Theory

Dynamics
Theoretical background - Dynamics
ir. B. Resseler 04/2006
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Table of contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3
Formulation of the dynamic equilibrium equations................................................... 4
Background..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Natural modes, solution of free vibration................................................................... 5
Back ground.................................................................................................................................................... 5
SDOF free vibration ................................................................................................................................... 5
MDOF free vibration................................................................................................................................... 5
Related quantities ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Practical use.................................................................................................................................................... 7
Eigenmode calculation in SCIA.ESA PT................................................................................................... 7
Harmonic loading........................................................................................................ 9
Back ground.................................................................................................................................................... 9
SDOF harmonic loading............................................................................................................................. 9
MDOF harmonic loading.......................................................................................................................... 11
Practical used................................................................................................................................................ 11
Harmonic load calculation in SCIA-ESA PT............................................................................................ 11
Karman Vibration....................................................................................................... 13
Background................................................................................................................................................... 13
Practical use.................................................................................................................................................. 15
Karman Vibration in SCIA-ESA PT.......................................................................................................... 15
Seismic loading......................................................................................................... 17
Back ground.................................................................................................................................................. 17
SDOF of seismic systems........................................................................................................................ 17
MDOF of a seismic system...................................................................................................................... 18
Modal combination methods.................................................................................................................... 20
Mass in the seismic analysis ................................................................................................................... 21
Predominant mode................................................................................................................................... 23
Multiple eigenshapes ............................................................................................................................... 23
Calculation Protocol ................................................................................................................................. 23
Practical use.................................................................................................................................................. 24
Seismic load calculation in SCIA-ESA PT............................................................................................... 24
Direct time integration............................................................................................... 26
Back ground.................................................................................................................................................. 26
Practical use.................................................................................................................................................. 27
How to get results .................................................................................................................................... 27
Setup parameters of a general load case ............................................................................................... 28
Non-uniform damping ............................................................................................... 29
Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 29
Back ground.................................................................................................................................................. 29
Practical use.................................................................................................................................................. 30
Annex A: Numerical Damping Values....................................................................... 32
3
Introduction
The choice to do a static or a dynamic analysis of a structure depends on the relative importance of the forces
related to acceleration and velocity in the global behaviour of the structure as a result of external forces acting
upon it.
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Formulation of the dynamic equilibrium
equations
Background
All dynamic computations can be related to the solution of the equations of dynamic equilibrium which can be
written in matrix form:
M X C X K X F t - + - + - =

( ) (1.1)
When this matrix equation is compared to the equation of static equilibrium:
K X F - = (1.2)
It is clear that the dynamic equation of equilibrium requires more data than the static equation. In fact, we have to
supply sufficient information to compute:
M : The mass matrix
C : The damping matrix
F(t) : The solicitation as a function of time
The results that are obtained when solving the equation include displacements as a function of time as well as
velocity, acceleration and internal forces. The amount of results can therefore become exhaustive. The methods
available to solve equation (1.1) are mostly based on a modal superposition principle. The assumption is made
that the behaviour of the structure can be obtained by superposing a number of natural deformation modes each
multiplied by a weighing factor that depends on the solicitation. These natural modes or eigenmodes are obtained
from the solution of:
M X K X - + - =

