili,ation of all the other $evices of the computer system6 It provi$es a (uilt in (ac-up. 4isa$vantages: ' very sophisticate$ operating system is re8uire$ to sche$ule, (alance an$ coor$inate the input, output an$ processing activities of multiple C!;s6 ' large main memory is re8uire$6 Such system is very e1pensive.

Topic: Security Control &omputer Security: Computer security inclu$es the policies, proce$ures, tools an$ techni8ues $esigne$ to protect a company9s computer assets from acci$ental, intentional or natural $isasters, inclu$ing acci$ental input or output errors, theft, (rea-ings, physical $amage an$ illegal access or manipulation. Computer security is a comple1 an$ pervasive pro(lem that often stumps many organi,ations, #hich struggle to (alance proper security against the cost an$ inconvenience of provi$ing it. It cannot (e achieve$ through automation or sophisticate$ e8uipment alone6 it also re8uires the active participation of employees #ith common sense, goo$ 5u$gment an$ high moral values, (ecause security is ultimately the responsi(ility of the in$ivi$ual using the computer. Therefore, it is

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not surprising that organi,ations that promote creativity, innovation, trust an$ high ethical stan$ar$s appear to (e more successful in enforcing computer security than organi,ations #ith stifling cultures. -hy are &omputer Systems *ulnera+le9 There are a num(er of reasons #hy computer systems are vulnera(le to security (reaches. The si1 primary reasons for the a(ove are as follo#s: Intentional 6reaches +y 'mployees: ;nfortunately, among the primary sources of security (reaches are employees #ho are either callous or forgetful a(out security stan$ar$s. In some cases employees intentionally cause (reaches, either for financial gain or for the fun of it. :ne of the (est #ays to re$uce security (reaches is to e$ucate employees a(out security policies an$ to $early communicate the penalties for violations. Increased System &omple(ity: To$ay, #ith the sprea$ of en$-user computing, the num(er of computer systems in the #or-place has increase$ manifol$s. )oreover, information systems have gone from (eing support systems to (eing the lifelines of many (usinesses, so the num(er of mission-critical systems has also increase$ significantly. Technological a$vances in computers have ma$e many systems e1tremely comple1 an$ $ifficult to manage. 's net#or-e$ systems (ecome the norm, the tas- of securing computer systems is (ecoming more an$ more challenging. *inally, users #or-ing on such systems have technical sophistication that can (e mis$irecte$. &hoices of System &omponents: In recent years, the num(er of har$#are, soft#are an$ net#or- options availa(le to managers has increase$ manifol$s. 's IS mangers attempt to integrate this #i$e variety of tools an$ techni8ues, provi$ing system security is often a $aunting tas-. *urther, many systems run on $ifferent operating systems an$ security consi$erations are often $ifferent for $ifferent systems. Net#or- components an$ configurations have also increase$, creating the opportunity to Smi1 an$ matchS or Splug n play.S It is even more $ifficult to provi$e security for a $iverse set of systems. 0et,ork *ulnera+ilities: No# a $ays telecommunications a$vances in net#or-s an$ have profoun$ly affecte$ organi,ational pro$uctivity an$ $ecision ma-ing. The #ay companies $o (usiness has (een completely revolutioni,e$ (y telecommunications. ;nfortunately, net#or-s are also among the most vulnera(le lin-s in the security chain for computer systems-in fact, in a recent survey of CI:s, more than G0T of the respon$ents in$icate$ that net#or- security #as a strategic concern for their organi,ations. SNet#or-s are essentially sieves to anyone #ith minor technical s-ills an$ the $esire to retrieve other people9s information.S9 Sophisticated !ackers: They are given $ifferent names-hac-ers, crac-ers, information #arriors, cy(erpun-s, cy(er terrorists an$ phone frea-s-(ut they are all people #ho violate computer security. ' hac-er is an in$ivi$ual #ho is -no#le$gea(le enough to (rea- into a computer system or facility, although he or she $oes not cause any harm to the system or the organi,ation. ' crac-er, on the other han$, is a computer thief #ho (rea-s into a system #ith the intent of stealing pass#or$s (sets of characters that allo# users to log onto a system or to access a program), mail messages, files, programs an$ so on for fun or for profit. &omplacent Management: In spite of the many highly pu(lici,e$ cases of security violations, top management in many organi,ations is o(livious to security violations an$ their a(ility to (ring a corporation to its -nees. They are often reluctant to invest in security (ecause they $o not (elieve it has a $irect impact on profits. +ut unless management ta-es a vigilant an$ proactive approach to computer security, security (reaches are li-e time (om(s #aiting to e1plo$e. Malicious Soft,are/&omputer *iruses: &iruses are a form of high-tech maliciousness. It is the cause of $estruction of 4ata an$ Soft#are. :ne of the most $estructive e1amples of computer crime involves the creation of computer viruses or #arms. &irus is the more popular term (ut technically a virus is a program co$e that cannot #or- #ithout (eing inserte$ into another program. ' #orm is a $istinct program that can run unai$e$. In either case, these programs copy annoying or $estructive routines into the net#or-e$ computer systems of anyone #ho accesses computers infecte$ #ith the virus or #ho uses copies of magnetic $is-s ta-en from infecte$ computers. Thus, a compute virus or #orm can sprea$ $estruction among many users. Though they sometimes $isplay only humorous messages, they more often $estroy the contents of memory, har$ $is-s an$ other storage $evices. Copy routines in the virus or #orm sprea$ the virus an$ $estroy the $ata an$ soft#are of many computer users.

