Basic Metallurgy

Understanding metallurgical concepts will assist engineering and other personnel gain a greater comprehension of failure analysis, engineering, and manufacturing of components. The linked pages above provide an introduction to the metallurgy of some important engineering metals.

Numbering Systems for Metals and Alloys

A number of diverse numbering systems have been developed for metals and alloys by a variety of industry associations, standards organizations, and engineering societies. Frequently, the designations used are related to a specification for the material. ome of the numbering systems in use include those listed below!

American "ron and teel "nstitute #A" "$ ociety of Automotive %ngineers # A%$ American ociety for Testing and &aterials #A T&$ American ociety of &echanical %ngineers #A &%$ American 'elding ociety #A' $ American (ational tandards "nstitute #A( "$ teel Founders ociety of America Aluminum Association )opper *evelopment Association U. . *epartment of *efense #&ilitary pecifications$ +eneral Accounting ,ffice #Federal pecifications$

Contents
BASIC METALLURGY................................................................................................... 1 (U&.%/"(+ 0 T%& F,/ &%TA1 A(* A11,0 ..............................................................CONTENTS...........................................................................................................................2 STEEL...................................................................................................................................2 T%%1 A11,0 .....................................................................................................................2 %FF%)T ,F %1%&%(T ,( T%%1 .......................................................................................3 STAINLESS STEELS..............................................................................................................7 %1%)T"(+ A TA"(1% T%%1...........................................................................................4 A1U&"(U& A11,0 .............................................................................................................5 ),66%/ A11,0 .................................................................................................................-T"TA("U& A11,0 .............................................................................................................-7

Steel Steel Alloys

teel Alloys can be divided into five groups )arbon teels 8igh trength 1ow Alloy 9uenched and Tempered 8eat Treatable 1ow Alloy )hromium:&olybdenum

teels teels teels teels

teels are readily available in various product forms. "nstitute defines carbon steel as follows!

The American "ron and

teel

teel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium ;niobium<, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect= when the specified minimum for copper does not e>ceed ?.3? per cent= or when the ma>imum content specified for any of the following elements does not e>ceed the percentages noted! manganese -.@A, silicon ?.@?, copper ?.@?. )arbon steels are normally classified as shown below. 1ow:carbon steels contain up to ?.7? weight percent ). The largest category of this class of steel is flat:rolled products #sheet or strip$ usually in the cold:rolled and annealed condition. The carbon content for these high:formability steels is very low, less than ?.-? weight percent ), with up to ?.3 weight percent &n. For rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon content may be increased to appro>imately ?.7? weight percent, with higher manganese up to -.A weight percent. &edium:carbon steels are similar to low:carbon steels e>cept that the carbon ranges from ?.7? to ?.@? weight percent and the manganese from ?.@? to -.@A weight percent. "ncreasing the carbon content to appro>imately ?.A weight percent with an accompanying increase in manganese allows medium:carbon steels to be used in the quenched and tempered condition. 8igh:carbon steels contain from ?.@? to -.?? weight percent ) with manganese contents ranging from ?.7? to ?.5?weight percent. 8igh:strength low:alloy #8 1A$ steels, or microalloyed steels, are designed to provide better mechanical properties than conventional carbon steels. They are designed to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition. The chemical composition of a specific 8 1A steel may vary for different product thickness to meet mechanical property requirements. The 8 1A steels have low carbon contents #?.A? to B?.2A weight percent )$ in order to produce adequate formability and weldability, and they have manganese contents up to 2.? weight percent. mall quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium, niobium, titanium, and zirconium are used in various combinations. .elow is a list of some A%:A" " designations for teel #the >> in the last two digits indicate the carbon content in hundredths of a percent$
)arbon teels -?>> -->> -2>> &anganese steels -7>> 6lain )arbon /esulfurized /esulfurized and rephosphorized &n -.CA

(ickel steels 27>> 2A>> (ickel )hromium teels 7->> 72>> 77>> 73>> )hromium &olybdenum steels 3->> (ickel )hromium &olybdenum steels 37>> 3C>> 4@>> (ickel &olybdenum steels 3@>> 34>> )hromium steels A?>> A->>

(i 7.A (i A.? (i -.2A )r ?.@A:?.4? (i -.CA )r -.?C (i 7.A? )r -.A?:-.AC (i 7.?? )r ?.CC )r ?.A?:?.5A &o ?.-2:?.7?