0 (1.3)
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be used for further dynamic studies. Four different types of dynamic
computations are allowed presently in SCIA.ESA PT:
1. Harmonic solicitation
2. Spectral analysis
3. Direct time integration
4. Von Karman vortices
5
Natural modes, solution of free vibration
Back ground
SDOF free vibration
To understand better the eigenmodes, the solution of a free vibration system, a SDOF (Single Degree Of
Freedom) system is regarded in detail.
Consider the following system:
A body of mass m is free to move in one direction. A spring of constant stiffness k, which is fixed at one end,
is attached at the other end to the body.
The equation of motion can be written as:
0 ) ( ) ( = +
- -
t y k t y m (2.1)
A solution for this differential equation is: ) cos( ) ( t w A t y =
Inserting this in (2.1) gives:
0 ) cos( ) (
2
= + t A k m e e (2.2)
This implies that:
m
k
= e (2.3)
Where e is called the natural circular frequency.
The natural period T can be written as:
e
t 2
= T (2.4)
The natural frequency (or eigen frequency) f can be written as:
t
e
2
1
= =
T
f (2.5)
MDOF free vibration
For a general, MDOF (Multiple Degree Of Freedom) structure, equation (2.1) can be written in matrix notation:
0 = +
- -
U K U M (2.6)
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Where:
U is the vector of translations and rotations in nodes,
- -
U is the vector of corresponding accelerations,
K is the stiffness matrix assembled for the static calculation,
M is the mass matrix assembled during the dynamic calculation.
The K-matrix is exactly the same as the stiffness matrix that is used in static computations. In this matrix, proper
account can be given to anisotropic material, springs and boundary conditions. For an overview of the
possibilities, please consult the manuals which describe the different element types.
From equation (2.6) it is clear that the calculation model created for a static analysis needs to be completed
with additional data of masses. In SCIA.ESA PT, this data is defined and stored in mass groups and mass
combinations.
The M-matrix can be computed in different ways. Two classes can be recognised:
-lumped mass matrix, discrete mass in the nodes
-consistent mass matrix, distributed mass on the members
The lumped mass matrix offers considerable advantages with respect to memory usage and computational effort
because in this case, the M-matrix is a diagonal matrix. The SCIA.ESA PT programs will only use lumped mass
matrix. By refining the mesh, the lumped converges to the, consistent approach.
The solutions of (2.6) are harmonic functions in time having the following form:
( ) ) ( sin
0
T T U u = e (2.7)
Notice that in this solution a separation of variables is obtained:
- The first part, ( u), is a function of spatial co-ordinates,
- The second part, ( ) ) ( sin
0
T T e , is a function of time.
When substituting (2.7) in (2.6), an equation is obtained which is known as the Generalised Eigenproblem
Equation:
0
2
= u u M K e (2.8)
The solution of (2.8) yields as many eigenmodes as there are equations.
Each eigenmode consists of 2 parts:
- An eigenvalue: value
i
e
- An eigenvector: vector
i
u , which is not fully determined. The deformation shape is
known, but the scale factor is unknown.
This scale factor can be chosen in different ways. In SCIA-ESA PT, as scale factor, a M-orthonormalisation
has been implemented. This is shown in the following relation:
1 = u u
i
T
i
M
M-orthonormalisation have following properties:
0 = u u
i
T
j
M , When j i = (2.10)
2
i i
T
i
K e = u u (2.11)
The algorithm used in the ESA programs to compute the eigenvalues is the well known subspace method. This
method is extremely well suited to calculate a relative small amount of eigenvectors. By using this method, N (N
is specified by the user) eigenvalues are determined simultaneously. These values will be the lowest eigenvalues
if one is using the method straightforwardly.
7
The program prints each eigenvalue, the radial frequency and the frequency in periods/second. Subsequently,
the modal participation factors are given. It is displayed in the calculation protocol of eigenfrequencies. These are
defined as:
|jT M {1l}
with : |jT the M-normalised eigenvector j
M the diagonal mass matrix
{1l} a directional matrix containing a 1 in the indicated direction l and a 0 in other
directions
Furthermore, the sum of masses in the analysis is displayed for each global direction X, Y and Z.
The Mass normalised eigenvectors can be displayed both, graphically as in numeric output. The user is allowed
to display the mode shapes on the structure. A small tool as available to show it as a animation. For each
eigenvector, the deformation of the mesh nodes is listened. The user is allowed to filter the largest amplitude for
each global direction. The results are available in the result service Displacement of nodes.
The complete list of eigenfequencies is given. For each mode is displayed the frequencies, the velocity, the
acceleration and the period. You will find it in the service Eigen frequencies in the result menu, which is
displayed after a free vibration calculation.
Related quantities
To find other related quantities, such as the generalised weight, is easy:
GW = Q
T
W Q
where: Q eigenvector with largest amplitude 1
W weight matrix
From the value of GW, the scale factor to determine | from Q can be found. If this factor is called a, such that:
Q = |/a
Then
GW = (1/a)|
T
W (1/a)|
= (1/a)|
T
gM | gM = W
= g/a
Similarly, the modal weight can be found:
MW = GW * (participation factor)
Practical use
Eigenmode calculation in SCIA.ESA PT
The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Free Vibration calculation:
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Activate the Dynamics functionality
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Free Vibration Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
9
Harmonic loading
The structure will now be loaded with an external harmonic load, which will cause the structure to vibrate.
A forced vibration calculation can be required to check the response of a building near a railroad or major
traffic lane, to check vibrations due to machinery, to verify structural integrity of a floor loaded by an aerobics
class,
Back ground
SDOF harmonic loading
To understand what is going on during the dynamic analysis of a complex structure with frames or finite
elements, the forced vibration of a SDOF (Single Degree Of Freedom) system is regarded in detail.
Consider the following system:
A body of mass m can move in one direction. A spring of constant stiffness k, which is fixed at one end, is
attached at the other end to the body. The mass is also subjected to damping with a damping capacity c. An
external time dependant force F(t) is applied to the mass.
The equation of motion can be written as:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t F t y k t y c t y m = + +
- - -
(3.1)
When the acting force on this system is a harmonic load, equation (3.1) can be rewritten as follows:
) sin( ) ( ) ( ) ( t F t y k t y c t y m = + +
- - -
v (3.2)
With: F = Amplitude of the harmonic load
v = Circular frequency of the harmonic load
A solution to this equation is the following:
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 (
) sin(
)) sin( ) cos( ( ) (

u v
e e
e
r r
t
Y t B t A e t y
S D D
t
+

+ + =

(3.3)
With:
k
F
Y
S
= The static deflection (3.4)
Theoretical background - Dynamics
e

=
m
c
2
The damping ratio (3.5)
2
1 e e =
D
The damped circular frequency (3.6)
2
1
2
) tan(
r
r

=

u (3.7)
e
v
= r The frequency ratio (3.8)
The angle u signifies that the displacement vector lags the force vector, that is, the motion occurs after the
application of the force. A and B are constants which are determined from the initial displacement and
velocity.
The first term of equation (3.3) is called the Transient motion. The second term is called the Steady-state
motion. Both terms are illustrated on the following figure:
The amplitude of the transient response decreases exponentially (
t
e
e
). Therefore, in most practical
applications, this term is neglected and the total response y(t) can be considered as equal to the steady-state
response (after a few periods of the applied load).
Equation (3.3) can then be written in a more convenient form:
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
r r
Y
Y
S +
=
(3.9)
S
Y
Y
is known as the Dynamic Magnification factor, because YS is the static deflection of the system under a
steady force F and Y is the dynamic amplitude.
The importance of mechanical vibration arises mainly from the large values of
S
Y
Y
experienced in practice
when the frequency ratio r has a value near unity: this means that a small harmonic force can produce a large
amplitude of vibration. This phenomenon is known as resonance. In this case, the dynamic amplitude does
not reach an infinite value but a limiting value of
2
S
Y
.
The second term in equation (3.1) represents the damping. The damping of the model is defined by the
damping ratio.
Lets remark that that damping can be over ruled by using the non-uniform damping method, where the user
is allowed to define the damping of the elements on more precise way. See for more detail the chapter
Damping.
The logarithmic decrement A is the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes in the
same direction. This is illustrated on the following figure:
11
11
1
ln
X
X
= A (3.10)
The logarithmic decrement A is related to the damping ratio by the following formula:
2
1
2