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Computer viruses enter a computer system typically through illegal or (orro#e$ copies of soft#are or through net#or- lin-s to other computer systems. Copies of soft#are $o#nloa$e$ from electronic (ulletin (oar$s can (e another source of viruses. ' virus usually copies itself into the files of a computer0s operating system. Then the virus sprea$s to main memory an$ copies itself onto the computer0s har$ $is- an$ any inserte$ floppy $is-s. The virus sprea$s to other computers through telecommunications lin-s or floppy $is-s from infecte$ computers. Thus, as a goo$ en$ user computing practice, avoi$ using soft#are from 8uestiona(le sources #ithout chec-ing for viruses. )alicious soft#are can (e classifie$ into t#o categories: a. Nee$ a host program: *ragment of program that cannot e1ist in$epen$ently6 &irus, logic (om(, (ac-$oors etc. (. Self containe$ program that are in$epen$ent: >orms6 Uom(ie. 6oot Sector *irus: The (oot sector is that part of the system soft#are containing most of the instructions for (ooting or po#ering up the system. The (oot sector virus replaces these (oot instructions #ith some of its o#n. :nce the system is turne$ on, the virus is loa$e$ into main memory (efore the operating system. *rom there it is in a position to infect other files. 'ny $is-ette that is use$ in the $rive of the computer then (ecomes infecte$. >hen that $is- is move$ to another computer, the contagion continues. File *irus: *ile viruses attach themselves to e1ecuta(le files-those that actually (egin a program. (These files have the e1tensions .com an$ e1e.). >hen the program is run, the virus starts #or-ing trying to get into main memory an$ infecting other files. 6ackdoor or Trapdoor: Secret entry point into a program. It allo#s those #ho -no# access (y passing usual security proce$ures. 3ogic 6om+: %ogic (om(s or simply (om(s $iffer from other viruses in that they are set to go off at a certain $ate an$ time. ' $isgruntle$ programmer for a $efense contractor create$ a (om( in a program that #as suppose$ to go off t#o months after he left. 4esigne$ to erase an inventory trac-ing system, the (om( #as $iscovere$ only (y chance. Trojan !orse: Tro5an horse is a soft#are program that appears to (e (enign (ut then $oes something than e1pecte$. The Tro5an horse is not itself a virus (ecause it $oes not replicate, (ut is often a #ay for viruses or other malicious co$e to (e intro$uce$ into a computer system. The term Tro5an horse is (ase$ on the huge #oo$en horse use$ (y the 2ree-s to tric- the Tro5ans into opening the gates to their fortifie$ city $uring the Tro5an >ar. :nce insi$e the city #alls, 2reesol$iers hi$$en in the horse reveale$ themselves an$ capture$ the city. 'n e1ample of a mo$ern $ay Tro5an horse is Tro5an.Rom(e, #hich #as $etecte$ on the Internet in early 200B. It mas8uera$e$ as an e-mail message from )icrosoft, $irecting recipients to open an attache$ file that purporte$ly carrie$ an up$ate to the >in$o#s R! operating system. >hen the attache$ file #as opene$, it $o#nloa$e$ an$ installe$ malicious co$e on the compromise$ computer. :nce this Tro5an horse #as installe$, hac-ers coul$ access the computer un$etecte$, steal pass#or$s, an$ ta-e over the machine to launch $enial of service attac-s on other computers ("ei,er, 200B). Polymorphic *irus: ' polymorphic virus, of #hich there are several -in$s can mutate an$ change form 5ust as human viruses can. These are especially trou(lesome (ecause they can change their profile, ma-ing e1isting antiviral technology ineffective. :om+ie: Uom(ie is a program #hich secretly ta-es over another net#or-e$ computer. Then uses it to in$irectly launch attac-s that are $ifficult to trace to the ,om(ies creator. Typically ,om(ies e1ploit -no#n fla#s in net#or-e$ computer systems.. !ackers and &y+er1*andalism:

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' hac-er is someone #ho uses a computer an$ net#or- or Internet connection to intru$e into another computer or system to perform an illegal act. This may amount to simple trespassing or acts that corrupt $estroy or change $ata. <ac-ing remains the most common form of cy(er crime an$ it continues to gro# in popularity. In another form, hac-ing can (e the (asis for a 4istri(ute$ 4enial of Service (44:S) attac-, in #hich a hac-er hi$es malicious co$e on the !Cs of many unsuspecting victims. This co$e may ena(le the hac-er to ta-e over the infecte$ !Cs or simply use them to sen$ re8uests to a >e( Server. Successful 44:S attac-s can cost targete$ companies millions of $ollars. The e1tent of the pro(lem is not -no#n simply (ecause it is so #i$esprea$. !rice#aterhouseCoopers estimates that viruses an$ hac-ing alone cost the #orl$ economy up#ar$s of O .= trillion in 200?. 't one time, a hac-er #as 5ust a person #ho un$erstoo$ computers #ell6 ho#ever, hac-ing no# refers to criminal or antisocial activity. To$ay, hac-ers0 activities are usually categori,e$ (y their intent: Aecreation attac-s6 +usiness or financial attac-s6 Intelligence attac-s6 2ru$ge an$ military attac-s6 Terrorist attac-s. :ther than posing an invasion of privacy, recreational hac-ing is relatively harmless. In most cases, recreational hac-ers 5ust attempt to prove their a(ilities #ithout $oing any $amage. In (usiness, financial or intelligence attac-s, ho#ever, hac-ers often engage in $ata $i$$ling-forging or changing recor$s for personal gain or attempting to copy the $ata from the penetrate$ system. 2ru$ge attac-s are carrie$ out (y hac-ers #ith a grievance against an in$ivi$ual or organi,ation an$ such attac-s are fre8uently $estructive. The harm from terrorist attac-s coul$ (e catastrophic. The in$ustrial #orl$ is highly $epen$ent on its computers an$ there is evi$ence that this type of attac- may (e the tool of future #ar. &ommon !acking Methods: <ac-ers use a variety of metho$s to (rea- into computer systems. These metho$s fall into three (roa$ categories: Sniffing: The term sniffing refers to fin$ing a user9s pass#or$. There are three #ays to sniff a pass#or$: pass#or$ sharing, pass#or$ guessing an$ pass#or$ capture. !ass#or$ sharing is the most common an$ occurs #hen a victim simply $iscloses his or her pass#or$ to a hac-er. !ass#or$s are share$ out of simple ignorance, #hen victims $o not reali,e that the pass#or$ might (e use$ against their #ishes or in #ays they #oul$ never inten$. !ass#or$ guessing is $one e1actly as the term implies: a hac-er tries to guess a user9s pass#or$ an$ -eeps trying until he or she gets it right. ;sers can safeguar$ against pass#or$ guessing (y using comple1 !ass#or$s. Net#or- a$ministrators can prevent guessing (y limiting the num(er of attempts anyone can ma-e to log into the net#or-. In pass#or$ capture, a pass#or$ is o(taine$ (y some type of mal#are program an$ for#ar$e$ to the hac-er. !ass#or$s may (e capture$ electronically if they are sent as te1t that is not encrypte$. *or e1ample, $uring a login session, a hac-er may intercept the pass#or$ $ata #hen it is sent to a server even if it is encrypte$ #ithin the system itself. Social 'ngineering: Social engineering use$ to (e calle$ Srunning a confi$ence game.S The hac-er may use any num(er of frau$s to SconS victims out of their pass#or$s. It might (e as simple as $umpster $iving. Fust as in i$entity theft, a pass#or$ thief searches the victim9s trash in or$er to fin$ useful access information. 'nother form of social engineering is the Sphone survey,S the SapplicationS an$ the Semergency situation.S In these situations, a hac-er may contact potential victims (y phone or e-mail an$ as- the victims to provi$e pass#or$ information for an apparently legitimate reason. This metho$ is sometimes referre$ to as phishing. Spoofing: <ac-ers may alter an e-mail hea$er to ma-e it appear that a re8uest for information originate$ from another a$$ress. This is calle$ spoofing. They can gain electronic entry (y preten$ing to (e at a legitimate computer, #hich is calle$ ! spoofing. ;sing this techni8ue, the hac-er intercepts a message or gains access to the system (y posing as an authori,e$ user. :n a net#or-, this is $one (y altering the message information to ma-e it appear that it originate$ from a truste$ computer. ccess &ontrol:

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'ccess control consists of all the policies an$ proce$ures that a company uses to prevent improper access to systems (y unauthori,e$ insi$ers or outsi$ers. To gain access a user must (e authori,e$ an$ authenticate$. 'uthentication refers to the a(ility to -no# that a person is #ho he or she claims to (e. 'ccess control soft#are is $esigne$ to allo# only authori,e$ users to use systems or to access $ata using some metho$ for authentication. Fire -alls: ' computer #ithin a %'N uses a gate#ay to connect to the Internet, the #orl$#i$e consortium of computer net#or-s. The connection is a security ris-, as a %'N has no control over users on the Internet. 'pplications transferre$ through the Internet to the %'N may contain computer viruses that can harm the components of the %'N. +esi$es, unauthori,e$ users may have other o(5ectives such as prying into a competitor9s $ata(ase or o(tain classifie$ information that are other#ise not availa(le for pu(lic use. ' fire#all is a special gate#ay that protects the users #ithin a %'N from all such ha,ar$s #hile letting item access the e1ternal information. *ire#alls use to prevent unauthori,e$ users from accessing private net#or-s. ' *ire#all isolates a computer system from unauthori,e$ access of another computer system on the Internet. 's gro#ing num(ers of (usinesses e1pose their net#or-s to Internet traffic, fire#alls are (ecoming a necessity. ' fire#all is a com(ination of har$#are an$ soft#are that controls the flo# of incoming an$ outgoing net#or- traffic. It is generally place$ (et#een the organi,ation9s private internal net#or-s an$ untruste$ e1ternal net#or-s such as the Internet, although fire#alls can also (e use$ to protect one part of a company9s net#or- from the rest of the net#or-. The fire#all acts li-e a gate-eeper that e1amines each user9s cre$entials (efore access is grante$ to a net#or-. The fire#all i$entifies names, Internet !rotocol (I!) a$$resses, applications an$ other characteristics of incoming traffic. It chec-s this information against the access rules that have (een programme$ into the system (y the net#or- a$ministrator. The fire#all prevents unauthori,e$ communication into an$ out of the net#or-, allo#ing the organi,ation to enforce a security policy on traffic flo#ing (et#een its net#or- an$ other untruste$ net#or-s, inclu$ing the Internet. In large organi,ations, the fire#all often resi$es on a specially $esignate$ computer separate from the rest of the net#or- so no incoming re8uest can $irectly access private net#or- resources. There are a num(er of fire#all screening technologies, inclu$ing static pac-et filtering, stateful inspection, an$ Net#or- '$$ress Translation an$ application pro1y filtering. The follo#ing techni8ues are use$ in com(ination to provi$e fire#all protection. To create a goo$ fire#all, an a$ministrator must #rite in very fine $etail an$ maintain the internal rules i$entifying the people, applications or a$$resses that are allo#e$ or re5ecte$. *ire#alls can $eter, (ut not completely prevent, net#or- penetration (y outsi$ers an$ shoul$ (e vie#e$ as one element in an overall security plan. To $eal effectively #ith Internet security, (roa$er corporate policies an$ proce$ures, user responsi(ilities an$ security a#areness training may (e re8uire$. -hy Fire -all is needed9 *or companies $oing (usiness over the Internet, a *ire#all is essential to protect cre$it car$, (anaccount an$ social security num(ers from unauthori,e$ access as they pass across the Internet. 'n organi,ation that connects its intranet to the glo(al Internet must carefully control the access point to ensure that outsi$ers cannot $isrupt the organi,ation9s internal net#or-s or gain unauthori,e$ access to the organi,ation9s computer systems an$ $ata. Computer viruses are special type intru$ers into a %'N. These are programs $evelope$ (y pran-sters calle$ <ac-ers an$ the $amages $one can range from corrupting important files to totally $estroying the system. The #orst possi(le $amage can (e through the loss of an entire $ata(ase there(y paraly,ing the entire organi,ation. Since computer soft#are or $ata(ases $o not have any physical e1istence, the conventional la#s are ina$e8uate to $eal #ith the ris- that a %'N faces on the Internet. The nature of such $amages is $ifferent from the ones that #e normally encounter in our regular life. The intrusion into the privacy of a net#or- through unsolicite$ mails such as pornographic material $istri(ute$ through the net#or- can ma-e an in$ivi$ual a helpless victim of the faceless Internet rai$ers. ' user9s personal information can get stolen, his mails rea$, ha(its on the Internet surveye$ an$ the Voung in the family lure$ into (a$ ha(its through services such as chats. 3a, 0eeded to Protect 4nauthorized Information 4sage: The ne# -in$ of la#, terme$ Cy(er %a# ()entione$ a(ove as Computer Crime %a#s), a$$resses these ne# issues. +ecause the Internet has gro#n so rapi$ly, governments have ha$ little time to pass la#s to control its $eployment an$ use, impose ta1es on Internet commerce or other#ise regulate content. 'gain the vie#s among the users as to the e1tent of control are $ivi$e$. )any Internet users in the ;nite$ States regar$ censorship la#s as an infringement on constitutional

