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RhetoricalDevices
Rhetoric:(n)Theartofeffectiveorpersuasivespeakingorwriting,espt.theuseoffiguresofspeechand othercompositionaltechniques. *Starsbythesidesofthewordssignifyfrequency FrequencyKey:**devicehasshownuponcesofar,***devicehasshownup2+times Alliteration:[uhlituhreyshuhn]therecurrenceofinitialconsonantsounds. Tocallattentiontoaphraseandfixitinthereadersmind Deliciousday Satisfyingsensation Arthurtheaardvarkateasparagus **Allusion:[uhloozhuhn]ashortinformalreferencetoafamouspersonorevent. Toexplainorclarify Ifyoutakehisparkingplace,youcanexpectWWIIalloveragain Planahead:itwasnotrainingwhenNoahbuilttheark IwassurprisedhisnosewasnotgrowinglikePinocchios Amplification:[ampluhfikeyshuhn]repeatinganexpressionwhileaddingmoredetail. Makesreaderrealizeimportance InmyhungeraftertendaysoffastingIsawvisionsoficecreammountainsof creamy,lusciousicecream Prideboundlessprideisthebaneofcivilization Ineverythingrememberthepassingoftime,atimewhichcannotbecalledagain Anacoluthon:[anuhkuhloothon]finishingasentencewithadifferentgrammaticalstructure thanfromwhichitbeganusuallyinterruptsasentencemidwayandchangesstructure. Oftenusedtosuggestwhatiswrittenisspokenlanguageorinteriorthoughtstylistic choice Becarefulwiththesetwodevicesbecauseimproperlyusedtheycanwill,I havecautionedyouenough Andthenthedeeprumblefromtheexplosionbegantoshaketheverybones ofnoonehadeverfeltanythinglikeit Thegoodstuffthinkaboutit. Anadiplosis:[anuhdiplohsis]repeatingthelastwordofaphraseorsentenceatthebeginning ofthenext. Forthepurposeofbeautyortogivesenseoflogicalprogression Knowledgemightpitywin,andpitygraceobtain Pleasuremightcauseherread,readingmightmakeherknow InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWord wasGod **Analogy:[uhnaluhjee]comparestwothingsalikeinseveralrespects.

Toexplainorclarify Hethatvoluntarilycontinuesignoranceisguiltyofallcrimeswhichignorance produce,asonewhoextinguishesaslighthouseshouldbeblamedfor shipwrecks Knowledgealwaysdesiresincrease:itislikeafire,whichmustbekindledby someexternalagent,butwhichafterwardwillpropagateitself Worryingisaseffectiveastryingtosolveanalgebraproblembychewing bubblegum **Anaphora:[uhnaferuh]therepetitionofthesamewordorwordsatthebeginningof successivephrases,orsentences. Toemphasize Tothinkondeathitisamisery/tothinkonlifeitisavanity/tothinkonthe worldverilyitis InbooksIfindthedeadasiftheywerealiveinbooksIforeseethingstocome inbookswarlikeaffairsaresetforth Slowlyandgrimlytheyadvanced,notknowingwhatlayahead,notknowing whattheywouldfindatthetopofthehill,notknowingthattheyweresonearto Disneyland **Antimetabole:[anteemehTAboelee]reversingtheorderofwordsorphrase. Tointensifyfinalsolution,presentalternatives,orshowcontrast Allworkandnoplayisasbadasallplayandnowork Asknotwhatyoucandoforyourcountry,butwhatyourcountrycandofor you IknowwhatIlikeandIlikewhatIknow Antiphrasis:[antifruhsis]onewordirony,establishedbycontext. Tocreateirony,andhelpcreatepathoswithirony ComehereTinyhesaidtothefatman Itwasacool115degreesintheshade Hesonlyachildoffiftyyears **Antithesis:[antithuhsis]aclear,contrastingrelationshipbetweentwothingsbyjoiningthem together. Toconveycomplexitybyadmittingnearlyoppositetruths Onesmallstepforman,onegiantleapformankind Toerrishumantoforgive,divine Ifwetry,wemightsucceedifwedonottry,wecannotsucceed **Aporia:[uhpohreeuh]expressesdoubtaboutanideaorconclusionwithoutexpressing commitment. Suggestsanalternativewithoutmakingacommitment Iamnotsurewhethertosidewiththosewhofavorschooluniforms,orthose

whodonot Idonotknowwhetherthislegislationwillworkallofthemiraclesitsbackers sayitwill,butitisclear Ihavenotyetbeenconvincedthatlivinginadormissuperiortolivingathome Aposiopesis:[apuhsahyuhpeesis]stoppingabruptlyandleavingastatementunfinished. Createssuspense,inducesreadersimagination IvegottomaketheteamorIll Iftheyusethatsectionofthedesertforbombingpractice,therockhunterswill Isensesomething,apresenceIhavenotfeltsince Apostrophe:[uhpostruhfee]interruptsthediscussionordiscourseandaddressesapersonor thing,thatcanbepresentornot. Todramatizethings(i.e.addemotions) Obookswhoaloneareliberalandfree,whogivetoallwhoaskofyouand enfranchiseallwhoservefaithfully Butallsuchreasonsnotwithstanding,dearreader,doesnotthecostinlives persuadeyoubyitselfthatwemustdosomethingimmediatelyaboutthe situation Twinkle,TwinklelittlestarhowIwonderwhatyouare Appositive:[uhphzitiv]anounornounsubstituteplacednextto(inappositionto)another nountobedescribedordefinedbytheappositive. Todefineoremphasizethenoun HenryJohnson,thebossoftheoperation,alwaysworeabaseballcap Subject:HenryJohnson Appositive:bossoftheoperation ThatafternoonKathyPeterson,thepianist,metthepoetThompson Subjects:KathyPeterson,Thompson Appositive:Pianist,poet(respectively) Thateveningwewereallattheconcert,anelaborateandexcitingaffair Subject:Concert Appositive:Elaborateandexcitingaffair Assonance:[asuhnuhns]vowelsoundsrepeatedinproximatewords. Toproviderhythm,andmakememorable Acitysetonahillcannotbehid Hearthemellowweddingbells Thecrumblingthunderofseas Asyndeton:[uhsinditon]omittingconjunctionsbetweenwords,phrases,orclauses. Togivealistthesenseofbeingaincomplete,synonymitybetweenphrasesorseepa concisioninphrases Shelikespickles,olives,dates,pretzels

Hewasawinner,ahero Theyspentthedaywondering,searching,thinking,understanding. Antanagoge:[an'tana'gogee]placingapositivepointorbenefitnexttoa fault/criticism/problem. Toreducetheimpactofnegativepoints True,healwaysforgetsmybirthday,buthebuysmepresentsyearround Whenlifegivesyoulemons,makelemonade Manyarethepainsandperilstobepassed,butgreatisthegainandgloryatthe last Apophasis:[uhpofuhsis]assertsoremphasizessomethingbypointedlyseemingtopassover, ignore,ordenyit. Tocallattentiontosensitivefacts/statementswhileremainingapparentlydetachedfrom them Wewillnotbringupthematterofthebudgetdeficit IwillnotevenmentionHoudinismanywritings IpassoverthefactthatJenkinswasanalcoholic,beatshiswifeandsellsdopes tokids,becausewewillnotallowpersonalissuestoenterourpolitical discussion **Catachresis:[katuhkreesis]anextravagant,impliedmetaphorusingwordsinanalienor unusualway. Forartandstyle Iwillspeakdaggerstoher Thelittleoldladyturtledalongattenmilesperhour Theyhadexpectedthatthisnewswouldpaintoriginalgrief,buttheonlyresult wassilkscreenedplatitudes **Chiasmus:[kahyazmuhs]thesecondpartofagrammaticalconstructionisbalancedbythe firstpart,onlyinreverseorderinsteadofABstructure(learnedunwillingly)paralleledby anotherABstructure(forgottengladly)itwouldbeanABstructurefollowedbyaBAstructure (gladlyforgotten). Toaddbeautyandeffectiveness Whatislearnedunwillinglyisgladlyforgotten Helaborswithoutcomplainingandwithoutbraggingrests Tellmenotofyourmanyperfectionsofyourgreatmodestytellmenoteither Climax:[klahymaks]consistsofarrangingwords,clauses,orsentencesinorderofimportance, weight,oremphasis. Toshowimportance TheconcertowasapplaudedatthehouseofBaronvonSchnooty,itwas praisedhighlyatcourt,itwasvotedbestconcertooftheyearbytheAcademy, itwasconsideredbyMozartthehighlightofhiscareer,andithasbecome