= A
MDOF harmonic loading
When the loads applied to a structure are sinusoidal, the general equation becomes:
M U C U K U F t - + - + - = -

{ } cos( ) e
This means that more than one node of the structure can be loaded but the frequency of all solicitations should
be equal.
The solution which is of interest in this case is the particular solution which describes the stationary state of the
structure without taking into account the initial conditions and transient behaviour (this is in contrast with the time
dependent solution where one calculates the transient behaviour and eventually when integration time is long
enough, finally arrives at the stationary state behaviour).
The stationary state will give a sinusoidal result in each node, with a frequency equal to the applied frequency.
The resulting vibration will be in faze with the load when C=0. When C is not zero, there will be a faze shift. The
solution is found once more by uncoupling the equations as before. The amplitudes of the harmonic response are
determined and given in the output.
Practical used
Harmonic load calculation in SCIA-ESA PT
SCIA.ESA PT supports the harmonic calculation in a general 3d environment (composed by 1d and 2d
elements)
The Harmonic Load can be inputted after creating a Combination of Mass Groups. This implies that the steps
used to perform a Free Vibration calculation still apply here and are expanded by the properties of the
Harmonic Load.
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Harmonic Loads in SCIA-ESA PT are always defined as nodal forces i.e. a nodal load or a nodal moment.
More than one node of the structure can be loaded in a load case, but the frequency of all solicitations is equal
to the forcing frequency specified for that load case.
The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Harmonic Load calculation:
Activate the Dynamics functionality
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Create a Harmonic Load case
Input Harmonic Loads
13
Karman Vibration
Karman vibration handles on the transverse vibration of cylindrical structures due to wind.
First the theory is explained in which reference is made to the Harmonic load since Vortex shedding is a
special case of harmonic loading.
Background
One of the most important mechanisms for wind-induced oscillations is the formation of vortices
(concentrations of rotating fluid particles) in the wake flow behind certain types of structures such as
chimneys, towers, suspended pipelines
At a certain (critical) wind velocity, the flow lines do not follow the contours of the body, but break away at
some points, and then the vortices are formed.
These vortices are shed alternately from opposite sides of the structure and give rise to a fluctuating load
perpendicular to the wind direction. The following figure illustrates the vortex shedding for flow past a circular
cylinder. The created pattern is often referred to as the Karman vortex trail:
When a vortex is formed on one side of the structure, the wind velocity increases on the other side. This
results in a pressure difference on the opposite sides and the structure is subjected to a lateral force away
from the side where the vortex is formed. As the vortices are shed at the critical wind velocity alternately first
from one side then the other, a harmonically varying lateral load with the same frequency as the frequency of
the vortex shedding is formed.
The frequency of the vortex shedding
v
f is given by:
d
v S
f
v

= (4.1)
With: S = Non-dimensional constant referred to as the Strouhal Number
For a cylinder this is taken as 0,2.
d = Width of the body loaded by the wind [m]
For a cylinder this equals the outer-diameter.
v = The mean velocity of the wind flow [m/s]
The manner in which vortices are formed is a function of the Reynolds number Re, which is given by:
5
10 687 , 0 Re = d v (4.2)
The Reynolds number characterizes three major regions:
Subcritical
5
10 Re 300 s s
Supercritical
6 5
10 5 , 3 Re 10 s s
Transcritical Re 10 5 , 3
6
s
In general large Reynolds numbers stays for turbulent flow.
For chimneys with circular cross section the flow is either in the supercritical or transcritical range for wind
velocities of practical interest.
If the vortex shedding frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the structure (resonance) quite large
across-wind amplitudes of vibration will result unless sufficient damping is present.
In this case, formula (4.1) can be rewritten to calculate the critical wind velocity at which resonance occurs:
f d v
crit
= 5 (4.3)
Theoretical background - Dynamics
With: f = Natural frequency of the structure
The across-wind forces per unit length caused by the vortex shedding can be approximated by the following
formula:
( ) ( ) t C v d t P
t crit L
=
2
2
1
(4.4)
With: = Air density taken as 1,25 kg/m
( ) t C
t
= A lift coefficient that fluctuates in a harmonic or random manner
and depends of the Reynolds number. The following figure shows
this relation when Ct is proportional to the mode shape.
If the vortex shedding is taken as harmonic, equation (4.4) can be written as:
( ) ( )
v t crit v L
f C v d t P t P t e 2 sin
2
1
) sin(
2
0
= = (4.5)
According to reference, assuming a constant wind profile, the equivalent modal force due to the fluctuating lift
force of equation (4.5) is given by:
( ) ( )
}
= =
H
t v crit v L
dz z z C f v d t P t P
0
2
)} ( ){ ( 2 sin
2
1
) sin( | t e (4.6)
With: ) (z | = Modal shape at height z
H = Total height of the structure
The dynamic amplitude Y at resonance can be written as:
2
S
Y
Y = (4.7)
The static deformation YS is given by:
2
0 0
e M
P
K
P
Y
S
= = (4.8)
M is the equivalent modal mass of a prismatic member given by:
dz z z m M
H
2
0
)} ( { ) ( |
}
= (4.9)
With: m(z) = The mass per unit height
When combining formulas (4.7) and (4.8) the maximum response of a SDOF system subjected to a harmonic
excitation may be written as:
15
e 2
1
2
=
M
P
Y
L
(4.10)
It follows that when the vortex shedding occurs with the same frequency as the natural frequency of the
structure, the maximal amplitude is given by:

| e
|
2
1
)} ( { ) (
)} ( ){ (
2
1
2
0
2
0
2

=
}
}
dz z z m
dz z z C v d
Y
H
H
t crit
(4.11)
When it is assumed that the mass per unit height is constant and that the lift coefficient is proportional to the
mode shape, formula (4.11) can be simplified to the following:
t