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right to free speech. The recent Communications 4ecency 'ct in the ;S' ma$e it a crime to transmit in$ecent material over the Internet. +ut the act imme$iately raise$ outcry from users, in$ustry e1perts an$ civil li(erties groups oppose$ to such censorship. In +angla$esh #e are yet to #a-e up to the possi(le impact of this ne# form of threat to our social fa(ric though there is a general a#areness a(out the more visi(le $amages such as a computer (eing $amage$ (y a virus. Instruction Detection System: Instruction $etection systems are full time monitoring tools place$ at the most vulnera(le points or hot-spots of corporate net#or-s to $etect an$ $eter intru$ers continually. The system generates an alarm is it fin$s a suspicious or anomalous event.

nti)irus Soft,are: 'ntivirus soft#are is $esignate$ to chec- computer system an$ $rives for the presence of computer virus. )ost of the antivirus soft#are is effective only against viruses alrea$y -no#n #hen the soft#are #as #ritten. To remain effective, the antivirus soft#are must (e continually up$ate$.

Topic:

!Commerce:

'1&ommerce: 3lectronic Commerce stan$s on 3-commerce are the i$ea of $oing (usiness electronically over the Internet. !aper $riven (usiness transactions are (eing re-engineere$ to capture the (enefits of $oing (usiness electronically. 3lectronic Commerce is the (usiness environment in #hich information for (uying, selling an$ transportation of goo$s an$ services moves electronically from computer to computer in an automate$ #ay. Information gathering, processing, manipulating an$ $istri(ution are common to tra$e an$ commerce no matter #hat the commo$ity or service is that is (eing e1change$. It has many offshoots no#, inclu$ing 3-(usiness an$ 3-tailing. It is (eing pro5ecte$ as the ne1t #ave of the information technology application. )ultinational companies are (etting their future on 3-(usiness. In 3-commerce, the first function is the creation of virtual shops an$ shopping malls, #hich e1hi(it the pro$ucts an$ services they #ant to sell. To facilitate selling, there has to (e a #ay of paying electronically, #hich then calls for security an$ i$entification systems. 3lectronic (an-s have to (e create$, #hich allo# people to $eposit, #ith$ra# an$ pay money 5ust (y pressing -eys on a computer in their home. Then there have to (e a system of $elivery goo$s: either on-line in the case of information pro$ucts or a physical $elivery system in the case of har$ pro$ucts. The high en$ of 3-(usiness is +2+ ((usiness to (usiness) in #hich firms tie up resources. Some companies are $oing (usiness #ith their $ealers electronically. :r$ers, sche$ules, receipts, invoices all can (e $elivere$ on-line. Thus, they can save on costs (y managing their stoc-s an$ inventories properly. 3-commerce can (e $ivi$e$ into: 3-tailing or virtual storefronts9 on #e(sites #ith on-line catalogues, sometimes (irthe$ into a virtual mall6 Collection an$ use of $emographic $ata through the Internet6 34I, the +2+ e1change of $ata6 3-mail an$ fa1 as me$ia to reach customers6 +2+ (uying an$ selling6 The security of (usiness transactions. 'lthough most commercial transactions still ta-e place through conventional channels, rising num(ers of consumers an$ (usinesses are using the Internet for electronic commerce. !ro5ections sho# that (y 200I, total e-commerce spen$ing (y consumers an$ (usinesses coul$ surpass OC trillion (e-)ar-eter 200C an$ 200B). &haracteristics of '1commerce: The characteristics of e-commerce can (e summari,e$ as follo#s: +usiness oriente$6

