Learning, Motivation and Performance

1.

Definitions of Learning

Because we cannot observe learning, we must infer that it occurs by looking at its observable effects. What things, influenced by learning, can we observe? The answer is, the learners behavior. Cognitive theorists, however, insist that even though learning can be inferred from behavior, it is separate from the behavior itself. By examining the ways in which people respond to information and the ways in which different types of behavior are grouped or separated, cognitive theorists developed theories of how information is learned.

1.1

Social Learning

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

1.2

Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

1.2.1 People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning In his experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Banduras studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

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Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: 1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. 2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior. 3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.

1.2.2 Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.

1.2.3 Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors. The Modeling Process Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

Attention: This process surrounds the acquisition of the attention of the learner. Acquisition can be based on such factors as sensory capacity, arousal level, and past reinforcement. In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

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Retention: This process involves the learner accessing symbolic coding of the behavior that has caught their attention. The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

Reproduction: This process includes external, vicarious and/or self-reinforced motivation. Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment? For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

1.3

Social Learning Examples

In Social Life We are first introduced to the process of social learning as children and then as young adults. Children who mimic various behaviors of their parents are engaged in social learning. One of the key principles of social learning theory is that individuals will be more likely to adopt modeled behavior if it is activity they value and if the model holds admired status.

In the Workplace In a workplace setting social learning can be a powerful force to train employees, yet employees can also use social learning to adopt behaviors that may be less than desirable from the employer's perspective. These behaviors could be learned from co-workers who are not necessarily going to be the next employee of the month.

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Employers and trainers need to analyze what is truly valued behavior in the company and why. Further, they need to understand that if proactive steps are not taken to engage in positive social learning, employees will be engaged in this learning on their own with someone who may be admired by the employee but less than admired by company management. Increasingly, IBM is leveraging social learning to meet this first element of learning strategy. Rather than develop centrally related content, experts throughout the company find, build, publish, share and comment on assets to enhance skills development and productivity. IBM has created tools such as online learning communities and socially generated tags on key knowledge assets to make relevant knowledge more searchable. It also has reduced search time and costs, accelerated onboarding and, recognizing that more than 40 percent of its workforce is global, enabled delivery of jobrelevant information to networked mobile devices.

2.

Motivation and Performance

Motivation is generally defined as the psychological forces that determine the direction of a persons level of effort, as well as a persons persistence in the face of obstacles. The direction of a persons behavior refers to the many possible actions that a person could engage in, while persistence refers to whether, when faced with roadblocks and obstacles, an individual keeps trying or gives up.

Performance (P)

Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA) Motivation (M) P = M x KSA x E Environment (E)

In todays hyper-competitive marketplace, understanding what fosters and forwards employee motivationand, thus, organizational performanceis critical. Motivation is the key for talent retention and performance where companies seek a competitive edge. No matter the economic environment, the goal is to create a workplace that is engaging and motivating, where employees want to stay, grow and contribute their knowledge, experience and expertise.