=
m S
C d
Y
t
2 2
3
16
(4.12)
This equation may be used as a first estimate of likely response of the structure.
Practical use
Karman Vibration in SCIA-ESA PT
In SCIA-ESA PT, the Vortex Shedding was implemented according the Czech loading standard.
The effect is only taken into account if the critical wind velocity calculated by formula (4.3) is between a
minimal and maximal value. These two extremes can be defined by the user. These values are taken as 5
m/s and 20 m/s.
In addition to formula (4.11), in SCIA-ESA PT it is possible to specify the length of the structure where the Von
Karman effect can occur. For each geometric node of the structure, it is possible to relate a length of the
cylinder to the node. This implies that, in order to obtain precise results, the structure should be modelled with
sufficient geometric nodes.
By default the effect can occur over the entire height of the structure however, when there are specific
obstacles on the surface of a chimney for example, these obstacles will hamper the formation of the vortices
and thus reduce the Von Karman effect. In practice, this is exactly the solution to suppress vortex-induced
vibration, the fitting of special ribs on the surface of the cylinder.
Theoretical background - Dynamics
The following diagram shows the required steps to perform a Vortex Shedding calculation:
Activate the Dynamics functionality
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Create a Karman Vibration Load case
Input Karman Loads (lengths)
17
Seismic loading
During an earthquake, the subsoil bearing a structure moves. The structure tries to follow this movement and
as a result, the masses in the structure begin to move. Subsequently, these masses subject the structure to
inertial forces.
The method which is implemented in SCIA.ESA PT is based on modal superposition. The user defines the
loading by spectrums in the 3 global directions X, Y and Z (in a 3d model).The program computes the modal
deformation and modal forces.
Two methods are implemented to consider the missing mass into the seismic analysis.
Depending on the selected Modal combination method, the modal results are summed to obtain the final
results.
The results (deformations, internal forces, reactions) are displayed on the standard way. A dedicated menu
was implemented in order the display the modal and summed deformation and acceleration.
Back ground
SDOF of seismic systems
Consider the SDOD system shown in figure bellow which illustrates the displacement of a system that is
submitted to a ground motion.
Where: yg(t) : is the ground displacement,
y(t) : is the total displacement of the mass
u(t) : is the relative displacement of the mass
The total displacement can thus be expressed as follows:
) ( ) ( ) ( t u t y t y
g
+ = (5.1)
Since yg is assumed to be harmonic, it can be written as:
) sin( ) ( t Y t y
g g
= v (5.2)
The equilibrium equation of motion can now be written as:
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = + +
- - -
t u k t u c t y m (5.3)
Since the inertia force is related to the total displacement (y) of the mass and the damping and spring
reactions are related to the relative displacements (u) of the mass.
When (5.1) is substituted in (5.3) the following is obtained:
0 ) ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ( ( = + + +
- - - - -
t u k t u c t y t u m
g
;
or
- - - - -
= + + ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t y m t u k t u c t u m
g
(5.4)
This equation is known as the General Seismic Equation of Motion. This equation can be used to illustrate the
behaviour of structures that are loaded with a seismic load:
y(t)
k
c
m
yg(t) u(t)
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Substituting (5.2) in (5.4) gives the following:
) sin( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
t Y m t u k t u c t u m
g
= + +
- - -
v v
This equation can be compared with equation (3.2) of the chapter Harmonic loading. As a conclusion, the
ground motion can also be replaced by an external harmonic force with amplitude:
2
v =
g
Y m F
When a structure has to be designed to withstand an earthquake, spectral analysis is often used because the
earthquake loading is given under the form of a response spectrum. This response spectrum can be either a
displacement or a velocity or an acceleration spectrum. The relation of an earthquake given by an acceleration
time history and the corresponding spectrum is given by:
max
) (
)) ( sin( ) (
1
) , (
(

=
}

- -
t t e t
e
e
t e
d T e y S
T
g d
(5.5)
With: ) (t
g
y
- -
: Ground acceleration in function of time
: Damping factor
T: The period e t 2
The integral between the square brackets is known as the Duhamel integral. This integral is the solution of the
differential equation (5.4).
Instead of Sd (displacement response spectrum), Sv (velocity response spectrum) or Sa (acceleration response
spectrum) can be used. These spectra are related by e :
Sa = e.Sv = e.Sd (5.6)
The three spectra are normally given on the same figure, using different scale-axes. (See picture of spectral
density bellow)
MDOF of a seismic system
For MDOF (Multiple Degree Of Freedom) systems, equation (5.4) can be written in matrix notation as a set of
coupled differential equations:
19
{ } g Y M U K U C U M
- - - - -
= + + 1 (5.7)
The matrix {1} is used to indicate the direction of the earthquake. For a two-dimensional structure (three
degrees of freedom) with an earthquake that acts in the x-direction, the matrix is a sequence like
{1,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,}
The resulting set of coupled differential equations is reduced to a set of uncoupled differential equation by a
transformation U = Z.Q, where Z is a subset of u (the eigenvectors) and Q is a vector, which is time-
dependent.
{ } g Y M Q Z K Q Z C Q Z M
- - - - -
= + + 1
or
{ } g
T T T T
Y M Z Q Z K Z Q Z C Z Q Z M Z
- - - - -
= + + 1
This can be simplified to a set of uncoupled differential equations:
{ } g
T
Y M Z Q Q C Q
- - - - -
= O + + 1
2 *
(5.8)
Where
*
C is a diagonal matrix containing terms like
i i
e 2 .
Each equation j has a solution of the form:
{ }
}
=

