Introduction to Numerical Plasticity

A One Dimensional, Frictional Analog

1 1
0
0
1 F(1), U(1)
0
1

1
0
0
1
0
1 F(2), U(2)

E
f

k
Yf = (f − k) < 0

Consider the system of n springs and sliding blocks, where, for element i:

E(i) Spring constant

k(i) Maximum frictional force without sliding
f(i) Axial force
e(i) Total distance block has moved
u(i) Displacement of right hand end of spring

The system has 2-degrees of freedom which gives rise to the following global param-
eters:

U(1), U(2) Displacements of end points of rigid rod

F(1), F(2) Resultants of all external forces on rigid rod
Some necessary terms and functions are:
 Compatibility Matrix: Because there are only two degrees of freedom, the
displacements, u(i), are not independent. They are dened in terms of the
generalized, or global, displacements, U(i), by
u = AU
where A is a nX2 matrix.
 Yield Function: The Yield Function for each spring-block is
Y = (fe k)
where k is the maximum possible friction force that can exist between the
block and the surface on which it rests. Therefore, Y must always be less or
equal to 0, otherwise the spring-block would not be in equilibrium. Note that
f has been replaced with fe in the above, which is dened as:
q
fe = (f 2 )
and has the magnitude of f but is always positive, hence; the yield function
applies for both tension or compression. We will call fe the eective force, and
refer to k as an internal variable.
 Flow Rule: As the axial force f increases (or tends to increase) to a value
greater than k, the block must slip. The direction of slip is in the direction of
the force f. This direction is also that of the gradient of Y :

dup = d @Y @Y @fe
@f = d @fe @f
Thus,
@Y = 1 p1 2f
@f 2 f2
which is simply
@Y = f = a
@f kf k
This is a unit vector pointing in the outward direction of the gradient of Y .
We will use the symbol a to designate this direction.
dup = d a
Here, d represents the magnitude of the slip, as yet undetermined.
 Evolution Equation: The internal variable k can be a function of the me-
chanical history of the system. We assume that k is a function of the total
distance the block has moved. As the block moves, the maximum friction
force can either decrease or increase, depending on the surface. That is, move-
ment can make the surface either rougher or smoother. At the start, it could
make the surface rougher but after a given amount of slip, there could be a
smoothing eect. The movement does not have direction, it is simply the total
distance the block has been moved, either forward or backward. This distance
is designated as e(i) and, at any given instant, it is assumed known for each
rod. It will be accumulated incrementally, i.e.
P p
e = kdu k
Pp p p
= du du
P p
= d a d a
P p
= d a a
P
= d
Note:
de = d
The way k changes with increments of e we call the evolution equation.
dk
dk = de = hde = hd
de
 Consistency Condition: In order for the axial force to increase beyond a
current yield force there must be an increase in k. This simultaneous increase
in eective force and the internal variable k must be such that there is no
change in the yield function Y and it remains zero.
dY = @Y @Y
@k dk + @f df = 0
 Hardening Parameter:
From the above consistency condition, it is clear that if there is a positive
change in f, there must be a decrease in the rst term of this condition.
Because we have assumed k is a function of e, we have
@Y dk = @Y dk de = dk de
@k @k de de
If this term is negative, df can be positive. We, therefore, dene a hardening
parameter
dk
H=
de
 so that if H is positive, the material hardens under an increase in e. Likewise,
if H is negative, then the material will soften under and increase in e.
The consistency equation can now be written as
dY = H de + a df = 0
or
dY = H d + a df = 0
 Additive decomposition: Any change in the total displacement u is the
sum of the change in the length of the spring plus the increment the block
slides.
du = E 1 dF + d a
 Tangent Stiness: If the block does not slip, then the tangent to the f - u
curve is simply E, and
df = E du
However, if the block slips, then
df = E (du d a)
This equation can be combined with the consistency equation to obtain
" #( ) ( )
E 1 a df du
=
a H d 0
This gives  aE 
a
d = df = du
H H + aEa
 HE  !
a2 E
df = du = E 1 du
H + aEa aEa + H
The tangent stiness of the spring-block system, when the block slides is
 HE 
Et =
H + aEa