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Convenient service6 System e1ten$a(le6 :nline safety6 Co-or$ination.

Major d)antage of '1commerce: 3-commerce offers the follo#ing ma5or $irect a$vantages: Improve$ pro$uctivity6 Cost savings6 Streamlining (usiness processes6 +etter customer services6 an$ :pportunities for ne# (usinesses. Impro)ed Producti)ity: ;sing 3-commerce significantly re$uces the time re8uire$ to create, transfer an$ process a (usiness transactions (et#een tra$ing partners. <uman errors li-e $uplications of recor$s are largely eliminate$ #ith the re$uction of $ata entry an$ recently in the process. This improves the spee$ an$ accuracy. &ost Sa)ings: Aesearch has estimate$ that $oing (usiness on the Internet can result in cost savings of a(out C0T to 0T of sales. This cost can stem from efficient communication, 8uic-er turnaroun$ time an$ closer access to mar-ets. Streamlining 6usiness Processes: Costs savings are amplifie$, #hen (usiness go a step further an$ a$apt their internal processes an$ (ac--en$ legacy systems to ta-e a$vantage of electronic commerce. +usiness process can (e ma$e more efficient #ith automation. 6etter &ustomer Ser)ices: >ith electronic commerce, there is (etter an$ more efficient communication #ith customers. Customers can en5oy the convenience of shopping at any hour, any#here in the #orl$. Opportunities for 0e, 6usiness: +usinesses over the Internet have a glo(al customer reach. There are en$less possi(ilities for (usiness to e1ploit an$ e1pan$ their customer (ase. 3-Commerce also offers the competitive a$vantage of +roa$er mar-et reach6 Increase$ efficiency an$ accuracy through automate$ or$er processing6 Inventory control6 +illing6 Shipping an$ so forth (etter customer services6 Instant communications #ith consumers an$ tra$ing partners6 Improve$ profit margins through automate$ supply chain management6 +etter forecasting of customer nee$6 Ae$uce$ la(or costs6 %o#er overall costs6 etc. 3imitation of '1&ommerce: %imitation of e-commerce can (e $ivi$e$ into follo#ing #ays: Technical limitation: Costs of a technological solution6 Some protocols are not stan$ar$i,e$ aroun$ the #orl$6 Aelia(ility for certain processes6 Insufficient telecommunication (an$#i$th6 Soft#are tools are not fi1e$ (ut constantly evolving6 Integrating $igital an$ non-$igital sales an$ pro$uction information6 'ccess limitations of $ial-up, ca(le, IS4N, #ireless etc.6 Some ven$ors re8uire certain soft#are to sho# features on their pages #hich is not common in the stan$ar$ (ro#ser use$ (y the ma5ority6 4ifficulty in integrating e-commerce infrastructure #ith current organi,ational IT system. 0on1technical limitations: Customer fear of personal information (eing use$ #rongly-privacy issue6 Customer e1pectations unmet6 Aules an$ regulations6

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Security an$ privacy-vulnera(ility to frau$ an$ other crimes6 %ac- of trust an$ user resistance-fear of payment information (eing unsecure6 Tactile limitations6 %imitations of support services- financial cost an$7or sourcing tech support in foreign languages6 %ac- of critical mass in certain mar-et areas for sellers an$ (uyers6 'ccessi(ility outsi$e of ur(an7su(ur(an an$ areas effects universality6 <igher employee training re8uire$ to (e clic- an$ mortar6 !eople0s resistance to change6 !eople not use$ to faceless7paperless7non-physical transactions. The 3n$

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