t
j
T
g
T
j
d T e Y M Z Q
j
0
) (
)) ( sin( ) (
1
1 t t e t
e
t e
(5.9)
To obtain the maximum displacements, the displacement response spectrum Sd of equation (5.5) can be
substituted:
{ } ) , ( 1
max , j j d
T
j
S M Z Q e = (5.10)
And:
{ } ) , ( 1
max , j j d
T
j
S M Z Z U e = ; or
Or:
) , (
max , j j d j
S Z U e + = (5.11)
Where { } 1 = + M Z
T
is known as the modal participation factor.
One obtains in each node a value of (Uj)max, j=1,m (m<n). The maximal global displacement is the sum of the
absolute values of the displacements. Often, the RMS (root mean square) is used as maximal displacement:
Umax = \E(Uj)max (5.12)
The SCIA.ESA PT program supports 3 combination methods:
1. SRSS (Square Root of Sum of Squares)
2. CQC(Complete Quadratic Combination)
3. MAX (max method)
The detail is described in next chapter, Modal combination method
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Modal combination methods
Modal combination methods are used to calculate the response R of a seismic analysis. The term "response"
(R) refers to the results obtained by a seismic analysis, i.e. displacements, velocities, accelerations, member
forces and stresses.
Because the differential equations were uncoupled, a result will be obtained for each mode j.
To obtain the global response Rtot of the structure, the individual modal responses R(j)have to be combined.
The modal combination methods that are used in SCIA-ESA PT are:
1. SRSS-method (Square Root of Sum of Squares)

=
=
N
j
j tot
R R
1
2
) (
(5.13)
With:

) ( j
R : The response of mode j
()
2. CQC-method (Complete Quadratic Combination)

= =
=
N
i
N
j
j j i i tot
R R R
1 1
) ( , ) (

, (5.14)
With:
) ( ) (
,
j i
R R : The response of mode i and j
j i,
: Modal Cross Correlation coefficients.
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2
2
,
4 1 4 1
8
2
3
r r r r
r r
j i j i
j i j i
j i

+ + + +
+
= (5.15)

i
j
r
e
e
=

i
,
j
: Damping ratio for mode i and j.
This method is based on both modal frequency and modal damping. The CQC-method requires the input a
Damping Spectrum.
Lets remark that the defined spectrum is overruled, in case non-uniform damping method is used. See for
detail at chapter damping.
3. MAX-method

=
+ =
N
j
j j tot
R R R
MAX
1
2
) (
2
) (
, (5.16)
With:
SRSS;
21

) ( j
R : The response of mode j

) (
MAX
j
R : The maximum response of all modes
Remarks: the short info at the seismic load case displays what is selected. Following
format is used:
Short info = {Modal combination method}& / &{Coeff X} & X & ; {Coeff Y} & Y & ;
{Coeff Z} & Z & /{acceleration coefficient}
Where
{Modal combination method} : SRSS or CQC or MAX
{coeff X, Y, Z} : The coefficient of spectrum X, Y and Z
X,Y, Z : The spectrum X in the global X
{acceleration coefficient} : The assumed acceleration coefficient:
Mass in the seismic analysis
The mass can be taken in tree ways in the seismic analysis. In the menu General seismic load, the group
Mass in the analysis contains 3 options:
1. Participation mass only
2. Missing mass in modes
3. Residual mode
In case Participation mass only is selected, then only the participation mass from the selected number of
modes is taken into account in the seismic analysis.
In case Missing mass in modes is selected, then the missing mass is assigned to the known modes (E.G.
modes selected by the user in the analysis).
In case Residual mode is selected, then the missing mass is taken in the seismic analysis as an extra mode
which represents the weight of the missing mass. The modal result of this mode is computed by a static
equivalent load case.
Remark: The used method is displayed in the linear calculation protocol
Redistribute missing mass to the known modes
The aim of the method is to smooth the missing mass to the known modes and then compute modal
deformations and then the modal forces. Afterwards its summed depending the selected rule SRSS, CQC,
MAX
Missing mass is assigned to known eigenmodes. Suppose we have determined k eigenmodes, where
, , ,( ) ,
1
nFreq
ef k ef k j total k
j
M M M
=
= <

(5.17)
k i direction
, ef k
M is effective mass
Missing mass can now be written as
, ,
miss
k total k ef k
M M M = (5.18)
Ration between effective mass and missing mass is
Theoretical background - Dynamics
,
miss
k
a
ef k
M
r
M
= (5.19)
Now we can write these formulas
, ,( ) , ,( )
miss
ef k j k ef k j
M r M =
( )
( ) ( ), ( ), , ,( ) , ,( ) ( ),
sgn
miss miss
j k j k ef k j ef k j j k
M M I = I + I (5.20)
( )
( ),
sgn 1
j k
I =
Then (5.21)
{ } { }
( ) ( )
( ), , ( ) ( ), ,
, , , ,
2 ( ) ( )
( )
( , )
miss
j k a k j j k a cut off
k x y z k x y z
j j
j
S S e
e
= =
I + I
=

u |
Residual mode
The aim of the method is to evaluate the missing mass as an extra mode which is computed as an equivalent
static load case. The static load represents the weight of the missing mass under the cut-off acceleration.
Afterwards its summed depending the selected rule SRSS, CQC, MAX
The missing mass is computed in each node as difference between total mass and effective mass.