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2.1

Six Ways to Drive Employee Performance through Motivation

Since the industrial revolution and the theories of Fredrick Taylor, employers have tried countless ways to improve employee performance and drive motivation and moral. Company environments differ significantly. The nature of knowledge work has rendered much of Taylorism inadequate. Some organizations are driving employees through fierce competition while others strive to ensure a congenial, team-based atmosphere. No one can claim with total assurance that theyve found a method for driving performance that works consistently. Motivating employees is a delicate and purposeful challenge that requires more than an annual review or jotting a few notes in someones personnel file. Just like getting in shape or learning a new language, bolstering the motivation and performance levels of the employees wont happen overnight. Here are six ways that can improve performance and motivation in the workplace. Make Expectations Clear Employees without goals will be naturally aimless. Provide them with clear achievable goals and make sure there are measurable standards in place to evaluate their performance. Victor Vrooms work on expectancy theory supports the concept that employees must know what action they are expected to take and that it will yield the desired performance. Your employees should understand what they are expected to do, how they are expected to do it, and how they will be judged on it. Provide Continuous Feedback Immediate, continuous feedback lets an employee know that their actions affect the company. Its hard for you, and the employee, to remember specific incidents when employee performance review time rolls around. Goal-setting theory predicts (quite obviously) that employees are motivated by setting goals and by receiving continuous feedback on where they stand relative to those goals. More recent research shows just how motivating it can be when employees know they are making progress. Always be specific in your feedback. For example, instead of telling an employee he, did a great job, compliments him on the way he organized his presentation, the citations he used, or his public speaking style. Hell be more likely to apply these strengths to his next project if you point them out specifically. Correct Privately Most people are not motivated by negative feedback, especially if t hey feel its embarrassing. The only acceptable place to discuss an ongoing, performance-related issue or correcting a recent, specific error is in the employees office or your own, with the door closed. Dont think of correcting an employees performance or behavior as punitive. Instead, consider it a learning opportunity for the employee. Keep an open mind, remember Demings 85/15 rule, which suggests that a majority of performance problems are actually outside of an employees control. If it is something the employee can change, its up to you to present the issue in such a way that the he feels he can correct the mistake.

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Believe in Your Employees Whether you tell him so during an employee performance review, or in the break room, an employee whose boss constantly calls him worthless, or a screw-up will feel a lot of emotions. He will not, however, feel particularly motivated to improve his performance. Present weakness or errors in the context of, I know you can do better. Youre smart and capableand thats why I expect more from you. The perception of leaders trust is a key component of transformational leadership. Encourage your leadership team to take this same approach when youre trying to motivate your employees for a major event, This is the most talented, hardest working group Ive ever had, and thats why I know you can win this sales competition. Praise Publicly Feeling under-appreciated encourages complacency theres a reason so many companies celebrate an Employee of the Month. People love praise; they thrive on it. Some research even suggested were willing to sacrifice incentive bonuses for public recognition. Make it a standard practice in your office to recognize positive people and trends within the business. Announce publicly when one of your employees made a particularly outstanding presentation, sale, or other notable achievement. Tie an incentive to accolades, such as a bonus or a gift certificate. Praising your employees in front of others helps motivate their continued stellar performance. Make Rewards Achievable Everyone is familiar with the annual bonus trip awarded to the top-performing employee. The problem is, such rewards usually go to one or two employees. This leaves the rest of your staff feeling like theres not much point in working hard because the same few people always reap the rewards. Remember the other end of Vrooms expectancy equation, which offers that individuals must also see the desired performance and linked reward as possible. Set up a series of smaller rewards throughout the year to motivate ongoing performance excellence. For example, instead of an annual trip, award several three-day getaways for each quarter. Vary the basis for the awards. Top sales might be one category, but so can top research or most diligent. Recognize that several types of excellence motivate your employees to focus on additional areas of their performance.

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3.

Gagn -Bridges Nine-Events of Instructions

Robert M. Gagn (19162002) identified nine instructional events and corresponding internal cognitive processes, which can be grouped into three phases. The instructional events do not produce or guarantee learning but instead support the internal process of the student within the learning environment. These nine events and parallel internal mental processes are listed below:

3.1

Phase One: Preparing for Learning

Gaining attention (stimuli activate receptors) Possible means for gaining attention are audio, video, animation, storytelling, demonstrations, problem solving, examples that highlight the topic's importance or the course material's relevance and timeliness, or posing stimulating questions or thoughts to arouse curiosity and heighten motivation to learn about the course subject. Media should generally be short, concise, and engaging in order to maintain students' attention. Stating the objective (creates level of expectation for learning) It is important for students to know what they will have the opportunity to learn, either within the course or within a unit/lesson, although some educators recommend not disclosing every detailed objective at the start of the course or lesson so as not to give away the plot and remove every possibility of surprise. Be aware that instructors or course designers may define objectives more formally for themselves but choose to rephrase them more casually for students. Bullet points may be an easy, forthright, and traditional way to state course objectives, but you may, in addition to any bullets, also wish to think of fresh alternativeseither in content or in formatfor restating or reframing the objectives that might help define the roadmap. Are there new ways to describe the objectives or perhaps to give a visual reinforcement of the terrain the course will cover? Might a short narrative or example say the same thing as bullets but in a new way? Are there activities or exercises to provide opportunities for students to discover objectives and how the course will benefit them? Might there even be an opportunity for students to frame personal learning outcomes based on the course subject and description but which are not already stated in the objectives? Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval and activation of short-term memory) Prior learning may consist of experiences outside the classroom, another course, or even previous material from your own course. What tools or methods can you use to help students connect what they have previously learned or experienced with the materials in your course? Are there exercises, short assignments, discussion questions, surveys/polls, etc., that might assist students in the process of connecting knowledge and experience? Some educators like to have students use concept or mind maps to represent graphically what they are learning and how it relates to other knowledge and experience. The goal is assisting students to build upon a framework of prior knowledge or to bridge any possible gaps between where they have been and where they are now (and potentially will be moving in the future after the course).

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3.2

Phase Two: Acquisition and Performance

Presenting the stimulus (selective perception of content) How do you wish to present your content: text, audio, video, PPT, guest speakers, case studies, simulations, games, etc.? How interpersonally or technologically interactive is it (or should it be)? Are there other voices you can recruit or perspectives you can employ to as sist in relaying the content? Are there new technologies and media you might use to present text in new modes or to break outside the bounds of the text medium itself and appeal to different learning styles or modes of instruction? Is the material in appropriate and meaningful chunks to facilitate learning and retention and avoid overload? Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding for storage in long-term memory) How can you provide opportunities for students to apply what they have learned and test their skills while you also guide them as they build their abilities and confidence? Perhaps a simulation of one type or another, examples, case studies, visual aids, mnemonics, analogies, an exercise, writing assignment, or set of discussion questionsall with opportunities for feedback from the instructor would help clarify questions and strengthen students grip on the content. Eliciting performance (responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification) What interactive exercises, simulations, case studies, demonstrations, read-and-respond discussions, quizzes/tests, or projects provide opportunities for students to practice new skills, apply and display knowledge, and give evidence of what they have learned? Can students demonstrate that they are getting and holding on to the content, that they are further along an educational path now than when they began the course? Providing feedback (reinforcement and assessment of correct performance) Feedback may be part of the process of eliciting performance, but whether it is rolled into that event or follows immediately afterward, you may wish to think of the ways in which you deliver feedback, whether via an interactive instrument, discussion, written comments, audio/video (individually or group), or through face-to-face or online live chats. Whenever possible, be specific, respond in a timely manner, and provide guidance; don't just tell students that they are doing or have done a good job.

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3.3

Phase Three: Transfer of Learning

Assessing performance (retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation) Assessment may occur via many forms, including papers, exams, presentations, projects, or any other appropriate means for determining the breadth and depth of what students have learned. It is desirable to include feedback on any of these assessment mechanisms for both correct and incorrect answers. For correct answers, it is helpful to provide additional resources or information to help increase retention and improve the learning process; for incorrect answers, consider providing not only the correct answer but also an explanation of why it is correct and some resources for strengthening skills or knowledge in that area. Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts (review and generalization of learned skill to new situation) Toward the end of the course, either before or after performance assessment, it is helpful to highlight and review important material, review course objectives and whether they were achieved, highlight various applications for what has been learned, and, in general, assist students in reviewing the ground that they have traveled over the duration of the course. It is not necessary to use every single instructional event in all instances or to use them in this exact order. For example, some educators prefer to make assessment the final step. Some events may be combined (e.g., presenting content may also incorporate providing learning guidance, eliciting performance, and providing feedback). Each instructor should determine what best suits the subject, course format, course goals, needs and capabilities of the students, his or her own personal style, and technological capacities. One interesting study (Martin, Klein, & Sullivan, 2007), in examining various instructional models, investigated the effects that different instructional elements have when they are combined systematically and when one or more elements is removed. After taking a pretest, college students were divided into six groups and then provided with one of six versions of a Web-based computer literacy course. Each version had a combination of these elements: objectives, information, examples, practice with feedback, and review. The six course versions were: Full program (all five elements) Program without objectives Program without examples Program without practice Program without review Lean program (information only)

