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GENERAL
Post-tensioned concrete has been used for more than 40 years in the United States in a wide variety of construction projects. First used primarily in bridge construction, applications for post-tensioning now extend far beyond bridges to include tanks, office buildings, hotels, parking structures, pavement, masonry, seismic walls, single-family homes and more. They can be designed as two-way spanning flat slabs, one-way spanning ribbed slabs, or as banded beam and slab construction. Flat slabs are supported, without the use of beams, by columns with or without column heads. They may be solid or may have recesses formed in the soffit to create a series of ribs running in two directions (waffle or coffered slab). The design principles of continuous flat slab floors are similar to those of two-way reinforced concrete slabs. A strip of slab of unit width, continuous over supports, is analyzed as a continuous beam. Prestressing of continuous slab results in secondary moments. If the cable profile is concordant, secondary moments can be eliminated. Since 1955 a number of number of continuous flat slab have been built in U.S.A, in which unbounded tendons are to be preferred both from the point of view of ultimate strength requirements and easy maintenance under adverse exposure conditions. The design of a continuous flat slab floors involves the computation of maximum and minimum moments for various load combinations and the determination of suitable cable profiles so that the resulting stresses in concrete are within the safe allowable limits as per codes. Shear stresses at the junction of the column and slab should be carefully controlled by proper design and detailing of the critical shear zones.
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One reason for the widespread use of the 12.7 mm diameter strand is the Code requirement that the tendon spacing not be greater than eight times the slab thickness. The use of 12.7 mm diameter, 1860 MPa strand permits 110 and 125 mm slabs to meet both the minimum 0.85 MPa average pre-compression and the maximum tendon spacing requirement. In addition, the tendons and stressing equipment are light enough for workers to handle them efficiently on site. Larger diameter 15.3 mm strands are primarily used in pre-tensioning and bridge construction. Higher strength steels and smaller diameter strands are also available but are not commonly used for new construction.
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hinged connections (releases). Connections that are assumed to be hinged must be detailed in the construction documents to allow rotation, while retaining the integrity of the joint by limiting crack width and transfer of axial and shear forces through the joint. Another instance where a hinge connection may be beneficial is for short gravity columns at split levels in parking structures, which have a ramp on one side and a level floor on the other side.
From the many possible design solutions for a post-tensioned member, the one that meets the Code requirements for serviceability and strength and is the least expensive to build is usually the preferred solution. Generally, for a given slab dimension, loading, and construction method, less material means a more economical design. Values for the three parameters listed above must be established before the required amount of post-tensioning can be determined. The amount of supplemental reinforcement as required for strength design of the post-tensioning member is determined by the amount of the post-tensioning reinforcement and the reinforcement profile. The typical ranges of spans for the various
forms of construction and their corresponding slab and beam depths are shown here.
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5.3.1 AVERAGE PRE-COMPRESSION The average pre-compression is the total post tensioning force divided by the gross crosssectional area normal to the force. ACI 318 requires a minimum 0.85 MPa effective precompression (pre-compression after all prestress losses). In general, 0.85 MPa should be used for the initial average pre-compression. For roofs and parking structures, use 1.0 to 1.4 MPa if water tightness or cracking is a concern. however, an increase in pre-compression does not guarantee water tightness and may not completely eliminate cracking. To avoid leakage, the increased post-tensioning must be supplemented by other measures, such as a membrane overlay. In one-way slab and beam construction, the member is defined as the beam and its tributary slab area. Maximum pre-compression should be 2.0 MPa for slabs and 2.50 MPa for beams; although the Codes limit of maximum compressive stress is much higher, values higher than these typically mean the design will be less economical.