=
< =
nFreq
1 j
i , k , total ) j ( , i , k , ef i , k , ef
M M M (5.22)
k is direction
i is node
j is mode
i , k , ef
M is effective mass, direction k, node i
Missing mass can now be written as
i , k , eff i , k , total , ki
miss
M M M = (5.23)
A static load case of weight in computed, which is handled as a real mode.
For each direction k, selected in the General seismic load interface, the amplitude of static load is computed
as:
i , k
miss
) cutoff ( , k
M Sa (5.24)
Sak is acceleration of cut off frequency in direction k (i.e. last calculated frequency)
Miss
Mk,i missing mass in direction k, node i
Afterwards, the extra mode is summed depending the selected rule SRSS, CQC, MAX
Remark1: In case of CQC, we do not assume correlation with the other modes (i.e. absolute value is added)
Remark2: The cut off frequency is the frequency of the latest modes in the analysis. It is of the responsibility of
the user to select the correct number of modes
23
Predominant mode
The aim of the method is to take the sign of the mode in the seismic analysis, which computes by default only
positive results.
In menu General seismic load, the user selects for Signed results. When the property is "checked", then a
combo is displayed wherein the use selects a mode shape. The list items displayed in the combo box are:
default; 1; 2; ..; N ( N the number of frequencies selected by the user).
The default stays for modes shape with biggest mass participation is used (direction X, Y and Z together).
Beside the default, the user is allowed to select a mode shape, which will determine the sign of the modal
combination.
Multiple eigenshapes
The tool can be used in the seismic analysis in case SRSS.
Modes are taken together in case the precision is fulfilled
Classic SRSS
2 2 2 2 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
... R R R R R R = + + + + +
SRSS with multiple eigen shapes
If
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 , ;
i
i j
j
precision where i j
e
e e
e
s < s
Mode (i) and (j) are multiple. Then for example
( )
2
2 2 2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
... R R R R R R = + + + + + (5.25)
Where mode 2 and 3 are multiple.
Calculation Protocol
In the calculation protocol of SCIA-ESA PT the intermediate results that were determined while calculating the
global effect of a spectral loading can be found.
This paragraph describes the formulas that have been used to determine those intermediate results.
Natural circular frequency and modal shape
Mass matrix
D
M] [
Mass vector } 1 { ] [ } { =
D
M m
Natural circular frequency of
mode shape j
) ( j
e
Natural normalized modal
shape
) (
} {
j
| , With 1 } { ] [ } {
) ( ) ( ) (
= =
j j D
T
j
M M | |
Total mass in k
th
direction
tot k
M
,
Acceleration response
spectrum
) ( , , j k a
S
Direction
k
Total number of directions
NK
Participation factor of the mode shape j in direction k
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Participation factor } { } {
} { } {
) (
) ( ,
m
M
m
T
k
j
T
k
j k
=

= |
|

Effective mass
2
) ( , ) (
2
) ( , ) ( , , j k j j k j ef k
M M = =
Participation mass ratio
tot k
j ef k
j k
M
M
L
,
) ( , ,
) ( ,
=
Mode coefficient for mode j
Mode coefficient in k
th
direction
2
) (
) ( , ) ( , ,
) ( ,
j
j k j k a
j k
S
G
e

=
Total mode coefficient
2
) (
1
) ( , ) ( , ,
) (
j
NK
k
j k j k a
j
S
G
e

=

=
Response of mode shape j
Displacement
) ( ) ( ) (
} { } {
j j j
G u | =
) ( ) ( , ) (
} { } {
j k j k j k
G u | =
Acceleration
) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
} { } {
j j j j
G u | e =
) ( ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( ) ( ,
2
) ( ) (
} { } { } {
j k j k j k a j k j k j j k
S G u | | e = =
Lateral force in node i for
direction k
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , j k i j k j k a j k i j k i
S m F | =
Shear force in direction k
} { } { } { } {
) ( ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( ) ( , , ) ( ,
m S m u F F
T
j k j k j k a
T
j k
i
j k i j k
= = =

|
2
) ( , ) ( , , ) ( , j k j k a j k
S F =
Overturning moment in node
i for direction k
i j k i j k j k a k i j k i
z S m M =
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , , ) ( , ,
|
Overturning moment in
direction k
( )

= =
i
i j k i j k j k a k i
i
j k i j k
z S m M M
) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , , , ) ( , , ) ( ,
|
( )

=
i
i j k i k i j k j k a j k
z m S M
) ( , , , ) ( , ) ( , , ) ( ,
|
Practical use
Seismic load calculation in SCIA-ESA PT
In SCIA-ESA PT, a Seismic Load can be inputted after creating a Combination of Mass Groups. This implies
that the steps used to perform a Free Vibration calculation still apply here and are expanded by the properties
of the Seismic Load.
The Design Spectra are defined for a damping ratio of 5%. If the structure has another damping ratio, the
spectrum has to be adapted with a damping correction factor q.
25
Activate the functionalities - Dynamics
- Seismic
Input Masses Generate Masses from Static Load cases
Create a Mass Group
Create a Mass Combination
Perform a Linear Calculation
Refine the Finite-Element Mesh if required
Specify the number of Eigenmodes to be calculated
Create a Seismic Load case
Define a Seismic Spectrum
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Direct time integration
Back ground
The title may be misleading because normally in the literature, this name is used for a dynamic computation
without modal superposition. In the software, the eigenmodes are determined first and are used to uncouple
the equilibrium equations (1.1) into a set of m uncoupled second order differential equations which are solved
one by one by direct time integration. The uncoupling is based on the properties given by equations (2.10) and
(2.11). In equation (1.1) a solution for x is assumed to be of the form:
x = | Q (6.1)
Where | is the matrix of eigenvectors (n*n) and Q is a vector which is time dependent.
Substitution in equation (1.1) gives:
M Q C Q F - - + - - = | |