knowntodayasthebestconcertointheworld. At6:20a.m.thegroundbegantoheave.Windowsrattledthentheybroke. Objectsstartedfallingfromshelves.Waterheatersfellfromtheirpedestals, tearingoutplumbing.Outside,theroadbegantobreakup.Watermainsand gaslineswerewrenchedapart,causingfloodingandthedangerofexplosion. Officebuildingsbegancrackingsoontwenty,thirty,fortystoriesofconcrete weredivingatthehelplesspedestrianspanickingbelow. Tohavefaultsisnotgood,butfaultsarehuman.Worseistohavethemandnot seethem.Yetbeyondthatistohavefaults,toseethem,andtodonothing aboutthem.Buteventhatseemsmildcomparedtohimwhoknowshisfaults, andwhoparadesthemaboutandencouragesthemasthoughtheywerevirtues. Conduplicatio:[condupliKATseeoh]repeatsakeywordfromthepreceding phrase/clause/sentenceatthebeginningofthenext. Emphasizesanideaorthingofimportance Shefedthegoldfisheverydaywithspecialfood.Graduallythegoldfishbegan toturnabrighterorange. Ifthisisthefirsttimedutyhasmovedhimtoactagainsthisdesires,heisavery weakmanindeed.Dutyshouldbecultivatedandobeyedinspiteofitsfrequent conflictwithselfishwishes. Thestrengthofthepassionswillneverbeacceptedasanexcuseforcomplying withthemthepassionsweredesignedforsubjection,andifamansuffersthem togettheupperhand,hethenbetraysthelibertyofhisownsoul. Diacope:[diAKohpee]repetitionofawordorphraseafteraninterveningword. Foremphasis Wewilldoit,Itellyou,wewilldoit WegivethankstoThee,0God,wegivethanks Someoneatethebaby, It'srathersadtosay. Someoneatethebaby Soshewon'tbeouttoplay. We'llneverhearherwhinycry Orhavetofeelifsheisdry. We'llneverhearherasking,'Why?' Someoneatethebaby DirimensCopulatio:[DIHrimenskohpooLAhteeo]mentioningabalancingoropposingfact topreventtheargumentfrombeingonesidedorunqualified. Preventsargumentsforbeingunqualifiedcreatesethos Thiscarisextremelysturdyanddurable.It'slowmaintenancethingsnevergo wrongwithit.Ofcourse,ifyouabuseit,itwillbreak.

ButwepreachChristcrucified,toJewsastumblingblock,andtoGentiles foolishness,buttothosewhoarecalled,bothJewsandGreeks,Christthe powerofGodandthewisdomofGod. "NotonlyamInotlearning,I'mforgettingstuffIusedtoknow." Distinctio:[disTINKteeo]anexplicitreferencetoaparticularmeaningorvariousmeaningsof theword,inordertoprevent/removeambiguity. Topreventambiguity Theprecipitateshouldbemovedfromthefilterpapertothecruciblequickly thatiswithin3minutes. Tomakemethanolfortwentyfivecentsagallonisimpossibleby"impossible"I meancurrentlybeyondourtechnologicalcapabilities. Themodernautomobile(andhereIrefertothepost1975,desmogged Americancar)ismoreaproductofboltonsolutionsthanofrevolutionary engineering. **Enthymeme:[enthuhmeem]aninformallystatedsyllogismwhichomitseitheroneofthe premisesortheconclusion.Theomittedpartmustbeclearlyunderstoodbythereader. Everydaylogicalshorthand,instrumenttousedtounderstateyetclearlypointoutan assertion,omittedpartisoftentheconclusionimpressingyourconclusiononthereader byhavingthemmaketheconnectionhimself HeisanAmericancitizen,soheisentitledtodueprocess AllAmericansareentitleddueprocess SinceyourapplicationwassubmittedbeforeApril10th,itwillbeconsidered AllapplicationssubmittedbeforeApril10thwillbeconsidered Socratesismortalbecauseheshuman ***Enumeratio:[enumeRAtio]detailingparts,causes,effects,orconsequencestomakea point. Tomoreforcefullymakeapoint Ilovehereyes,herhair,hernose,hercheeks,etc. Whenthenewhighwayopened,morethanjustthemotelsandrestaurants prospered.Thestoresnotedasubstantialincreaseinsales,morepeoplebegan movingtotown,anewdairyfarmwasstarted,theoldMainStreetTheater doubleditsshowingsandputupanewbuilding Iremembertheneckcurls,limpanddampastendrils Andherquicklook,asidelongpickerelsmile Andhow,oncestartledintotalk,thelightsyllablesleapedforher, Andshebalancedinthedelightofherthought Epanalepsis:[epuhnuhlepsis]repeatsthebeginningwordofaclauseorsentenceatitsend. Callsspecialattentiontotherepeatedwordbecausethebeginningandendofa sentencearethetwoplacesofbiggestemphasis

Wateralonedugthisgiantcanyonyesjustplainwater Toreportthatyourcommitteeisstillinvestigatingthematteristotellmethat youhavenothingtoreport Oureyessawit,butwecouldnotbelieveoureyes Epistrophe:[ihpistruhfee]repeatslastwordfromaprevioussentenceattheendofthenext sentence. Toheavilystressaword Whereaffectionsbearrule,therereasonissubdued,honestyissubdued,good willissubdued,andallthingselsethatwithstandevil,foreveraresubdued. AndallthenighthedidnothingbutweepPhiloclea,sighPhiloclea,andcryout Philoclea. Youwillfindwashingbeakershelpfulinpassingthiscourse,usingthegas chromatographdesirableforpassingthiscourse,andstudyinghoursonend essentialtopassingthiscourse. Eponym:[epuhnim]substitutesaparticularattributewithafamouspersonrecognizedforthat attribute. HeisaregularEinstein. ThatlittleCaesarisfoolingnobody.HeknowsheisnoPatrickHenry. ThoseofuswhocannotbecomeaUlyssesandseetheworldmusttrustour knowledgetopicturebooksanddescriptions. Epithet:[epuhthet]anadjectiveasadjectivephraseappropriatelyqualifyingasubject(noun) bynamingakey,importantcharacteristicaboutit. Laughinghappiness Untroubledsleep Lazyroad Tiredlandscape Epizeuxis:[epuhZOOXsis]repetitionofoneword. Foremphasis Whatdoyousee?Wires,wires,everywherewires **Exemplum:[igzempluhm]citinganexampleorusinganillustrativestorywhichcouldor couldnotbetrue. **Expletive:[eksplitiv]awordofphrasethatinterruptsnormalspeechinordertolend emphasistothewordsimmediatelynexttoit. "...weshallneversurrender,andevenif,whichIdonotforamomentbelieve, thisIslandoralargepartofitweresubjugatedandstarving.." Hyperbaton:[hahypurbuhton]includesseveralrhetoricaldevicesinvolvingdeparturefrom normalwordordertheseparationofwordsusuallybelongingtogether. Delayedepithetadj.followsnounShehadapersonalityindescribable. Dividedepithet2adj.separatedbynountheymodifyItwasalong