5.3.2 PERCENTAGE OF LOAD TO BALANCE This is expressed as the ratio (percentage) of the dead load that is balanced. For slabs, it is customary to balance between 60 and 80% of the dead load. For beams, this is usually increased to between 80 and 110%. One reason for higher balanced loading for the beams is that beam deflection is more critical to service performance of a floor system. To determine the required post-tensioning force, start with the critical span. For the spans adjacent to the critical span, a lower percentage of the dead load should generally be balanced because less upward force in an adjacent span helps to reduce the design values of the critical span.
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Balancing all the spans of a continuous member to the same percentage of dead load is not always economical. In practice, tendon profiles are reversed parabolas; such example is shown in Figure 2. Tendons thus exert both upward and downward forces in the same span. In such cases and for the purpose of design, the percentage of dead load balanced is considered as the sum of the upward forces divided by the total dead load (DL) on the span. For the design shown in Fig. 4, this becomes: % of DL balanced = 100[(W2+W3)/DL]
Fig. 5.3 Post-tensioning tendon of reversed parabola shape, exert both an upward and a downward force in the same span
5.3.3 TENDON PROFILE: SHAPE For beam tendons and slab tendons in the distributed direction, a reversed parabola tendon profile with inflection points at one-tenth of the span length (Fig. 5.4) is typically used. For an exterior span, the tendon is at the mid depth of the slab at the slab edge and at its high point (typically somewhat higher than mid depth) at the other end. Moving the tendon lowpoint to 0.4L, results in a more uniform uplift over the exterior span.
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5.3.4 TENDON PROFILE: DRAPE The high point of the tendon profile should be as close to the top surface of the member as practical, allowing for clearance and reinforcement in the orthogonal direction, if necessary. At the low point of the profile, it is best to place the tendons as close to the soffit of the member as allowable, to take full advantage of the uplift and contribution to strength that the tendon can provide. This arrangement is possible for the critical spans in a continuous member, but may need to be adjusted for other spans. Maximum drape results in excessive uplift in a span other than the critical span, the first choice should be to reduce the prestressing force. Tendons should be anchored at the centroid of the slab even if there is a transverse beam or drop cap/panel at the slab edge (fig. 5.5)
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5.5.2 TENDON LAYOUT The preferred tendon layout for two-way slabs is to concentrate the tendons over the supports in one direction (the banded tendons) and distribute them uniformly in the other direction. Place the distributed tendons in the orthogonal direction, parallel to one another, making sure that a minimum of two tendons pass over each support as required by ACI 318-02.
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5.5.3 TENDON STRESSING Most engineers in North America design with final effective forcesthe post-tensioning forces after all prestress losses. The post-tensioning supplier determines the number of tendons required to provide the force shown on the structural drawings, based on the effective force of a tendon. The effective force of a tendon is a function of a number of parameters, including the tendon profile, certain properties of the concrete, and the environment. For typical designs, however, a constant force of 120 kN may be assumed for 12.7 mm. Un-bonded tendons shall meet the following conditions for stressing. Tendon length (length between anchorages) shall less than 72 m. Tendons less than 36 m long are stressed at one end; and Tendons longer than 36 m but less than 72 m are stressed at both ends.
Tendons that do not meet these conditions may be used, as long as the assumed effective force is lowered to account for the higher friction losses.
5.6.1 SEISMIC DESIGN Although seismic design technology is not currently as well developed for post-tensioned structures as for some other structural systems, a number of experimental research projects have been completed which indicate that energy dissipation characteristics conforming with accepted standards can be achieved by appropriate combinations of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement. The preliminary report on the moment transfer tests at the University of Washington sponsored by the Post- Tensioning Institute and the Reinforced Concrete Research Council states: "It is apparent that prestressing could provide an excellent means for tieing a slab together and ensuring ductile behavior for seismic loading. However, reversed cyclic large edge deflection tests are necessary to validate that potential and develop the rules necessary to ensure ductile behavior" (Fig. 5.6).