(6.2)
When the equation is pre-multiplied with |
T
, and equations (2.10) and (2.11) are taken into account, one obtains :

Q C Q Q F
T T
+ - - - + - = - | | | O (6.3)
This set of equations is still coupled because of the damping term. If however C-orthogonality is assumed (this
means that |
T
.C.| reduces to only diagonal terms), then the equations are uncoupled and can be solved
separately. The global results are obtained by superposition of the individual results (6.1) is also the exact
solution if the assumption of C-orthogonality holds. If however, only a few eigenvectors (m<n) are used in |
instead of all the eigenvectors, then the system of equations and the superposition of the solutions gives a
solution x which is an approximation of the exact solution.
In SCIA.ESA PT, C-orthogonality is assumed and it is also assumed that all modal damping factors are constant.
This means that:
| | e o
T
i ij
C - - = - - - 2 (6.4)
The value of is one of the input data and is called damping factor.
The number of eigenvectors that is taken into account is also specified by the user. This value is equal to the
number of eigenvectors computed in the eigenvalue computation.
The method used to solve each uncoupled second order differential equation is the Newmark-method. This
method is unconditionally stable but the accuracy depends on the time step. This time step has to be given by the
user. However, to help him in his choice, a value determined by the program will be used if the user does not
specify a value. This proposed value is computed as:
0.01 T
Where T smallest period of all the modes which have to be taken into account
This proposed value guarantees accuracy better than 1% over each period of integration of this highest mode. In
most cases, a larger time step can be used because the contribution of this last mode is small.
This brings us to the question about the number of modes that should be used. When the time dependent terms
on the left hand side of equation (6.3) are neglected, the solution for qj (a term of Q) is:
q F
j j j
T
= - - 1
2
/ e | (6.5)
27
This indicates that the lowest eigenmodes (ej small) will contribute more than the highest modes (wj large), if
dynamic terms are neglected. This can give a first idea on how many modes to use.
A second criterion is the periodicity of F. Any mode which coincides with the loading frequency should be taken
into account.
Modal weight is a third criterion that can be used. If you add all modal weights in a particular direction together
and divides this result by 9.81*sum of nodal masses in the same direction, you obtain a value smaller than 1. If
this value is close to 1, it means that the higher modes will not contribute anymore. If, on the contrary, the value is
smaller than 0.9, one can doubt about the value of a subsequent modal superposition.
Practical use
How to get results
In project data the user selects the functionality General dynamics
The user defined the load case Dead load
The user defines a mass combination
The user defines a load case of type Dynamic with specification General dynamics and setup the parameters
of menu Dynamic load case data (for example total time 1.5s, step 0.1s, log decrement 5%)
The user de start the linear analysis
The program generated load cases for each time step where the results of that time step are stored.
The program generated result class which maces it easy to view the results in graphic form. Bellow an
example of the horizontal displacement of a node is displayed for the general dynamic load case BG3.
Remarks
1. When the user modifies the parameters of the dynamic load case and the starts the calculation
again, then the generated load cases are updated.
2. Then master load case doesnt contain results.
3. The generated are stored in an exclusive group and can be used in combination with other load
cases
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Setup parameters of a general load case
Total time : The total time of the dynamic analysis
Integration step Auto, when it is checked, then 1/100 of smallest period is take.
When Auto isnt checked, then the user is allowed to select an integration step value.
Output step Step for generating the load cases. The value need to be smaller or equal at the
integration step
Log. Decrement Damping defined as logarithmic decrement
29
Non-uniform damping
Introduction
Damping is present in all oscillatory systems and is a measure of a vibration structure to dissipate energy.
The dynamic tools of ESA take account of damping. Sometimes it is defined directly by the damping ration,
sometimes by a damping spectrum. Please consult the specific chapters for detail. In general we can say
that by default a mean value of damping is taken for the complete system for a mode.
With non-uniform damping, the user is allowed to define damping on the members and on the supports. The
program computed based on energy consideration a mean value for each node.
The non-uniform damping is supported for:
1. Harmonic load
2. Seismic load
Back ground
SCIA.ESA PT supports two types of damping:
Dumping Inside the materials is defined by a percentage from critical damping
(Logarithmic decrement, another quantity frequently used to defined damping, is defined by
2
1
2

t
o

= )
Geometrical damping from soil, defined by a coefficient at the level of the supports.
Both kind of damping are taken into account by an equivalent damping ratio. For each mode, it is computed as
following:

|
e
o
+ |
e
=
appuis
2 i
s s
i noeuds
2 i
j j j
2
i
i
) ( C
4
) ( k
1
(7.1)
With:
j
The damping ration in node j
j
k The stiffness in node j
i
j
| The modal displacement in j for mode i
i
e The frequency of mode i
s
C The damping constant of the supports s (kg/s)
i
s
| The model displacement in support node s for mode i
o ca user defined parameter (>0, default =0.5)
Note that:
On supports, damping is defined for the 3 global directions X, Y and Z
Proof :
The equivalent model damping
i
is obtained by ponderation of the potential energies
ij
E used by the
mode in part j of the structure where the damping is
j
.
Theoretical background - Dynamics

=
j
ij
j
ij j
i
E
E

Case1: damping of the material

= = =
j
i
j
i
j i
i
j
i
j ij i
M K E E | | e | | ] [ ] [
2
With [K] and [M] respectively rigidity matrix and mass matrix.