At the end of each version, the students completed a posttest. Those students who had practice with feedback scored significantly higher than the students who did not have that element in their course. The former also had more positive attitudes in response to a dozen questions about the course and their experiences than did the latter.

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4.

Factors Affecting Motivation to Learn and Transfer of Training

Factors that affect Motivation to learn and transfer of training can be divided into two broad categories: Individual Factors Environmental Factors.

4.1

Individual Factors

Differences in personality and other individual characteristics are related to trainees motivation and ability to learn and thus are also factors in resistance to learning. The number of personality traits that influences a persons motivation to learn is far greater than can be discussed here. However, some key factors may be as under: Self-Efficiency Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They include cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. Cognitive Ability It refers to individual differences in information-processing capacity and the level of cognitive resources that a person can bring to bear on a problem. This is often referred to as general intelligence. Valences If training is perceived as leading to attractive outcomes such as better performance and better pay, there is a higher probability that the learning will take place and transfer to the job will occur. However, it is important to note that even when trainees acknowledge the value of the training, they might believe that the effort required to master the learning is just not worthwhile. Anxiety Anxiety is a heightened state of arousal related to feelings of apprehension or fear. High levels of anxiety interfere with other cognitive processes and cause the trainee to withdraw from or actively resist the learning process.

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Cognitive Ability Knowledge Acquisition

Self-Efficiency

Skill Acquisition

Valence

Motivation to Learn

Training

Training Reactions

Transfer to the Job

Job Performance

Anxiety

Post-Training Self-Efficiency

Climate for Transfer

Supervisor and Peer Support

Figure: Factors Affecting Motivation to Learn and Transfer of Training

4.2

Environmental Factors

Climate for Transfer For training to be successful, the learning must be transferred back to the job. This requires a positive climate for transfer. This may include organizational systems and procedures to support the new job behaviors and the training process in addition to removing barriers. Supervisor and Peer Support Supervisor and peer support is also a key factor influencing motivation to learn and resistance to training. Supervisors are the official source of rewards in most organizations. Peer support is the encouragement and assistance the trainees receive from their coworkers.

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5.

Training That Motivates Adults Learn: Applications in Management Learning

Burgoyne and Stuart have identified 11 attributes found in successful managers. According to them, thee attributes fall into three groups, which represents three levels of learning. Level 1 Learning at level 1 involves a manager simply taking in a piece of factual information. This is normally information about the companys products, technology, markets and the customs and practices prevalent in the organization. At this level, learning involves information transfer from a source to the recipient. Level 2 At the second level, learning involves acquisition of skills, which when combined with level 1 learning helps a manager to manage specific situations. This level involves developing a repertoire of problem solving and decision-making techniques from which relevant ones can be picked up for use in specific situations. Level 3 this level involves developing personal attributes such as creativity and self-awareness, which enable a manager to move across situations seamlessly and adapt to changing circumstances and demands. Very little known about how managers acquire skills that make them successful. Burgoyne and Stuart undertook a very useful study on the learning processes relating to the acquisitions of managerial skills and qualities. They identified seven learning processes that occurred fairly frequently in the acquisitions of managerial skills. These are: Modeling: Copying or imitation a respected other who is presumed to be right because of his position, status, pervious success, or personal charisma. Vicarious discovery: Observing the actions and behavior of others and modifying ones own actions by positive or negative imitation. This is the same as learning form others experience. Unplanned discovery: Learning from trial and error in the search for a solution to the problem. Planned discovery: Learning from observing the consequences of ones actions in situations entered into with learning as a deliberate aim. Being taught: Told or shown an approach, idea, or relationship. Discussion: Sharing information, ideas, interpretation, experiences, and feelings with others in task situations. Strong data: Facts coming to ones attention in the normal course of events.

