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LECTURE 9
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. SEMANTIC ROLES. CLAUSES OF PLACE. CLAUSES OF CONTINGENCY: CONDITION, CONCESSION, AND CONTRAST 1. Adverbial Clauses of Place
Adverbial clauses of place: are introduced by the following subordinating conjunctions: - where - wherever - whence (from where) and whither (to where) are archaic forms indicate: - direction - position An overpowering smell of sweat followed him about [wherever he went] (direction) [Where I used to built sand castles] , there was now a giant manure pile (position) adverbial clauses of place introduced by where may express a combination of place and contrast [Where I saw only wilderness] , they saw abundant signs of life (Quirk, p. 1087) (=[Whereas I saw only] ., they saw ) Some temporal subordinating conjunctions (after, as, once, until, when etc.) may refer primarily to place, when used to describe movement from one place to another. (Quirk, p. 1087) Take the right fork [when the road splits into two] The river continues winding [until it reaches a large lake] The building becomes narrower [as it rises higher] The road stops [just after it goes under a bridge] [Once the mountains rise above the snow line], vegetation is sparse
A place relationship can also be expressed by PPs having as object/complement: o an NP the head of which is postmodifed by a relative clause: at the place that, in the direction where o where/wherever: to wherever , toward(s) where She finally arrived [at the place that had once been her sweet home] Take me [to wherever you go]
There are three important logical relationships covered by the term contingency: condition concession contrast All these adverbial clauses convey the same general meaning: the event in the matrix/main clause is contingent upon that in the adverbial clause. However, each type conveys certain specific nuances of meaning there is also, frequently, a great deal of overlap between their meanings. These specific meanings are: Adverbial Clauses of Condition: o contingency: the event in the matrix/main clause is contingent on that in the adverbial clause [If you pass all the final examinations], (then) Ill take you with me in Europe Adverbial Clauses of Contrast: o contrast Whereas adoptive organizations such as Catholic Church have sometimes lasted for thousands of years], hereditary aristocracies have always been short-lived Adverbial Clause of Concession: o contrast and o unexpected situation: starting from what is said in the adverbial clause, the speaker does not expect the event in the matrix/main clause to happen; [Although she returned from America last week], she hasnt yet come to visit us We should also keep in mind that: - The same subordinating conjunction can introduce more than one type of adverbial clause. - Normally, these adverbial clauses occupy the initial position in the sentence.
direct condition indirect condition Adverbial clauses that express a direct condition: The grain of whitish dust will be shaken off [if the book is moved] o are clauses of contingency: the event in the matrix/main is directly dependent/contingent upon the event of the conditional clause; o in logical terms, the truth of the proposition in the matrix clause is a consequence of the fulfillment of the condition in the conditional clause (Quirk, p. 1088); o it is a central use of conditional clauses; o this conditional clause performs the function of adjunct; Adverbial clauses that express an indirect condition: [If I may so express it], he has a right to be proud o it is not a clause of contingency: there is no dependency/contingency between the two events; o in logical terms, the truth of the proposition in the matrix/ main clause is not conditioned by the subordinate clause; o this is a peripheral use of conditional clauses; o this is a sort of pragmatic condition; it relates the conditional clause not to the matrix, but to the speech event; this implies that the direct condition should be seen as one of a semantic nature the contingency does not concern the speech event); o these if-clauses perform the function of style disjuncts;
- they are semantically equivalent = if and only if); - provided (that) and providing (that) are more formal - just so (that) - informal Nonfinite and verbless clauses can be introduced only by - if and - unless This idea would be terrible [if realised] [If necessary], avoid her company She must not on any account think of venturing in sight of the ladies, [ unless expressly sent for] It has little taste, [unless hot] (Quirk, p. 1090) Nonfinite and verbless clauses introduced by the prepositions with or without may express a relation of contingency (condition) [Without a companion], you would feel lonely [With him in our team], well win the game Except (synonym of unless) is used in informal AmE Youll not be listened to [except you repent] The same semantic relationship (contingency) may be expressed by complex prepositions such as: In addition to the above subordinators, adverbial clauses of contingency can be introduced by complex PPs such as: - on the assumption/supposition that - on condition that - with the stipulation that - in case of - in the event of
Open/real condition [If they have more], they are apt to be careless and lose them using a sentence containing an OpCd, the speaker does not commit himself to either the fulfilment of the condition in the if-clause or to the truth of the matrix/main clause the speaker does not tell the hearer whether they have more or not, and, implicitly, whether it is true that they are apt to be careless) however, the condition is open to fulfillment the speaker sees it as possible
Hypothetical/unreal condition Would you like cats [if you were me?] (1) He would be very happy [if she came tomorrow] (2) I dare say I should have felt a pain in my liver, too, [if I had known where it was] (3) a sentence containing a HpCd expresses the fact that the speaker takes a stance towards the condition in the if-clause and, implicitly, towards the truth of the matrix/main clause; The speaker believes that: - a present condition is not fulfilled (1) - a future condition will not be fulfilled (2) - a past condition was not fulfilled (3) and, consequently, he expects the proposition expressed by the matrix/main clause to be improbable (1,2) or false (3); What the speaker actually communicates by the above sentences is: You are not me > I dont think/expect you to like cats I dont expect her to come tomorrow > He probably will not be happy I didnt know where it was > I didnt feel the pain in my liver There is a strong relationship between the reference time (RT) of the conditional clause and the speakers belief (in the hypothetical condition): - RT = present time > the condition is contrary to assumption - RT = future time > the condition is contrary to expectation - RT = past time > the condition is contrary to fact there is a strong connection between the hypothetical/unreal nature of the action and the tense of the verb in the conditional clause - present and future hypothetical conditions:
- past tense/were (past modal in the matrix/main clause) (1,2) - past reference: - past perfect/perfective (past perfect/perfective modal in the matrix/ main clause) (3)
in case (= if it should happen that) - is normally used in real/open conditions - the reference time in the in caseclause is normally future Ill take an umbrella, [in case it rains]
2.2.3.3. More on the use of the verb phrase in the conditional clause
1) In addition to the present simple tense which is normal in an conditional clause that expresses an open condition (traditionally called type I conditional), present subjunctive is also possible in formal style, in legal contexts. [If it be possible], live peaceably with all men 2) In a conditional clause that expresses a future unreal/hypothetical condition, past simple is normally used; however, two other verb forms can be used to convey tentativeness: were + to infinitive (subjunctive - formal) was + to infinitive (past tense informal) [If I were to see you at it], I should take away your bottle directly If it was to happen again, closer to the election], who knows, it might be more damaging should + the base form of the verb It will be no use to us, [if twenty such should come], since you will not visit them 3) As we mentioned in a previous lecture, the relation of dependency can also be marked by subject-operator inversion. This may happen in a conditional clause (with the omission of if) when the operator is: had (most common) were (preferred in literary style) and should (literary style) [Had he had any compassion for me], he would not have danced half so much [Were she determined to get a rich husband], I dare say, she should adopt it [Should your daughter have a dangerous fit of illness], it would be a comfort to know that it was in pursuit of him
(Quirk, p. 1096)
If the condition is seen as a fact (certain), the subordinating conjunction since is used [Since youre going my way], I need a lift back
2.3. Adverbial Clauses of Concession 2.3.1. Markers of adverbial clauses of concession 2.3.1.1. Subordinating conjunctions
Concessive clauses indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to expectation in the light of what is said in the concessive clause (Quirk, p. 1098). Typically, adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following subordinating conjunctions: - although - though: informal [Although he had not quite cured him], he had greatly improved his condition
[Though Paul had declared that he left town secretly], a large collection of friends had assembled to greet him Other subordinating conjunctions used to introduce adverbial clauses of concession: - if [+/- finite clause] - even if [+/- finite] - even though [+/- finite] - when [+ finite ] - whereas [+ finite ] (formal) - while [+/- finite ] - whilst (BrE) [+/- finite ] Examples She came of the princely stock of M, which [if not a brilliant], was at all events, a decidedly ancient family (if = although) Its possible, [if difficult] (if = even though) He looked quite fresh, [even though he had been playing squash] I dont think I should stay [even if they were to invite me] Martin looked at Janice, [when Peter suggested for one of his sisters] (although ) [While he was broke], he wanted to buy the building Pierce, [whilst adopting a similar approach to Saussure], paid greater attention to the relationship between signifiers/signifieds and what he called their referents [Though only a five-year-old child], he knows multiplication table [Even though written in plain English], he did not understand anything [While not wanting to seem obstinate], I insist on a definite reply (Quirk, p. 1097) as and that (subordinating conjunctions) can introduce adverbial clauses of concession, but they require that the predicator in the adverbial clause be fronted [Starved as we were], we rejected his invitation to lunch (= Even if we were starved, ) [Change your mind as you will], you will gain no additional support (= Even if you will change your mind - Quirk, p. 1098) [Poor and ugly that he was], he married the wealthiest and most beautiful girl ( = Even though he was)
Examples (Quirk, p. 1097) [Not wanting to give offence], they did so all the same [Trained in karate], he nevertheless used a gun to defend himself [Aware of the dangers to American citizens during the crisis], she still insisted on staying with the others
2.3.2. The Semantics and Pragmatics of the AdvClC 2.3.2.1. Nuances of meaning conveyed by certain subordinators
As a rule, a sentence containing an AdvClC makes two assertions: the adverbial clause asserts something the matrix comes to break the logical expectations (consequences/outcome) of the adverbial clause by expressing some contrasting, unexpected facts [Although he had not quite cured him], he had greatly improved his condition 1. He had not quite cured him 2. He had greatly improved This semantic relation between the two clauses can have nuances of meaning contrast and unexpectedness (pure concession the example above) similarity (not necessarily contrast) conveyed, in certain linguistic contexts, by although/ though [Though his uncle had bought him a toy airplane], his aunt bought him a similar toy (anyway) contrary expectation: usually conveyed by while/whilst [While he was broke], he wanted to buy the building
antithesis between matrix/main clause and AdvClC, expressed by whereas But, [whereas they would have made her vaguely responsible for being born as she was], he did not
focus on unexpectedness: even though He looked quite fresh, [even though he had been playing squash] Notice: even though imposes the presupposition of factuality: he played squash)
These clauses express the fact that the situation in the matrix/main clause applies under two contrasting conditions (Quirk, p. 1100) Examples: [Whether he feels more of pain or of pleasure in seeing her], he will stay here all afternoon [Whether you go East or (whether) you go West], home is best (when the correlated unit is a complete clause whether may be repeated) She will study all day in her room, [no matter whether she likes it or not [Whether married or single], he must always be her model of the amiable and pleasing [Working or playing], she is always intense (Quirk, p. 1100) [Educated or not], this man knows a lot of interesting things [With or without you], we will set out early in the morning You will win the trophy the next season, [with a center forward or without one] [Rain or no rain], well go fishing tomorrow
UC-CCls may be introduced/expressed by: (wh-) + (-ever) words: whatever, wherever, whoever, however constructions such as No matter/It doesnt matter (only initial) + wh- words finite clause (without introductory subordinator) + initial verb in the subjunctive Examples: [Whoever she is], Im not going to do what she says [No matter where you are], Im sure youre listening to me [Come what may], I will go there (= Whatever may happen/No matter what happens, I will)