=
j
i
j j i i
m E
2 2
) (| e With
j
m the mass at node j
We assume that

~
j j
i
j j j i ij j
m E
2 2
) (| e .
In case of the modal displacement is normed by the mass, then the mean internal modal damping of mode I is
given by:

= = = =
j
i
j j j
i
i
j j j
j
i
j j
j
i
j
i
j j j i
j
ij
j
ij j
i
k m
m
m
E
E
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
) (
) (
1
) (
) (
) (
|
e
|
| e
| e

For practical use we take a same value of damping at all the elements,
We obtain =
i
Case2: geometrical damping
For a simple oscillator, the damping is defined by:
e

m
c
2
= With c the coefficient of damping
By analogy with the material damping, we can state:

= ~
s s s
i
s s
i i
s s
i s
s
i is s
C m
m
C
E
2 2 2
) (
2
) (
2
|
e
|
e
e

= =
s
i
s s
i
s
is
s
is s
i
C
E
E
2
) (
2
1
|
e

We obtain in total:


+ =
ports
i
s s
i nodesj
i
j j j
i
i
C k
sup
2 2
2
) (
2
) (
1
|
e
|
|
e

It is recommended by the Septem for choosing 5 . 0 = | (then 1 = o )

Practical use
Damping on members is related with the material.
- Sometimes the used want one value assigned at the whole structures
31
- Sometimes the user have mixed structures
The user is able to over rule easily the damping for some members
The user is able to easily define and correct the damping for the whole structure
Damping at supports is only valid for:
- Flexible nodal support
- Support orientated in global direction XYZ only
Damping groups
The user defines damping groups (similar to mass groups). In order to activate the non-uniform damping:
1. The functionality Non-proportional damping is selected at menu Project data
2. A damping group is defined and connected at a mass combination
3. A mass combination is defined and connect at a dynamic load case (harmonic, seismic)
Two types of default damping data is available for members (1d/2d). The user is allowed to select the proper
default foe each damping group:
- One value for all the structure, the Global default
- One value per material used in the projects, the Material default
The default damping settings are stored in the set-up of the damping service.
- In case of global, one value is displayed {default 5%}
- In case of material defaults:
The damping is stored at the materials in the material library of ESA.
The set-up of the damping service contains also
- Max modal damping: one value {used to limit the calculated damping per mode; default 30% }
- Alfa {factor for supports; >0; default 1}
Add data for damping at members and supports
In each group the user is able to assign damping at the elements (similar to additional mass on members in
mass groups). Damping can be added at a:
- A 1d member
- A 2d member
- A nodal supports
Following data is available:
In case of 1d and 2d members, tree possibilities are available
- Logarithmic decrement: one value {default = 0.001}
- Relative damping: one value {default =0.001}
- Rayleight: two value { Alfa and beta; default both = 0}
In case of nodal support: tree values, one value per global direction X, Y and Z {C value; default = 0}
Note that the user is not able to add support dampers
1. If the support in not flexible
2. If the support is rotated
In this case, a massage is displayed and the input is cancelled
In case the user adds damping in a specific group, then the default is over ruled for that member in that group.
Theoretical background - Dynamics
Annex A: Numerical Damping Values
In this annex, some numerical values for structural damping are given.
A. EC 8 - Part 6 (ENV 1998-6:2003 Annex B) suggest the following values for the damping ratio:
Structural material
Damping ratio
Steel elements 1% - 4%
Concrete elements 2% - 7%
Ceramic cladding 1.5% - 5%
Brickwork lining 3% - 10%
B. Other values for damping are suggested by EC1 - Part 2-4 (ENV 1991-2-4:1995 Annex C):
The fundamental logarithmic decrement d is given by:
d a s
d d d d + + =
Where:
s
d : Fundamental structural damping,
a
d : Fundamental aero dynamical damping
d
d : Fundamental damping due to special devices
The structural damping is given by:
min
1 1 1
o >
+ =
s
s
d
b n a d
Where:
1
n : Fundamental flexural frequency,
min 1 1
, , o b a : Parameters given in the following table for different structural types.
Structural type
1
a
1
b
min
o
Reinforced concrete buildings 0.045 0.030 0.080
Steel buildings 0.045 0 0.050
Mixed structures: concrete + steel 0.080 0 0.080
Reinforced concrete towers 0.050 0 0.025
Lattice steel towers 0 0.030 0
Reinforced concrete chimneys 0.075 0 0.030
Prestressed steel cable 0 0.010 0
Unlined welded steel stacks 0 0.015 0
Steel stack with one liner or thermal insulation 0 0.025 0
Steel stack with two or more liners 0 0.030 0
Steel with brick liner 0 0.070 0
Coupled stacks without liner 0 0.015 0
Guyed steel stack without liner 0 0.040 0
Welded 0 0.020 0
High resistance bolts 0 0.030 0
Steel bridges
Ordinary bolts 0 0.050 0
Prestressed without
cracks
0 0.040 0 Concrete
bridges
With cracks 0 0.100 0
Parallel cables 0 0.006 0 Bridge cables
Spiral cables 0 0.020 0
33
E.g.: for a steel building with first frequency of 3Hz, the logarithmic decrement is:
0.045 x 3 + 0 = 0.135 (> 0.05)
C. Other values for the logarithmic decrement are suggested by:
Structural material Logarithmic decrement
Steel (welded) 0,025
Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete 0,056
Brickwork 0,25
Wood 0,13
In this reference, preliminary formulas can also be found for aerodynamic damping and damping caused by
the foundation.