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6.

Learning to Be Effective Managers: A Bangladeshi Perspective

Recent trend reflects that Management Education has emerged as one of the distinctive features in the universities of Bangladesh. The enrolment of students in the MBA programs in the universities has risen phenomenally. An MBA has come to be regarded as an essential professional preparation for management positions both in private and public sectors in Bangladesh. The experience of going through a two-year post-graduate program in management exercises a powerful influence in shaping the beliefs, values, and expectations of students. the transmission of these values is not through the content of the courses alone. The methods used along with the teacher-student relationship are aspects that paly an equally important role in shaping a management graduate. A research study conducted on a group of students of post-graduate program in management shows following learning experiences of the students: 6.1 What did they learn?

The different kinds of skill identified by them are grouped into the following categories: 6.2 interpersonal skills, communications skills, organizational skills, adaptive skills, personal skills, subject knowledge, organizational practices, job knowledge Where did they learn?

The interesting feature of the descriptions provided by the students was that the learning experiences identified by them were not always related to the context of a classroom. Many of the abilities that they identified where related to experiences in other domains. Some of the events that resulted in learning experiences are: Working under pressure to complete a formal course requirement. Listening to a presentation by a company executive. Experience of receiving clear instructions in a simulated structured exercise from a friend. Learning to assign responsibility, trust others, and delegate work by being a member of a project team. The opportunity to make a presentation before company executives on the work done during summer assignments. Having to adjust to a new environment as a result of family relocation. Going on a mountain trek, losing ones track, and getting back to base. Having to organize an activity as an office bearer of the Students Association. 13 | P a g e

6.3

How Did They Learn?

The learning activities pursued by students indeed represent a very wide range. These activities have different meanings for different people. The lecture that a student attends or a role play or a structured exercise that he participates in is a unique experience for the student. However, one can discern that experiences are organized around some themes. These are. Learning by Accomplishment: It was clear from the description given by the students that learning resulted from practical accomplishment. They learnt through the experience of seeking an opportunity, taking the initiative, and meeting a challenge. This mode of learning is typical of people who involve themselves in new experiences and excel in situations where they must adapt themselves to specific and immediate circumstances. Learning by introspection: The description of learning events also covers activities when students ended up developing an insight and understanding about their own self. These examples indicate a mode of learning by refection on ones own experiences. Introspection ca n help individuals to develop insights about themselves. Learning by Doing Formal Courses: The experience of working under pressure and responding to the demands made by formal course requirements seems to be one of the modes of learning. A significant feature of learning through formal courses was the need for clear instructions and consistent feedback about ones performance. These descriptions indicate that learning events where the student received clear instructions, where she is frequently evaluated, and receives continuous feedback enhances the value of learning. Learning by Interaction with Managers: The experience of listening to company executives and interacting with them was identified by some students as a significant learning experience. This study was undertaken with the purpose of developing an understanding about the process of learning as seen from the perspective of the students. Generalizations cannot be made since the data pertains to only 15 students. However, the following concluding can be drawn from the data although tentatively: 1. The experiences, from which students learn about being effective managers, vary. Most of the events identified as significant learning experiences by students occur in the course of everyday work or life experiences. This indicates that there is a need for understanding how management students an also experienced manager learns through natural daily life experiences. 2. The date reported in the study also indicates that learning events have a very specific and personal significance for the students. It is, therefore, necessary management teachers and trainers to provide ample opportunities for students to examine their own experiences. 3. There is an increasing need for mangers to be self-reliant. If management education programs are help manager to become more self-reliant, the design of such programs must enhance a managers capacity and willingness to take control and responsibility for event articulacy for himself and has own learning. This can be achieved only if managers can develop insights into their own process of learning. 14 | P a g e