operation,butsuccessful. **Hyperbole:[hahypurbuhlee]exaggeration. **Hypophora:[hiPAHforuh]Consistsofraisingoneormorequestionsandthenproceeding toanswerthem,usuallyatlength,often?atbeginningofparagraphthentheparagraph answerssaidquestion. Hypotaxis:[hahypuhtaksis]usingsubordinationtoshowtherelationshipbetween phrases/clauses Theyaskedthequestionbecausetheywerecurious. **Litotes:[lahytuhteez]aparticularformofunderstatement,denyingthecontraryoftheword whichwouldusuallybeused. Heatwavesarenotrareinthesummer. **Metabasis:[meta'basis]Abriefstatementofwhathasbeensaidandwhatwillfollow. Transitions,keepsorderedandclear,helpsreaderunderstand,organize,andremember partsofthewriting Suchthen,wouldbemydiagnosisofthepresentconditionofart.NowIwill saywhatIthinkwillcomeofartinthefuture. Youhaveheardhowtheproposedplanwillfailnowconsiderhowan alternativemightsucceed. Themattersyouhaveheardwerewonderful,andthosethatyoushallhearare nolessmarvelous. Metanoia:[metuhnoiuh]qualifiesastatementbyrecallingitandexpressingitinabetter, milder,orstrongerway. Coaxreaderintoexpandingtheirbelief/comprehensionbymovingfrommodesttobold FidowasthefriendliestofallSt.Bernards,nayofalldogs Thisistheworstno,theabsoluteworstexcuseIhaveheard. AndifIamstillfarfromthegoal,thefaultismyownfornotpayingheedtothe remindersnay,thevirtualdirectionswhichIhavehadfromabove. ***Metonymy:[mitonuhmee]aformofmetaphorinwhichthethingchosenforthe metaphoricalimageiscloselyassociated(butnotactuallypartof)thesubject. TheorderscomedirectlyfromtheWhiteHouse Thepenismightierthanthesword Imtoldhesgonesofarastogiveheradiamondring ***Metaphor:[metuhfawr]comparestwothingswithoutusinglikeoras. Lifeisabeach. Timeisathief. Hewastheappleofhereye. Onomatopoeia:[onuhmatuhpeeuh]theuseofwordswhosepronunciationimitatesthe soundtheworddescribes. Produceslivelywriting

BAM! Spalsh! Sizzle. **Oxymoron:[oksimawron]aparadoxreducedtotwowords. Helpfulwhenyourpositionisdifferentthananotherswhichyouarediscussing, producesanironiccontrastwhichshowsthatsomethinghasbeenmisunderstoodor mislabeled Modestmagnificence Alonetogether Jumboshrimp Randomorder ***Parallelism:[paruhlelizuhm]recurrentsyntacticalsimilarityseveralpartsofa sentence(s)expressedsimilarly. Showsideasareequalinimportance,addsrhythm,andclarity Ferociousdragonsbreathingfireandwickedwitchescastingtheirspellsdo moreharmbynightintheforestofdarkness. Hewasaprolificauthor,writingpoems,shortstories,novels,andscreenplays. Tothinkaccuratelyandtowritepreciselyareinterrelatedgoals. **Parataxis:[paruhtaksis]writingsuccessiveindependentclauseswithoutcoordinating conjunctions. Wewalkedtothetopofthehill,andwesatdown. IcameIsawIconquered. TheStarfishwentintodrydock,itgotabarnacletreatment,itwentbackto work.(Note:Thisexampledoesnotuseconjunctions) Parenthesis:[puhrenthuhsis]aformofhyperbaton,insertword/phrase/sentenceinanother onecanusetheparentheticalsymbols,commas,ordashes John,a7yearoldcatfromDoncaster,hidintheengineareaofhisowner'scar fora60miletriptotheseaside. EverytimeItrytothinkofagoodrhetoricalexample,Irackmybrains butyouguessednothinghappens. Butthenewcalculationsandhereweseethevalueofrelyinguponuptodate informationshowedthatmanpoweredflightwaspossiblewiththisdesign. ***Personification:[personuhfikeyshuhn]metaphoricallyrepresentsanobjectoranimalas havinghumancharacteristics. Forartistry,andclarification Thestarsdancedplayfullyinthemoonlitsky. Theshipbegantocreakandprotestasitstruggledagainsttherisingsea. Thatcoffeeisstrongenoughtogetupandwalkaway Pleonasm:[pleeuhnazuhm]usingmorewordsthannecessarytodescribeidea.

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Normallyvise,sometimesforemphasis Wehearditwithourears Theyallsataroundtheburningcampfire Endresult **Polysyndeton:[poleesinditon]useofconjunctionbetweeneachword,phrase,orclause. Createsfeelingsofmultiplicity,energy,andbuildup Ireadandstudiedandwroteanddrilled. Heranandjumpedandlaughedforjoy. Thebabyateandcriedandslept. **Portmanteau:[pirtmanto]acombinationoftwowordsandtheirdefinitionstocreateanew word. Smog:smokeandfog Memorable:memorableandhorrible Spork:spoonandfork Redonkulous:ridiculousanddonkey Confuzzled:confusedandpuzzled ***Procatalepsis:[procatalepsis]anticipatingaquestionandansweringit. Itisnotalwaysthejobofpeopleinsideimpressivebuildingstosolveproblems. Itisoftenthejobofthepeopleinside,whohavepaper,pens,desks,andan impressiveview. Answers:whosejobisit? Sunday,Istudiedallday.Ihadfinalsthisweek. Answers:why? Yetthisistheprimeserviceamanwouldthink,whereinthisordershouldgive proofofitself.Ifitwereexecuted,you'llsay.Butcertain,ifexecutionberemiss orblindfoldnow,andinthisparticular,whatwillitbehereafterandinother books? RhetoricalQuestion:questionofwhichtheanswerisobviousorobviouslydesired. Foreffect,emphasis,provocation,andtodrawaconclusion Whowouldwanttodothat? Thespeakersintentionisnotthatsomeonewillanswerorrefutehim, butthathewillgetaresponseofpeopleagreeingwithhim IsthepopeCatholic? Dobearsliveinwoods? ScesisOnomaton:[skesisonomaton]expressingsomethinginastringofsynonymous statements. Foremphasis Wesucceeded,wewerevictorious,weaccomplishedthefeat! Amanfaithfulinfriendship,prudentincounsels,virtuousinconversation,gentle

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incommunication,learnedinallliberalsciences,eloquentinutterance,comlyin gesture,anenemytonaughtiness,andaloverofallvirtueandgodliness. Itistough,difficult,noteasy. Sentenia:[sentensheeuh]quotingamaximorwisesayingtoapplyageneraltruthtoa situation. AsPascalremindsus,Itisnotgoodtohaveallourwantsatisfied. Afriendinneedisafriendindeed. Abadpeaceisworsethanwar.Tacitus Sententialadverb:[sentenshuhl]asinglewordorshortphrase,interruptingnormalsyntax. Emphasizeswordsoneithersideoftheword/phrase Butthelakewasnot,infact,drainedbeforeApril. Actually,hisfavoritecolorwasnotblue,butinstead,orange. Iwill,hopefully,feelbetterbyThursday. ***Simile:[simuhlee]comparisonusinglikeoras. Forartistry,toexplain Thecatseyeswereasbigassaucers. ...snugasabuginarug. ...asbusyasabee. Symploce:[simplohsee]theword/phraseatthebeginningofaphrase/clause/sentenceis repeatedattheendofasuccessivephrase/clause/sentence. "Moststrange,butyetmosttruly,willIspeak:/ThatAngelo'sforswornisitnot strange?/ThatAngelo'samurdereris'tnotstrange?/ThatAngeloisan adulterousthief,/Anhypocrite,avirginviolator/Isitnotstrangeandstrange?" Againstyourselfyouarecallinghim,againstthelawsyouarecallinghim, againstthedemocraticconstitutionyouarecallinghim" "SpringclotheswithleavesthetreesSpringleadsbackthebirdsofsongtothe trees." **Synecdoche:[sinekduhkee]metaphorinwhichthepartstandsforthewholeandvise versa. IfIhadsomewheels,IdputonmybestthreadsandaskforJaneshandin marriage.(Wheels=acar,threads=clothes) "Heshallthinkdifferently,"themusketeerthreatened,"whenhefeelsthepointof mysteel."(Steel=sword) Hiseyemethersasshesattherepalerandwhiterthananyoneinthevast

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oceanofanxiousfacesabouther.(Faces=wholepeople) **Understatement:[uhndersteytmuhnt]deliberatelystatinganideaaslessimportantthanit actuallyis. Anironicemphasispolitenessandtact The1906SanFranciscoearthquakeinterruptedbusinesssomewhatinthe downtownarea. Aftergoingtwodayswithoutsleeping,Iwasalittletired. Desertsaresometimeshot,dry,andsandy. ***Zeugma:[zoogmuh]involvinggrammaticallycorrectlanguage:1subjectwith2verbsor1 verbwith2directobjectsor2subjectswith1verb. Thedogchasedthecatandthepigeon. Onhisfishingtrip,hecaughteightfishandacold. Fearmakesuscautious,resentfulandsometimesdangerous.