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Fig. 5.6 Comparison of Lateral Load-Edge Deflection Relationships for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Slab - Interior Column Specimens
Graph shows that after low intensity reversed cyclic loading one of the post-tensioned slab specimens could still develop a lateral load - edge deflection relationship for unidirectional loading paring very favorably with the same relationship for a similarly loaded reinforced concrete slab with integral beam stirrups. For the prestressed slab, the cracking that developed at the column face during the first cycle between maximum lateral loads of two kips resulted in a permanent edge deflection for zero lateral load. However, for the second and third cycles to the same maximum lateral loads, and even when the lateral loads were increased to three kips, the hysteresis loops remained stable and spindle shaped. Further, there was no degradation in stiffness with cycling. Use of post-tensioned flexural systems with un-bonded tendons in areas of high seismicity has sometimes been questioned because the tendons may not be stressed beyond the elastic range, even in a severe earthquake, and, for this reason, the tendons do not dissipate much energy. This objection may be overcome when the slabs are an integral part of the moment resisting frame by use of a combination of un-bonded tendons and non-prestressed bonded reinforcement as discussed above. However,
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in most post-tensioned structures in seismic zones the post-tensioned elements are not part of the ductile moment resisting space frame, or the seismic resistance is provided by shear walls or some other force resisting system. For such cases, Uniform Building Code 1976 Edition, Section 2314 states: " framing elements not required by design to be part of the lateral force resisting system shall be investigated and shown adequate for vertical load carrying capacity and induced moment due to 3/K times the distortions resulting from the Code required lateral forces." K is the horizontal force factor. It has been shown that under reinforced prestressed concrete members can meet the ductility requirements of the above Uniform Building Code provision. Also suggests" that in the range of seismic disturbances slightly greater than moderate, prestressed concrete can provide the necessary deformability and still respond almost elastically." The elastic response results from the fact that it is not possible for the stress in an un-bonded tendon to reach the yield point within the deformation range anticipated in a moderately severe earthquake. A significant practical benefit of this is that permanent structural damage to the floor system will be greatly reduced in comparison to other structural systems. Anchorage systems used for un-bonded tendons are required to meet static and dynamic test requirements much more severe than the loadings that would be anticipated in an earthquake of high intensity. These specifications also require the anchorage system to withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60 to 66 percent of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the tendon material. In addition to the satisfactory performance of post-tensioned specimens subjected to earthquake loadings in laboratory research projects, post-tensioned structures have responded well in numerous earthquakes in the United States and in other countries. Many posttensioned structures have been built in areas of 'high seismicity and many have been subjected to earthquakes of significant magnitude. A post-tensioned ductile moment resisting space frame with un-bonded tendons in combination with bonded non-prestressed reinforcement, as well as other post-tensioned buildings, performed very well in the 1971 San Fernando earthquake in California. In summary, both test results and performance in earthquakes indicate advantages for the use of un-bonded tendons for structures in areas of
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high seismicity, particularly when used in conjunction with shear walls or other lateral force resisting elements.
5.7.1 BAR SIZE To take full advantage of the maximum lever arm for reinforcement in both directions, the top bar diameters should match those of the adjacent tendons. Thus, it is reasonable to use 16 mm bars over the supports, a sheathed 12.7 mm diameter strand is slightly larger than a 16 mm bar. For bottom bars, it is better to use smaller bars, such as 12 mm bars, for the distributed tendon direction because these are distributed uniformly among the tendons, and larger bars for the banded tendons because bars for the banded direction are normally grouped together and placed within the band width.
5.8.1 MATERIAL 28 days compressive strength at is 30 N/mm2 : Ultimate creep co-efficient :M30 2
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Steel reinforcement grade : For post-tensioning tendon, 12.7 mm diameter 7wires strand is used. Ultimate strength of tendon : Effective stress of tendon : Minimum strand cover from top fiber Minimum strand cover from bottom fiber
5.8.2 Allowable stresses Initial tensile stress of top fiber at time of jacking (transfer) : Final tensile stress of top fiber at time of service load : Initial tensile stress of bottom fiber at time of jacking (transfer) : Final tensile stress of bottom fiber at time of service load : Initial compression stress of top fiber at time of jacking (transfer) : Final tensile stress of top fiber at time of service load :0.25 0.5 0.25 0.5 0.6 . .