(i -.42 )r ?.A?:?.4? &o ?.2A (i -.?A )r ?.3A &o ?.2? D ?.7A (i ?.AA )r ?.A? &o ?.2? (i ?.4A:-.42 &o ?.2? (i 7.A? &o ?.2A )r ?.2C: ?.@A )r ?.4? D -.?A

Effects of Elements on Steel

teels are among the most commonly used alloys. The comple>ity of steel alloys is fairly significant. (ot all effects of the varying elements are included. The following te>t gives an overview of some of the effects of various alloying elements. Additional research should be performed prior to making any design or engineering conclusions. )arbon has a maEor effect on steel properties. )arbon is the primary hardening element in steel. 8ardness and tensile strength increases as carbon content increases up to about ?.4AF ) as shown in the figure above. *uctility and weldability decrease with increasing carbon. &anganese is generally beneficial to surface quality especially in resulfurized steels. &anganese contributes to strength and hardness, but less than carbon. The increase in strength is dependent upon the carbon content. "ncreasing the manganese content decreases ductility and weldability, but less than carbon. &anganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of steel.

6hosphorus increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and notch impact toughness of steel. The adverse effects on ductility and toughness are greater in quenched and tempered higher:carbon steels. 6hosphorous levels are normally controlled to low levels. 8igher phosphorus is specified in low:carbon free:machining steels to improve machinability. ulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness especially in the transverse direction. 'eldability decreases with increasing sulfur content. ulfur is found primarily in the form of sulfide inclusions. ulfur levels are normally controlled to low levels. The only e>ception is free:machining steels, where sulfur is added to improve machinability. ilicon is one of the principal deo>idizers used in steelmaking. ilicon is less effective than manganese in increasing as:rolled strength and hardness. "n low:carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface quality. )opper in significant amounts is detrimental to hot:working steels. )opper negatively affects forge welding, but does not seriously affect arc or o>yacetylene welding. )opper can be detrimental to surface quality. )opper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts e>ceeding ?.2?F. 'eathering steels are sold having greater than ?.2?F )opper. 1ead is virtually insoluble in liquid or solid steel. 8owever, lead is sometimes added to carbon and alloy steels by means of mechanical dispersion during pouring to improve the machinability.

.oron is added to fully killed steel to improve hardenability. .oron:treated steels are produced to a range of ?.???A to ?.??7F. 'henever boron is substituted in part for other alloys, it should be done only with hardenability in mind because the lowered alloy content may be harmful for some applications. .oron is a potent alloying element in steel. A very small amount of boron #about ?.??-F$ has a strong effect on hardenability. .oron steels are generally produced within a range of ?.???A to ?.??7F. .oron is most effective in lower carbon steels. )hromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and o>idation resistance, to increase hardenability, or to improve high:temperature strength. As a hardening element, )hromium is frequently used with a toughening element such as nickel to produce superior mechanical properties. At higher temperatures, chromium contributes increased strength. )hromium is a strong carbide former. )omple> chromium:iron carbides go into solution in austenite slowly= therefore, sufficient heating time must be allowed for prior to quenching.

(ickel is a ferrite strengthener. (ickel does not form carbides in steel. "t remains in solution in ferrite, strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. (ickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels. &olybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. &olybdenum may produce secondary hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. "t enhances the creep strength of low: alloy steels at elevated temperatures. Aluminum is widely used as a deo>idizer. Aluminum can control austenite grain growth in reheated steels and is therefore added to control grain size. Aluminum is the most effective alloy in controlling grain growth prior to quenching. Titanium, zirconium, and vanadium are also valuable grain growth inhibitors, but there carbides are difficult to dissolve into solution in austenite. Girconium can be added to killed high:strength low:alloy steels to achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics. Girconium causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending. (iobium #)olumbium$ increases the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of (iobium can significantly increase the yield strength of steels. (iobium can also have a moderate precipitation strengthening effect. "ts main contributions are to form precipitates above the transformation temperature, and to retard the recrystallization of austenite, thus promoting a fine:grain microstructure having improved strength and toughness. Titanium is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. Titanium is also used to achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics. Titanium causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending. Hanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of (iobium can significantly increase the strength of steels. Hanadium is one of the primary contributors to precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels. 'hen thermomechanical processing is properly controlled the ferrite grain size is refined and there is a corresponding increase in toughness. The impact transition temperature also increases when vanadium is added. All microalloy steels contain small concentrations of one or more strong carbide and nitride forming elements. Hanadium, niobium, and titanium combine preferentially with carbon andIor nitrogen to form a fine dispersion of precipitated particles in the steel matri>.