GrammarandMechanics
PartsofSpeech
Nouns:People,places,things,andideas. CommonNouns:mostbasickind:person,place,orthing. Car,bridge,metal AbstractNouns:Thingsyoucannotobservewiththe5senses Hope,bravery,morality CollectiveNouns:Todescribegroups Team,band,army CompoundNouns:Madeupofmorethanoneword Pickpocket,motherinlaw,waterbottle ConcreteNouns:Thingsthatcanbeobservedwiththe5senses Tree,wall,paper Noncountablenouns:Thingsyoucannotcount,alsocalledmassnouns Food,music,blood Genderspecificnouns:Wordsthataredefinitelymaleorfemale Actress,lord,mistress Verbalnouns:Nounsrepresentingactions Running,guessing,playing ProperNouns:Capitalizednounrepresentingaspecificthing Africa,UncleTom,Beijing

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Pronouns:Wordstypicallyusedtoreplacenouns,butalsomayserveotherpurposes. DemonstrativePronouns:Usedtodemonstrateorindicate. This,that,those IndefinitePronouns:Usedfornonspecificthings. All,some,nobody,none InterrogativePronouns:Usedtypicallyinquestions. Who,which,how PersonalPronouns:Replacenounsrepresentingpeople,usually We,they,he,who RelativePronouns:Usedtorelateonepieceofinformationtoanother. Dr.AdamSissons,wholecturedatCambridgeformorethan12years Themanwhofirstsawthecomet PossessivePronouns:Usedtoshowpossession,usedasadjectives. My,your,their,his AbsolutePossessivePronouns:Usedtoshowpossession,sitbythemselves Thoseareours. Willwetakeyoursortheirs? ReciprocalPronouns:Usedforactionsorfeelingsthatarereciprocated. Eachother,oneanother ReflexivePronouns:Endsinselforselves,referstonounorpronounearlierin sentence,typicallythesubject. Myself,yourself,herself,himself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves. Intensive(Emphatic)Pronouns:Refersbacktopreviousnounorpronountoemphasize it. Thecatopenedthedooritself. Adjectives:Usedtodescribenounsorpronouns. Overusedadjectives:Ioncehadasubstituteteacherthatdidnotpermitourclasstousethe words"nice,pretty,good,orbad."Thisiswhatyoushoulddoinyourwriting.The followingadviceisbecomingsomewhattrite,butpleaseuseimagery,metaphor,orsimply abetteradjectiveifyoufindyourselfusingsuchwordsinyourpiece.Notallwordsare createdequal,andsomehavebeenusedtooftenthattheyhavebecomecolorless. BadExamples:amazing,bad,evil,nice,good,great,big,huge,giant,ginormous,boring, normal,typical,cool,awesome,neat,wonderful,little,tiny,perfect,extraordinary,special, sad,depressed,down,silly,funny,hilarious,ugly,beautiful,average. PersonalTitles:Descriptionsofpositionattachedtonames. Mrs.,Lord,Dr. PossessiveAdjectives:Showpossession. My,your,his,our Articles:Defineswhetherobjectisspecificornonspecific.

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A,the,an DemonstrativeAdjectives:Indicatesspecificthings. This,that,these,those IndefiniteAdjectives:Donotpointoutspecificthings. No,any,many,several Numbers:Denotequantity. Four,Nine,Onehundred Verbs:Describesaction,occurrence,orstateofbeing. OverusedVerbs:Again,somewordsaresooverusedthattheyarebetterleftalone.Verbs like"am,""is,"and"was"mayseemlikevitalpartsofyourwriting,howevereverytime youuseoneofthesecommonverbs,youareignoringanopportunitytoputmoredetailinto yourwritingwhich,ifexecutedcorrectly,couldhavemadeyourpiecemoreentertainingto readoryourscenemorereadilyenvisioned. PoorExamples:Iamatthestore,Idothethings,Igetstuffatthestore,Igotothestore,I haveastore,Ilikeshopping,Ilovepirates BetterExamples:IwakeupinthethriftstorewithnoideahowIgotthere.Ipartakein variousactivitiesthatshallremainunnamed.Mymotherinstructedmetopickupsomelive lobsterswhileatthestore.Ineverwalktothegrocerystore:Iskip(thatwaythemilkhas beenchurnedtobutterbythetimeIgethome).Myfather'slife'swork,thelocalcorner store,hadbeenpassedontometenyearsago,aftermyfather'smysteriousmurder.I habituallysobtearsofjoywhileenteringClaire's.Idelightinillegallycommandeering boats,music,andtheoccasional747.(Theviewsexpressedinthisguidearethoseof fictionalcharactersandarenottheviewsofthewriter,noraretheyrecommended. EspeciallysobbinginClaire's.) AuxiliaryVerbs:Determinesmoodortenseofdifferentverbinaphrase. Will,be,have,do. LexicalVerbs:Anyverbthatisnotanauxiliary,conveysactualaction. Rained,jump,pilfer DynamicVerbs:Indicatesaction. Bought,stole,gave StativeVerbs:Describesituation,condition. Own,have,like,seem,be FiniteVerbs:Expressestense,occursonitsowninamainclause. Walked,baked,completed NonfiniteVerbs(Infinitive):Doesnotshowdistinctionintense,occursonitsown independentphrases. Walking,biking,eating RegularVerbs:Formspasttensebyaddingdored. Finished,created

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IrregularVerbs:Formspasttenseinirregularway. Ate,built,sold TransitiveVerbs:Followedbydirectobject. Sells,eats,makes IntransitiveVerbs:Nodirectobject. Sat,walked Adverbs:Modifiesaverb. Adverboftime:Tellswhensomethingisdone. Yesterday,lastweek,already. Adverbofplace:Denoteslocationofaction. Here,there,upstairs,below Adverbofmanner:Howsomethingisdone,typicallyendinlybutnowalways. Badly,fast,well,sadly Adverbofdegree:Describesextentofaction. Almost,very,too,much Adverboffrequency:Describeshowoftensomethingoccurs. Ever,frequently,seldom,twice,usually Prepositions:Placedbeforenounstodescriberelation. Prepositionfortime:Usedtodescribetimeofevent In,on,at Prepositionforplace:Usedtodescribelocation In,on,at Prepositionfordirection:Describesdirection Toward,to,into Prepositionforagent:Showswho/whatiscauseoftheaction By,with Conjunctions:Connectphrasesandclauses,showingrelationship. CoordinatingConjunction:Whenelementshaveequalrelationship. For,and,but,yet CorrelativeConjunctions:Usedinpairstoconnectequalelements. Either...or,notonly...butalso,neither...nor SubordinatingConjunction:Showrelationshipofsubordinateclausetorestofsentence. After,unless,because,though ConjunctiveAdverbs:Showrelationshipbetweentwoindependentclauses. Consequently,nonetheless,similarly,therefore Interjections:Briefphrasesthatarenotgrammaticallylinkedtoasentence.Usedtoshow emotion.Typicallyusedwithexclamationpoints.