0.45 .
5.8.3 VALUES FOR POST-TENSIONING Minimum average pre compression : Maximum average pre compression : Minimum percentage of dead load to balance : Maximum percentage of dead load to balance :0.86 N/mm2 2.07 N/mm2 25% 100%
5.8.4 VALUES FOR CALCULATION OF FRICTION STRESS LOSSES Ratio of jacking stress to ultimate stress : Strands modulus of elasticity : Angular coefficient of friction Mu : Wobble co-efficient of friction k : Anchor set :0.8 2 x 10^5 N/mm2 0.07 /rad. 0.0046 rad/m 6 mm.
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5.8.5 CALCULATION OF LONG TERM STRESS LOSS Age of concrete at stressing : Concrete modulus of elasticity :5 days. 20000 N/mm2
5.8.6 LOAD COMBINATIONS Service combination factors for DL, LL and prestress ( balanced loading) :1 DL + 1 LL + 1 prestress. Strength combination factors for DL, LL and hyperstatic (secondary) actions:1.5 DL + 1.5 LL + 1 hyp.
Analysis and design is done by ADAPT-6.0 software with the use of design code ACI 318. Here explanation of software shows, how input data are to be entered to the software. At starting of software window, it asks general settings of title. Two way slab structural system is used for the analysis. equivalent frame modeling is used for design. After giving structural system and design settings the next window will be of span geometry (fig. 5.7), this screen is used to enter the cross-sectional geometry of the slab at mid span. All dimensions are defined in the legend at the top of the screen and illustrated in the appropriate section figure. The section span can be changed by clicking on the section column. We can use the Typical input row to enter similar dimensions. Type the values in to the appropriate cell in the top row and then press enter. The typical value will be copied to all the spans.
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As shown in fig. 5.8. This screen is used to input Column/wall height, widths and depths. After entering support condition the next window will be of boundary condition. Design of post-tensioned flat slab is done with no end support fixity. Boundary condition for the column is assumed as upper and lower columns are fixed. For the input of loading information, software gives the various types of loading pattern which we can directly entre the value of loading by simply dragging the loading type indicated with graphics icon (fig.5.9).
It is required to provide the material property for concrete as 28 days compressive strength of concrete for slab as well as for column and also and ultimate creep coefficient. Then it is also necessary to input the material property of reinforcement, post-tensioning system whether bonded or un-boned, area of tendon, allowable stresses and post-tensioning values to the
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software as listed above. Software will ask to specify the tendon profile among three types, reversed parabola, partial parabola and harped parabola (Fig. 5.10). X1/L and X3/L are the inflection points.
Then specify minimum covers for post-tensioning tendons and mild steel reinforcement, also specify minimum bar length and bar extension of mild steel reinforcement and load combinations. Finally we can see the 3D model view of strip of slab of input data as shown in Fig. 5.11, Fig. 5.12 and Fig. 5.13.
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Fig. 5.13 3D view of interior panel of Post-Tensioned flat slab with drop cap
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Fig. 5.14 Graphs showing tendon profile, tension and compression stresses and required and provided Post-Tensioning forces Fig. 5.14 displays the top diagram, the tendon height diagram shows the elevation of tendon profile. The second diagram, stress diagrams, plots the maximum compressive and tensile stresses at the top and bottom face of the member. The third diagram, Post-Tensioning diagrams shows the required and provided post-tensioning force at 1/20th points along each span. The vertical line represents the required post-tensioning and the horizontal line represents the provided post-tensioning at that section. The program also gives the required non-prestressed reinforcement and stress ratio for punching shear which shall be below 1 otherwise shear reinforcement is require near column.