Stainless Steels
tainless teels are iron:base alloys containing )hromium. tainless steels usually contain less than 7?F )r and more than A?F Fe. They attain their stainless characteristics because of the formation of an invisible and adherent chromium:rich o>ide surface film. This o>ide establishes on the surface and heals itself in the presence of o>ygen. ome other alloying elements added to enhance specific characteristics include nickel, molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum, silicon, niobium, and nitrogen. )arbon is usually present in amounts ranging from less than ?.?7F to over -.?F in certain martensitic grades. )orrosion resistance and mechanical properties are commonly the principal factors in selecting a grade of stainless steel for a given application. tainless steels are commonly divided into five groups!

&artensitic stainless steels Ferritic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels *uple> #ferritic:austenitic$ stainless steels 6recipitation:hardening stainless steels.

&artensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that possess a martensitic crystal structure in the hardened condition. They are ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat treatments, and are usually less resistant to corrosion than some other grades of stainless steel. )hromium content usually does not e>ceed -4F, while carbon content may e>ceed -.? F. The chromium and carbon contents are adEusted to ensure a martensitic structure after hardening. %>cess carbides may be present to enhance wear resistance or as in the case of knife blades, to maintain cutting edges. Ferritic stainless steels are chromium containing alloys with Ferritic, body centered cubic #bcc$ crystal structures. )hromium content is typically less than 7?F. The ferritic stainless steels are ferromagnetic. They may have good ductility and formability, but high:temperature mechanical properties are relatively inferior to the austenitic stainless steels. Toughness is limited at low temperatures and in heavy sections. Austenitic stainless steels have an austenitic, face centered cubic #fcc$ crystal structure. Austenite is formed through the generous use of austenitizing elements such as nickel, manganese, and nitrogen. Austenitic stainless steels are effectively nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and can be hardened only by cold working. ome ferromagnetism may be noticed due to cold working or welding. They typically have reasonable cryogenic and high temperature strength properties. )hromium content typically is in the range of -@ to 2@F= nickel content is commonly less than 7AF.

*uple> stainless steels are a mi>ture of bcc ferrite and fcc austenite crystal structures. The percentage each phase is a dependent on the composition and heat treatment. &ost *uple> stainless steels are intended to contain around equal amounts of ferrite and austenite phases in the annealed condition. The primary alloying elements are chromium and nickel. *uple> stainless steels generally have similar corrosion resistance to austenitic alloys e>cept they typically have better stress corrosion cracking resistance. *uple> stainless steels also generally have greater tensile and yield strengths, but poorer toughness than austenitic stainless steels. 6recipitation hardening stainless steels are chromium:nickel alloys. 6recipitation: hardening stainless steels may be either austenitic or martensitic in the annealed condition. "n most cases, precipitation hardening stainless steels attain high strength by precipitation hardening of the martensitic structure.

Selecting a Stainless Steel

There are a large number of stainless steels produced. )orrosion resistance, physical properties, and mechanical properties are generally among the properties considered when selecting stainless steel for an application. A more detailed list of selection criteria is listed below!

)orrosion resistance /esistance to o>idation and sulfidation Toughness )ryogenic strength /esistance to abrasion and erosion /esistance to galling and seizing urface finish &agnetic properties /etention of cutting edge

Ambient strength *uctility %levated temperature strength uitability for intended cleaning procedures tability of properties in service Thermal conductivity %lectrical resistivity uitability for intended fabrication techniques

)orrosion resistance is commonly the most significant characteristic of a stainless steel, but can also be the most difficult to assess for a specific application. +eneral corrosion resistance is comparatively easy to determine, but real environments are usually more comple>. An evaluation of other pertinent variables such as fluid velocity, stagnation, turbulence, galvanic couples, welds, crevices, deposits, impurities, variation in temperature, and variation from planned operating chemistry among others issues need to be factored in to selecting the proper stainless steel for a specific environment.

Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum Alloys can be divided into nine groups. *esignation &aEor Alloying %lement ->>> 2>>> 7>>> 3>>> A>>> @>>> C>>> Unalloyed #pure$ J55F Al )opper is the principal alloying element, though other elements #&agnesium$ may be specified &anganese is the principal alloying element ilicon is the principal alloying element &agnesium is the principal alloying element &agnesium and ilicon are principal alloying elements Ginc is the principal alloying element, but other elements such as

)opper, &agnesium, )hromium, and Girconium may be specified 4>>> 5>>> ,ther elements #including Tin and some 1ithium compositions$ /eserved for future use