Punctuation

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AnoteonpunctuationPleaserefrainfromusingpunctuationtomakeapoint.Diction andsyntaxcaneasilybemanipulatedtoindicatesorrow,excitement,surprise,and anythingelseyoumightdesire.Exclamationpointsshouldbeusedverysparingly,asthey aresooftenincorrectlyused.Feebleattemptsatinterrobangshouldalsobeavoided(!?). Ifacharactertrailsofforisinterruptedinthemiddleoftheirdialogue(aposiopesis),use ainsteadofanellipses.BadExamples:!,!!,?,,'',?!,!!!11!!1!11!!one!!!,emoticons, Periods:Usedtoendasentence.Singlespaceafter. . QuestionMarks:Placedattheendofdirectquestions.Shouldnotbeusedwithothermarks suchasexclamationpoints.Canalsobeusedattheendoftagquestions,suchasaddingisit? totheendofastatement. ? ExclamationMarks:Usedattheendofdeclarations,interjections,orcommands.Alsotoclose questionsconveyingextremeemotion,suchasWhatonearthareyoudoing! ! Colons:Usedbeforealistorexplanationprecededbyanindependentclause. : Semicolons:Usedtoseparatecloselyrelatedindependentclauses,relatingtheirideastoone another. Hyphens:Createscompoundwords(wellknown,outofdate),writingoutnumbersinword form,addingcertainprefixestowords. Dashes:Usedtosetoffparentheticalstatements,alsotoemphasizethosestatements. Parentheses:Usedinordertoincludeunimportantinformationthatwouldnotfitintothe sentencegrammatically(atleast,notwell).Tendstodeemphasizetheinformation. () Brackets:Usedtoincludeexplanatorywordsorphraseswithinaquoteandtomakeeditstoa quotesothatitfitsintoasentence.Alsousedfor[sic]toshowthatinappropriatelyused/spelled wordsinaquotearefromtheoriginalpieceandnotablunderoftheauthor. [] Ellipses:Usedtoomitwordsfromaquotationtosavespace.Alsocanindicateapauseinthe flowofasentence. Apostrophes:Usedtoformcontractionsandsomepossessiveforms. QuotationMarks:Identifiessomematerialasbeingquotedorspoken.Alsoidentifiestitlesof someworks.Singlequotationmarksonlyusedwhenmaterialisquotedwithinanotherquote.

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Slashes:Usedtoindicateachoicebetweentwoormorewords.Aslashistranslatedintothe wordor. / Commas:Separatestheelementsinaseries.Usedwithaconjunctiontoconnecttwo independentclauses.Setsoffintroductoryelements(Runningtowardthirdbase,hesuddenly realizedhowstupidhelooked).Setsoffparentheticalelements.Setsapartadjectives describingthesamesubject.Sometimesusedtosetoffquotedelements.Canisolatephrases thatexpresscontrast(Coldlikeice,notfire).DONTOVERUSECOMMAS! ,

Sentences
SentenceStructure
Simple: Hasoneindependentclause,nodependentclauses,andanunlimitedamountofphrases. Theboyate. Theboyatetheperfectlytoastedpieceoftoastthathadasmatteringofbutterand marmalade. Compound: Hastwoormoreindependentclauses,nodependentclauses,andanunlimitedamount ofphrases. Theboyatepizza,anditwastasty. Theboyatehismarmaladeslatheredtoastheateitinfourminutes. Complex: Hasoneindependentclause,oneormoredependentclauses,andanunlimitedamount ofphrases. Sincethetoastwascoveredinmarmalade,theboylovedtoeatit. CompoundComplex: Hastwoormoreindependentclauses,oneormoredependentclauses,andanunlimited amountofphrases. Theboyatethemarmaladecoveredtoast,andittookhimfourminutesbecausehewas hungry. ClausesandPhrases: Clauses: Haveaverb,asubjectnoundoingsaidverb,andgenerallyapredicateaswell. CanbedependentorIndependent. IndependentIsafullthought,andfullyformedsentence,canstandon itsown.

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Hesdoingthething. Dependenthasasubjectandverb,butrequiresanotherclausetostand onitsown. Usuallyhasasubordinateconjunction. Sincehedidthething. Phrases: Canhavenounsandverbs,butnosubject.IE:Noneofthenounsmaybedoingthe verb. hoppingthefence. slatheredinmarmalade.

FunctionsofaSentence
Imperative Mandatingsomething. Dothedishes. Feedme. Exclamatory Asentenceexpressingstrongemotions. Ijustwantthedishesdone! Ineedfood! Interrogative Askingaquestion Whyarentyoudoingthedishes? Pleasefeedme? Declarative Makingastatement. Imdoingthedishes. Iwillfeedmyself. Subject/predicate/directobjects/etc

ActionsofEffectiveWriters
PrimaryWritingStyles:
Expository:presentsbothsidesofanargumentandallowsforthereadertomakeuptheirown mindaboutthetopic. Examples:newsreports,letters,biographies. Persuasive:attemptstoconvincethereaderthattheauthorsviewpointsarecorrect. Examples:letterstotheeditor,politicalspeeches. Imaginative:entertains,amuses,orprovokesthereader.Willoftentimesbeusedtomakethe

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readerlookattheissuediscussedinanewlight. Examples:Shortstories,diaries,journals,film,theatre,radio,monologues.

Abstainfromconnectingphrases:
Connectingphrasesmaybehelpfulwhenyouwerelearningtowrite(perhapstheywereeven recommendedbyyourteachers),howeveryourfocusshouldnowbeshiftingfromthecontinuityofyour languagetothecontinuityofyourargument.Relyingonsuchconstructstocreatelogicalprogressionin yourwritingbeliesthepresenceofapoorlydevelopedargument.Inordertoproperlyconvince someoneofyourargument,yourwritingshouldbeinherentlypersuasive.Byconstantlyalertingyour readertothefactthatyouare"providingsupportingdetail"or"qualifyinganargument,"youmakeyour argumenteasiertoignore.Ifyouneedmoreproof,pleaseenjoythiscomic:

Examples:however,although,duetothefactthat,ontheotherhand,although,becauseofthis

PoorDialogue:
Whenyouwritedialogueinapiece,yourgoalshouldnotbetoaccuratelyrepresentthespeech ofarealperson,ascontradictoryasitsounds.Instead,youshouldbetryingtoconveymeaning. Personalityshouldbeinvokedthroughdiction,syntax,andtheverbsyouchoosetodenotespeech, ratherthantheblatherencounteredinregularconversation.Youshouldcutallthatout.Thismakesyour dialoguetwentytimeslessboringandmuchclearerinmeaning. BadExamples:oh,um,err,eh,like,youknow?,right?,okay?yousee,orsomething,well, whatever,stuff,andsuch.

RefrainingfromVaragies:
Whenyoumakeanargument,makesureyoustronglyconveyyourideas.Nottotheextentthat youignoretheopposition,howeverpleasedon'twaterdownyourargumentwith"sortof's"and"a little's".Ifyouarearguingsomethingthatisuncertain,presentyourviewsstronglyandquicklyqualify

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them,ratherthanturningyourspeechintoalimpnoodle. BadExamples:kindof,sortof,abit,absolutely,actually,completely,especially,just,alittle, mostly,practically,prettymuch,quite,really,slightly,so,totally,very,stuff,things.

BeCarefulwithColloquialisms:
Colloquialismsarelovely,howeverdonotoftenhaveaplaceinwrittenargument.Theuseof colloquialismscandefineyourpieceasunprofessionalandunoriginal,damagingyourpoint,andcan occasionallycausegrammarerrorsaswell.Takeextracarewhenexaminingyourpiecefor colloquialisms,becausemanysuchwordsandphrasesaresoingrainedinyourvocabularythattheycan bedifficulttoidentifyonsight. BadExamples:textspeak/acronyms,"freakingout,"totally,literally,junk,crap,funnest.

VarySentenceStructure:
Nothingmakesforaboringpaperlikeanoverabundanceofshortorlongsentences.Short sentencescanhavepower,butthispowerdieswhentheyareusedrepeatedly.Longsentencescan expresscomplicatedideas,sophistication,oravarietyofothertones,howeverwithoutanyshorter sentences,suchapiecewouldbeimpossiblefortheaudiencetostomach. BadExample:WhenIwasalittlegirl,Ihadanimaginaryfriend.AndwhenIgrewup,hecame back.HescalledtheDoctor.Hecomesfromsomewhereelse.Hesgotaboxcalledthetrades thatsbiggerontheinsideandcantravelanywhereintimeandspace.Iranawaywithhim,and wevebeenrunningeversince.(Thismakesmecrytearsofpain.Everytime.)

Repetition:
Avoidrepetitioninyourwriting,bothinargumentandvocabulary.Ofcoursethereexist rhetoricalreasonsforrepletion(e.g.parallelism,epizeuxis,andcataphora),howeverrepetitionshould onlybepennedthroughaconsciouschoice.Ifyouneedlesslyrepeatyourargument,youriskalienating yourreaderbyunderestimatingtheirintelligenceorboringthempastdeath.Apiecethatrepeatsaword toomanytimesmakesitseemliketheauthorhasnovocabulary,regardlessofthecomplexityofthe wordthatisbeingrepeated.

GeorgeOrwellsRules
Neveruseametaphor,simile,orotherfigureofspeechwhichyouareusedtoseeinginprint Toanovicewriter,itmightsoundlikethebestwaytogetbetteratwritingistoimitatethe writersaroundyou.Howeveryourargumentwill,andshould,alwaysbeuniquefromthe argumentofsomeoneelse,whichnecessitatesthecreationofnewmetaphorsandnewfiguresof speechinordertodrawyourreaderinandmakethemthinkaboutyourpointsinauniqueway. Usingthemetaphorsofsomeoneelseonlymakesyourwritingtiredandunoriginal,notmatter hownovelyourthoughts. NeverusealongwordwhenashortonewilldoLongwordsdonothaveanyinherent advantagesovershortwords,andrelyingonthemwillnotmakeyourwritinganybetter.

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Honest. Ifitispossibletocutawordout,alwayscutitoutWordinesshasbeenspokenofbefore,but toreiterate,asentencecanbejustaspowerfulasaparagraph,ifyouuseyourwordscorrectly. Cuttingoutwordsmakesyourwritingeasierforreaderstoabsorbandforcesyoutohavea reasonforeverywordinyourpiece. NeverusethepassivewhereyoucanusetheactiveThereareusesforthethepassivetense, howeveritisamazinghowmuchmoreseemstohappeninapieceifpassivetenseisavoided. Activetenseismuchbetteratengagingtheaudienceinyourargument,andshouldbeused wheneverpossible. Neveruseaforeignphrase,scientificword,orjargonwordifyoucanthinkofaneveryday EnglishequivalentWhenitcomestoforeignwords,thereisafinelinebetweencreatinga sceneorshowingyourintelligenceandalienatingyouraudience.Theaveragereaderwill encounterdifficultyifyouusetoomanywordstheyareunfamiliarwith.Generally,ifyoucansay thesameideainEnglish,pleasedoso. BreakanyoftheserulessoonerthansayanythingoutrightbarbarousTherearecaseswhere theseruleswillnotwork.Althoughyouarestilladevelopingwriter,Itrustyourcommonsense, sodontadheretotheserulessimplybecauseofyournovicestatus.

QuestionsWhileWritingfromDeckertheWrecker
WhatamItryingtosay?Everyonehasreadanargumentlikethis.Thelogicbegansolidly, howeveratsomepointtheauthorusedtoomanywords,skippedtoofaraheadlogically,or forgotthemiddleoftheirargument,turningtherestofthepieceintosomethingonlyvaguely comprehensible.Alwayshaveanexplicitgoalforwhatyouarewriting.Ifyourthoughtsarenot organized,yourwritingwillnotbeeither,renderingitineffective. Whatwordswillexpressit?Youshouldkeepwordchoiceinmindatalltimeswhileyouare writing.Don'tjustruntothethesauruswhenyourunoutofsynonymsfor"red,"buttryto manipulatewordssothattheirconnotationsworkforyou.Everywordshouldbuildonanother. Notonewordofyourpieceexistsinavacuum. Whatimageoridiomwillmakeitclearer?Youneedn'talwaysincludeanelaboratemetaphor ineverypaper,howeverstayconstantlyonthelookoutforconnectionsbetweenyourthoughts andthoseofothers.Metaphor,analogy,orimagerycanbeusedmoresubtlyforaricherpiece. Isthisimagefreshenoughtohaveaneffect?Notallimageryiscreatedequal.Althoughyou areontherighttrackforthinkingofananalogyorimage,beforeputtingittouseinyourpaper youmustcarefullyreflectontheutilityofyourchoice.Thetruepowerinimageryisits encouragementofdeeperthoughtaboutyourargument,aneffectthatcanbeseverelydamaged bytheuseofclichesorfrequentlyusedimages. CouldIputthismoreshortly?Unlessyouhaveanimportantreasonforusinganexcessive amountofwords(i.e.InfiniteJest),wordinesswillnotimproveyourargument.Wordinessis sharplydistinctfromahighvocabulary.Manywordspoorarenosubstituteforoneperfectone

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andthismisconceptionwillslowlykillyourpaper.Yourappealsshouldeffortlesslyandsubtly flowoffthepaperandintothemindsofyouraudience.Thiswillnotoccuriftheyhavetoread throughandremember5compoundcomplexsentencesbeforeyourargumentmovesa micrometer. HaveIsaidanythingthatisavoidablyugly?Thisshouldbeobvious,butpleasedonotwrite anythingyouarestronglyopposedtoinordertosatisfythesecredentials.Everrulehasits exceptions,andthebestwritersbreakthingsoccasionally.

No
PhrasesThatareNotPhrases:
Anyways"Anyway"exists,butnot"anyways".Thiswordisquiteinformalandvague,soyou probablyshouldn'tbeusingitanyway.Oh,wait.Nevermind.couldcarelessIfyoutakethetimeto thinkaboutthislogically,thisphrasemakesnosensewhatsoever.Replacethiswith"couldn'tcareless" tryandThecorrectphraseis"tryto."

CommonlyMisusedWords
Affectvs.effectAffectmeanstoinfluenceandismostoftenusedasaverb.Effectisa resultandismostoftenusedasanoun.Whenaffectisusedasanoun,itwillmeana displayedmoodandisusedalmostsolelyinpsychology.Effect,whenusedasaverb,means tobringaboutaresult. Examples:ThenaturaldisasteraffectedmeinwaysIcouldneverhaveimagined.The effectsweretrulydisastrous.Iusedmyturbulentfeelingstoeffectachangeinthe community,volunteeringindisasterreliefefforts. Thenvs.than"Then"isusedtoshowchronologicalorder,and"than"isusedtocomparetwo objectsorcircumstances. Examples:Iwouldratherkissafrogthanashark.Iwenttotheswamp,andthentothe ocean,whereIkissedboth. Therevs.they'revs.their"There"isanounthatdenotesaplace."They're"isacontractionfor "theyare,"and"their"isapluralpossessivepronoun. Examples:Theirgrammarmakesmecry.Yourpencilisoverthere.They'remuchtoo talltofitthroughthatdoorframe. Tovs.tootoisapreposition,andshowsthephysicalrelationshipbetweentwothings,while tooisanadverbthatdenotessomethingasexcessiveorcanbereplacedwithaswell. Examples:Thatisquitetoomuchtea,goodsir.Ishouldhavetoventuretothe bathroomtodisposeofsomuchexcesstea. Itsvs.it's"its"showspossession,and"it's"isacontractionthatexpandtomean"itis".Agood ruleofthumb:ifyoucanreplace"its"withtwowords("itis")youareusingitincorrectly. Examples:It'sraininginmybasement.Idon'tlikethenewiPhonebecauseitsparallax

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effectsmakemesick. QuiteThiswordmeans"totheutmostormostextremedegree."Ifyouareusingthiswordto mean"somewhat,"youaredoingsomethingterriblywrong. Examples:Thisteaisquitelovely. LiterallyThiswordmeans"freefromexaggeration,exactly.""Literally"iscommonlyusedin popularculturetodenotesomethingclearlyexaggerated,howeverthisisnotthewayitshould beusedinyourwriting.Onlyusethiswordifyouhavelegitimatecausetodosobasedonits definition.Otherwiseyourwritingwouldbemuchmorepoignantifyouusedapropermetaphor orhyperboleinsteadofsettlingfortheshallowwaypopularculturedefinessomethingas incredible. BadExamples:GettingelectrocutedisliterallythefunnestthingIhaveeverdone! BetterExamples:Ithoughthehadsomecommonsense,buthequiteliterallysearched forbovineswhenItoldhimhecould"waituntilthecowscamehome." Beyondbelief/unbelievableThesephrasesliterallymean"unabletobebelieved."Similarto "literally,"donotusethesephrasesifyourtrueintentwastocreateahyperbolicstatement.Your writingwouldbemuchstrongerwithametaphor,hyperbole,orwellplacedexpletive Of,off,in,anBewarethosetypographicalerrors!