->>> eries. These grades of aluminum are characterized by e>cellent corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivities, low mechanical properties, and e>cellent workability. &oderate increases in strength may be obtained by strain hardening. "ron and silicon are the maEor impurities. 2>>> eries. These alloys require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum properties= in the solution heat:treated condition, mechanical properties are similar to, and sometimes e>ceed, those of low:carbon steel. "n some instances, precipitation heat treatment #aging$ is employed to further increase mechanical properties. This treatment increases yield strength, with attendant loss in elongation= its effect on tensile strength is not as great. The alloys in the 2>>> series do not have as good corrosion resistance as most other aluminum alloys, and under certain conditions they may be subEect to intergranular corrosion. Alloys in the 2>>> series are good for parts requiring good strength at temperatures up to -A? K) #7?? KF$. %>cept for alloy 22-5, these alloys have limited weldability, but some alloys in this series have superior machinability. 7>>> eries. These alloys generally are non:heat treatable but have about 2?F more strength than ->>> series alloys. .ecause only a limited percentage of manganese #up to about -.AF$ can be effectively added to aluminum, manganese is used as maEor element in only a few alloys.

3>>> eries. The maEor alloying element in 3>>> series alloys is silicon, which can be added in sufficient quantities #up to -2F$ to cause substantial lowering of the melting range. For this reason, aluminum:silicon alloys are used in welding wire and as brazing alloys for Eoining aluminum, where a lower melting range than that of the base metal is required. The alloys containing appreciable amounts of silicon become dark gray to charcoal when anodic o>ide finishes are applied and hence are in demand for architectural applications. A>>> eries. The maEor alloying element is &agnesium an when it is used as a maEor alloying element or with manganese= the result is a moderate:to:high:strength work: hardenable alloy. &agnesium is considerably more effective than manganese as a hardener, about ?.4F &g being equal to -.2AF &n, and it can be added in considerably higher quantities. Alloys in this series possess good welding characteristics and relatively good resistance to corrosion in marine atmospheres. 8owever, limitations should be placed on the amount of cold work and the operating temperatures #-A? degrees F$

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permissible for the higher:magnesium alloys to avoid susceptibility to stress:corrosion cracking. @>>> eries. Alloys in the @>>> series contain silicon and magnesium appro>imately in the proportions required for formation of magnesium silicide #&g2 i$, thus making them heat treatable. Although not as strong as most 2>>> and C>>> alloys, @>>> series alloys have good formability, weldability, machinability, and relatively good corrosion resistance, with medium strength. Alloys in this heat:treatable group may be formed in the T3 temper #solution heat treated but not precipitation heat treated$ and strengthened after forming to full T@ properties by precipitation heat treatment. C>>> eries. Ginc, in amounts of - to 4F is the maEor alloying element in C>>> series alloys, and when coupled with a smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat: treatable alloys of moderate to very high strength. Usually other elements, such as copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. C>>> series alloys are used in airframe structures, mobile equipment, and other highly stressed parts. 8igher strength C>>> alloys e>hibit reduced resistance to stress corrosion cracking and are often utilized in a slightly overaged temper to provide better combinations of strength, corrosion resistance, and fracture toughness.

Copper Alloys
)opper alloys are commonly used for their electrical and thermal conductivities, corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication, surface appearance, strength and fatigue resistance. )opper alloys can be readily soldered and brazed, and a number of copper alloys can be welded by arc, and resistance methods. )olor of copper alloys is a significant reason for using them for decorative purposes. For decorative parts, conventional copper alloys having specific colors are readily available. )opper is used e>tensively for cables and wires, electrical contacts, and a wide variety of other parts that are required to pass electrical current. )oppers alloys are used for automobile radiators, heat e>changers, and home heating systems. .ecause of copper alloys corrosion resistance they are used for pipes, valves, and fittings in systems carrying potable water, process water, or other aqueous fluids.

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Along with ease of fabrication, some of the principal selection criteria for copper alloys are!

)orrosion resistance %lectrical conductivity Thermal conductivity )olor and surface appearance

)orrosion resistance of copper alloys is good in many environments, however copper alloys may be attacked by some common reagents and environments. 6ure copper resists attack under some corrosive conditions. ome copper alloys, on the other hand, sometimes have inadequate performance in certain environments. tress corrosion cracking most commonly occurs in brass. .rasses containing more than -AF Gn are the most susceptible. *ealloying is another form of corrosion that affects zinc containing copper alloys. *uring dezincification of brass, selective removal of zinc results in gradual replacement of sound brass by weak, porous copper. Unless stopped the metal is weakened and liquids or gases may be capable of leaking through the porous structure. %lectrical and thermal conductivity of copper and its alloys are relatively good. This is why copper is the most commonly used electrical conductor. Alloying decreases electrical conductivity to a greater e>tent than thermal conductivity. This is why copper and high:copper alloys are preferred over other copper alloys when high electrical or thermal conductivity is required.

)ommon classification of copper alloys is shown below! (ame )oppers .rasses 1eaded brasses Tin brasses 6hosphor bronzes 1eaded phosphor bronzes )opper:phosphorus and copper:silver:phosphorus alloys Aluminum bronzes Alloying elements )u )u:Gn )u:Gn:6b )u:Gn: n:6b )u: n:6 )u: n:6b:6 )u:6:Ag )u:Al:(i:Fe: i: n

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ilicon bronzes )opper:nickels (ickel silvers

)u: i: n )u:(i:Fe )u:(i:Gn

Titanium Alloys
The density of Titanium is roughly AAF that of steel. Titanium alloys are e>tensively utilized for significantly loaded aerospace components. Titanium is used in applications requiring somewhat elevated temperatures. The good corrosion resistance e>perienced in many environments is based on titaniumLs ability to form a stable o>ide protective layer. This makes titanium useful in surgical implants and some chemical plant equipment applications. Unalloyed #commercially pure$ titanium can be found in two crystallographic forms!

8e>agonal close:packed #hcp$ or alpha #M$ phase is found at room temperature .ody centered cubic #bcc$ or beta #N$ phase is found above 447 K) #-@2- KF$

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The control of alpha #M$ and beta #N$ phases through alloying additions and thermomechanical processing is the basis for the titanium alloys used by industry today. "t is also the primary method for classifying titanium alloys. Titanium alloys are categorized as either alpha #M$ alloys, beta #N$ alloys, or alphaObeta #MON$ alloys. ome common titanium alloys are listed below according to these categories. Alpha and near alpha alloys Ti:2.A)u Ti:AAl:2.A n Ti:4Al:-H:-&o Ti:@232 Ti:@Al:2(b:-Ta:?.4 &o Ti:AAl:A n:2Gr:2&o Alpha O .eta alloys Ti:@Al:3H Ti:@Al:@H:2 n Ti:@Al:2 n:2Gr:2)r:2&o Ti:7Al:2.AH Ti:4Al:-&o:-H .eta alloys Ti:-7H:--)r:7Al Ti:4&o:4H:2Fe:7Al Ti:-?H:2Fe:7Al Ti:-A:7

,ne of the primary effects of alloying elements used in titanium production is the affect on the alpha to beta transformation temperature. ome elements raise the alpha to beta transformation temperature thereby stabilizing the alpha crystal structure. 'hile other elements lower the alpha to beta transformation temperature thereby stabilizing the beta crystal structure. The effect of some elements is shown below! %lement Aluminum Tin Hanadium &olybdenum )hromium )opper %ffect alpha stabilizer alpha stabilizer .eta stabilizer .eta stabilizer .eta stabilizer .eta stabilizer

Alpha alloys commonly have creep resistance superior to beta alloys. Alpha alloys are suitable for somewhat elevated temperature applications. They are also sometimes used for cryogenic applications. Alpha alloys have adequate strength, toughness, and weldability for various applications, but are not as readily forged as many beta alloys. Alpha alloys cannot be strengthened by heat treatment. .eta alloys have good forging capability. .eta alloy sheet is cold formable when in the solution treated condition. .eta alloys are prone to a ductile to brittle transition temperature. .eta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment. Typically beta alloys are solutioned followed by aging to form finely dispersed particles in a beta phase matri>. Alpha O beta alloys have chemical compositions that result in a mi>ture of alpha and beta phases. The beta phase is normally in the range of -? to A?F at room temperature. Alloys with beta contents less than 2?F are weldable. The most commonly used

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titanium alloy is Ti:@Al:3H, an alpha O beta alloy. 'hile Ti:@Al:3H is fairly difficult to form other alpha O beta alloys normally have better formability. Alpha O beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment. 'hen strengthening alpha O beta alloys the components are normally quickly cooled from a temperature high in the alpha:beta range or even above the beta transus. olution treatment is then followed by aging to generate a proper mi>ture of alpha and transformed beta. 8eat treatment is dependent on the cooling rate from the solution temperature and can be affected by the size of the component. ome of the uses of titanium alloys are listed below!

urgical "mplants 6rosthetic devices Pet engines )hemical processing plants 6ulp and paper industry &arine applications ports equipment

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