MisusedExpletives:
Awellplacedexpletivecandowondersforyourwork,sodon'truinitseffectbysaturatingeverypage withthem.Especiallywhenitcomestohumor,theuseofexpletivessimplyforthesakeofswearingcan detractfromthemeaningandpowerofyourwork.Excessiveswearingoccasionallyhasaplacein dialoguetorepresentthedictionofacertainculture,howeverinmostcases,ahighdensityofexpletives onlyrevealsyourimmaturity. Examples:Pleasecreateyourown.Thisisaschoolpublication.

Misusedrhetoricaldevice:
Ifyoueverfindyourselfincorporatingarhetoricaldeviceintoyourwritingjustbecauseyoucan, pleaseseeamentalhealthprofessionalrightaway.Althoughrhetoricaldevicescanlendgreatpowerto yourwords,theyaremerelynamesformethodsusedbyeffectivewritersanddonotcreateagood piecesimplythroughtheirinclusion.Somedevicesareeasiertomisusethanothers,whichwillbe exploredbelow. HypophoraandrhetoricalquestionsAskingquestionsofyourreadercanmakequitean effectiveargument,howeveritisimportantforyourargumenttobeabletoprogressonitsown, withoutfeedbackfromtheaudience.Beforeposingquestionstoyourreaders,makesurethat youknowhowtheywillrespond. ScesisonomatonThisisreiterateddownbelowwhenspeakingofrepetition,however redundancyinwritingismoreoftenavicethanastrength.Suchrepetitionofideasshouldbe usedsparingly,andyoushouldthinkcarefullyaboutwhetherthepointyouaretryingtomake

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trulyisimportantenoughtoemphasizeitsomanytimes. ApophasisAlthoughapophasissoundsattractive:agodgivenwarranttopassoveryour opposition'spoints,thisdevicecaneasilybeusedillegitimately,asinnotforrhetoricaleffectbut simplyduetolazythinkingonthepartofthewriter.Beforeusingthisdevice,pleaseensurethat thevalidityofyourargumentwillnotsufferforitsinclusion. HyperboleAsisthenatureofexaggeration,thisdeviceshouldbeusedsparingly.Theoveruse ofhyperbolecanresultinatiredpiecethatboresratherthanstimulatestheaudience. Exaggerateonlythatwhichistrulyimportant,notanythingthatbefitsexaggeration. EponymIfyoudonotexercisecare,eponymsshallquicklybecomeclicheanddisgusting.By theirnature,itisdifficulttodeviseausefuleponym,becausethepersonorsituation simultaneouslyneedstobewellknownwithoutbeingfrequentlyused.Theseshouldbeused withcare.(RefrainfromcallingsomeoneanEinsteininyourwriting.Please.) EpithetMLKJusedsomewonderfulepithetsinoursummerreading,ifyoudliketocheck someout.Howeverifyouareplanningtouseone,makesurethatthetwowordsyouare juxtaposingdifferenoughtoprovokereaderinterestinyourargument. PleonasmThisrhetoricaldeviceismostoftenusedaccidentallyinjuvenilewriting,whenitis used.AsOrwellcautions,itisbesttouseasfewwordsaspossibletoexpressanidea.Unless youhavemeditatedthoroughlyontherepercussionsofbeingsoredundant,pleaseeliminatethis inyourwritingwhenyouseeit.

Form,Audience,Purpose(HenceforthKnownasFAP)
Form:typeofdocument Ex.diary,newsarticle,narrative Audience:readersofthedocument ExplicitAudience:obviousintendedaudience ImplicitAudience:notexpressedaudience Ex.membersofgovernment,membersoftheUnitedStates,membersofsociety Purpose:reasonfordocument ExplicitPurpose:obviouspurpose ImplicitPurpose:notexpressedpurpose Ex.totellastory,toinformaboutatopic,topersuadeaction

Argument
ArgumentTypes
Informtellmemberssomethingthattheydidntalreadyknow. Ex.R&LsHouseofRibs:www.R&L.com Convincetoconvinceinsteadofwinoutoverothers,oftenusedtoearnattention. Ex.Thereisnomagicpointatwhichagenuinecollegeleveleducationbecome,but

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anythingbelowanIQof110isproblematic.Ifyouwanttodowell,youshouldhavean IQof115orhigher.Putanotherway,itmakessenseforonlyabout15%ofthe population,25%ifonestretchesit,togetacollege.CharlesMurray Persuadeusedtoprovokeactionfromanalysis. Ex.ByfocusingonfatAmericansthecriticsofconsumptionaresayingimplicitlyatleast, thatpeopleshouldconsumeless.TheyarearguingforaworldinwhichAmericans becomemorelikethosewholiveinthepoorercountriesoftheworld.Yet implementingsuchaviewpointisasupersizedmistake.Ouraspirationfortheworld shouldbetogivethepooradvantagesofaffluenceenjoyedbythoseintheWest.Living standardsincountriessuchasEthiopiaandNigershouldbe,attheveryleast,ashighas thoseinAmericatoday.InthatsenseweshouldallaimtobefatAmericans.Daniel BenAmi Explorepuzzlingoverastatusquoortrend,addressingserioussocietalproblems. MakeDecisionsalliedwithexploreusedtomakegood,sounddecisions. Ex.ThemovetocloseTheNewsoftheWorldwasseenbymediaanalystsasa potentiallyshrewddecision:jettisoningatroublednewspaperinordertopreservethe morelucrativebroadcastingdealandpossiblyexpandthecompanysotherBritish tabloid,TheSun,topublishsevendaysaweek.RupertMurdoch Meditate/Prayusedtotransform,usuallytomakepeaceofmindorequilibriumthrougha theme. Ex.Feelhowitfeelstoholdamaninyourarmswhosearmsareusedtoholdingmen. OfferGodanythingtobringyourbrotherback.KnowyouhavenothingGodcould possiblywant.CurseGod,butdonotabandonHim.MitchellLassell Academicheldtothestandardsofaprofessionalfield,usuallyformal. Rogerianapproachaudiencesnonthreateninglytoestablishcommonground/trust.

ArgumentOccasions
Pastforensicarguments,usedtodebateactualeventsorenhanceknowledge. Ex.RobertBrycesarticleontheU.S.militarysgasconsumptioninIraq(GasPains, MayAtlantic)isfactuallyinaccurate,tacticallymisguided,andaclassiccaseofared herring.CaptainDavidJ.Morris Presentepidemic/ceremonialarguments,usedtoreinforceordebateculturalvalues,andare oftenheardduringpublicoccasions. Ex.Ourswasthefirstrevolutioninthehistoryofmankindthattrulyreversedthecourse ofgovernment,andwiththreelittlewords:Wethepeople.Wethepeopletellthe governmentwhattodo,itdoesnttellus.Wethepeoplearethedriver,the governmentisthecar.Andwedecidewhereitshouldgo,andbywhatroute,andhow fast.RonaldReagan Futuredeliberativearguments,usedtoestablishpolicies/debateaboutwhatwillorshould

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happeninthefuture,noguarantees. Ex.Asportablescreensbecamemorepowerful,lighter,andlarger,theywillbeusedto viewmore.Holdanelectronictabletupasyouwalkalongthestreet,anditwillshow anannotatedoverlayoftherealstreetaheadwherethecleanrestroomsare,which storessellyourfavoriteitems,whereyourfriendsarehangingout.Computerchipsare sosmall,andscreenssothinandcheap,thatinthenext40yearssemitransparent eyeglasseswillapplyaninformationallayertoreality.Inthiswayscreenswillenable ustoreadeverything,notjusttext.Lastyearalone,fivequintilliontransistorswere embeddedintoobjectsotherthancomputers.Verysoonmostmanufactureditems, fromshoestocansofsoup,willcontainasmallsliverofdimintelligence,andscreens willbethetoolweusetointeractwiththistransistorizedinformation.KevinKelly

ArgumentMiscellaneous
Persuasionleadstoactionswhileanargumentleadstoconvictions. StasisTheorycategorizesargumentsinsequenceofaspects,butvarianceinperspectivescan causeachangeinanswers: Didsomethinghappen? Whatisthenatureoftheevent? Qualityandcause? Arethereactionsthatshouldbetaken?

Appeals
Logos:(Logical)meanspersuadingbytheuseofreasoninganddata. Note:Datacanbestatisticsandfacts. ex.TherehavebeenmoreunsolvedbombingsofNegrohomesandchurchesin Birminghamthaninanyothercity.LetterfromBirminghamJail ex."Itsamatterofcommonsensethatpeopledeservetobetreatedequally. TheConstitutioncallsitselfevident.Why,then,shouldIhavebeendenieda seatbecauseofmydisability?" ex."In25yearsofdrivingthesameroute,Ihaventseenasingledeer." ex."ResearchcompiledbyanalystsfromNASA,aswellasorganizationsfrom fiveothernationswithspaceprograms,suggeststhatamooncolonyisviable withinternationalsupport." Ethos:(Credibility),orethicalappeal,meansconvincingbythecharacteroftheauthor, appealingtomorals. ex.Isaythisasaministerofthegospel,wholovesthechurchwhowas nurturedinitsbosomwhohasbeensustainedbyitsspiritualblessingsandwho willremaintruetoit.LetterfromBirminghamJail Pathos:(Emotional)meansofpersuadingbyappealingtothereader'semotions.Weallmake

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decisionsevenimportantonesbasedonourfeelings.Manipulatethisandcreateareaction. Usuallymoreeffectivewhenpersuadingthanwhenyourearguing.Somewaysyoucanuse logosaretotellapassionatestoryorusemetaphors. ex.Explaintoyoursixyearolddaughterwhyshecantgotothepublic amusementparkthathasjustbeenadvertisedontelevision,andseetears wellingupinhereyeswhensheistoldthatFuntownisclosedtocolored children.LetterfromBirminghamJail ex."ImnotjustinvestedinthiscommunityIloveeverybuilding,every business,everyhardworkingmemberofthistown." ex."Wherewouldwebewithoutthistradition?Eversinceourforefathers landedatPlymouthRock,wevecelebratedThanksgivingwithoutfail,making morethancherishedrecipes.Wevemadememories."

RhetoricalModes
Arhetoricalmodeisastrategyawayormethodofpresentingasubjectthroughwriting orspeech.Someofthebetterknownrhetoricalmodesare,forexample,"argument"and "causeandeffect."strategiesormethodsforpresentingsubjectshowever,themodesare amongthemostbasic. Narration:Narration"ora"narrative"providesdetailsofwhathappened.Itisalmostlikealist ofeventsintheorderthattheyhappened,exceptthatitiswritteninparagraphform.A narrativedoesn'thavetoshowanycauseandeffectitonlyneedstoshowwhathappenedinthe orderthatithappened. ex.Onceuponatime,alongtimeago,inalandfar,faraway..... Description:"Description"means"illustrativedetail."Adescriptionpaperoftentakesaperson orobjectandthendescribesthatpersonorthingingreatillustrativedetail.Tohelpthereaders understandyoursubjectthroughevidenceoftheirsenses. ex.Thehetree'svividyellowflowersandbrightgreenfoliagemakeitan exceptionallystrikingsight. Example:"Exemplification"means"thegivingofanexample."Anexemplificationpaperusually startswithamainidea,belief,oropinionsomethingabstractandthengivesoneextended exampleoraseriesofshorterexamplestoillustratethatmainidea.Infact,anexemplification paperisapaperthatillustratesanabstractidea.Shouldalwaysbeveryspecific,nevergeneral. ex.Despitepublicoutrage,onJuly19th,2006,PresidentBushvetoedStem CellResearchEnhancementActof2005(H.R.810),whichwasabill proposingtoamendthePublicHealthServiceActtoprovideforhuman embryonicstemcellresearch. Comparison/Contrast:"Comparison/contrast"meanstoshowhowsubjectsarealikeand/or different.Asimplecomparison/contrastpaperoftenhastwosubjectsanddescribeshowthey arealikeandthenhowtheydiffer.Forexample,acomparison/contrastpaperontwoformsof

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weekendentertainment,campinganddancing. ex.Campingwiththefamilyisamuchbetterwaytobondthandancing. ProcessAnalysisAmethodofparagraphoressaydevelopmentbywhichawriterexplainsstep bystephowsomethingisdoneorhowtodosomething. Processanalysiswritingcantakeoneoftwoforms:(1)itcanprovideinformationabout howsomethingworks(informative)or(2)itcanexplainhowtodosomething (directive). ex.Howtobrushyourteeth: 1.Puttoothpasteonthetoothbrush 2.Rinsetoothbrushwithwater. ect. Classification/Division:"Classification"meansthatasubjectaperson,place,event,or objectisidentifiedandbrokenintopartsandsubparts.Aclassificationparagraphbeginsa mainideaanddiscussesthesubcategoriesofthattopic,comparingandcontrastingthemwith eachother.Ithelpsreadersseeorderinyoursubjectbyunderstandingthekindsorgroupsit canbesortedinto. ex.Peoplelookingtoloseweighthaveafewoptions:exercise,diet,weightloss pills,andsurgery.Exercisinginvolvesgoingtoagym,workingoutathome,or joiningsomesortofclassorsportsteam.Thosewhoaredietingcantalktoa doctoraboutaplanforthem.Weightlosspillscanbetaken,ifproper precautionsanddirectionsarefollowed.Individualswhoareseverely overweightcantalktoadoctorabouthavingsurgerytolosetheweightthatthey need. CauseandEffect:"Causeandeffect"simplymeansthatyoustartwithasubject(anevent, person,orobject)andthenshowthecauses(reasons)forit,andtheeffects(results)ofit. "Cause"meansthereasonswhyorforsomething,orthesourceofsomething."Effects"simply areresultsoroutcomes.Causeandeffectwritingshowsachainofconnectedevents,eachthe logicalresultoftheonebeforeit.Asimplecauseandeffectpaperdiscussesthechainofevents relatedtoaperson,event,orobject,showingwhatarethecausesandwhataretheresults. ex.Itisraining,thereforethegroundiswet. Definition:Anextendeddefinitionsimplydefinesasubjectinafullerormoreextendedmore thoroughwaythandoesadictionary.Createdistinctionsfromothersubjects. Argument/Persuasion:Tohavereadersconsideryouropinionaboutyoursubjectoryour proposalforitandthen(typicallydosomethingaboutit.Itissomethingdebatable:"Menhave walkedonthemoon"isafact,but"PeoplewillwalkonVenusinthenexttenyears"isan opinion.Anythingthatreasonablycanbedebatedisanargument.Asimpleargumentpaper usuallypresentsadebatableopinionandthenofferssupportsinfavorofit,orsometimesan argumentpaperwilldiscussbothsidesofanissueandthengivegoodreasonsforchoosingone sideovertheother.

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ex.AvacationtoFloridaisanexperienceyouwillneverforget,offeringsun,fun andbeautifulbeaches.Bookyourtriptoday.

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