NRELfP-425-6346 UC Category: 335 DE94006950

Hydrogen-Air
Reciprocating En
L. Dodge
D. Naegeli
g Evaluation in
es
Southwest Research Institute
San Antonio, Texas
K lOCbBC0l mOBlOi. L. LOluCCI

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National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1617 Cole Boulevad
Golden, Colorado 80401-3393
A national laboratory of the U.S. Depament of Energy
Operated by Midwest Research Institute for
the U.S. Department of Energy
Under Contract No. DE-AC02-83CH10093
Prepared under Subcontract No. A -2-12266-1
June 1994
NO1ICb
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Preface
Tis work was conducted by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), Sa Antonio, Texas, under Subcontact
No. AW-2-12266-1, Pme Contact No. DE-AC0-83CH10093, SwRI Poject No. 03-5299 for te
Natonal Renewale Energy Laboratory (NEL), Golden, Colorado, and te U.S. Depaent of Energy
(DOE), Wahington, D.C. Te contbutons of tchnical monitors Brent Bailey and Christopher P.
Colucci of NREL, John A. Russell of DOE, and subcontact administator Ernest G. Ostr of NREL ae
grateflly ackowledged Furter, contibutions fom te Musashi Insttute of Technology (Musashi I.T.)
in Toko, Jaan, were essental to te conduct of Task 3, Hydrogen-Air Mixing Evaluaion. Te
contibutions of Katsuyoshi Koyanagi, Kimitaka Yamane, and Shoichi Furuhaa ae grateflly
ackowledged. Susuma Ariga of SwRI helpd to make te interaction wit Musahi I.T. possible.
Douglas Leone is greay apreciatd for his help in setng up te personal computer version of Chemkin-
, which was used in te chemica kinetics modeling work in Task 2. Te paience and expertise of Ms.
Jaie Gonzaez in preparing tis report ae apreciated
Ts efort consisted of tree fairly autonomou tasks. Te frst task addressed cold-stang poblems in
alcohol-feled, spak-ignition engines by using fne-spray port-fel injectors to inject fel directy into the
cylinder. Tis task included development and characterization of some very fne-spray, port-fel injectors
for a metanol-feled spak-igniton engine. Aer determining te spray chaactristcs, a computational
study was perfored to estmat te evaporaton rae of te metaol fel spray under cold-stang
conditions and stady-state conditions. Te second task was to prform a fndaental kinetc study of
the autoignton chaacteristcs of methyla, an oxygenaed fel tat produces almost no soot in diesel
engnes, but, in contast wit most oxygenated fels, h an excellent cetane number. Te trd task was
to perform a computatonal study of fel-air mixing in a hydrogen jet using a spark-ignited, hydrogen
feled engine. Te computatona results were compared wit experimenta measurements being
conducted at Musashi I.T. Te hydrogen-air mxing work was directd at understading te exteme
sensitivity of igniton to spak plug locaton ad spark tming in direct-injected, hydrogen-feled engines.
Te third tak is covered in this reprt Tasks 1 ad 2 are discussed in NREL reports T-425-6344 ad
T-425-6345, respectively.
D
Executive Summary
P essentia pa of tis efort was for SwRI personnel to become familiar wit te progress made in
hydrogen fel use in interal combuston engnes trough reseach conducted at te Musashi Insttute of
Technology (Musashi I.T.) over te past 20 or more yeas. Visits by SwRI personnel to Musashi I.T. in
Tokyo, and vice versa, accomplished the goa of shaing experience with hydrogen fels.
Te genera shape of the hydrogen-air (actualy hydrogen-nitogen) mixing as measured by Rayleigh light
scattering measurements was predicted by the JTX model, incuding both aial and radia vaiatons.
However, te predicted hydrogen concentatons were greater tan te measured values, and te widt of
the computed hydrogen-nitogen plume, based on schlieren photograhy, was greater tan te widt
measured by Rayleigh light scatering. Tese observations suggest some shortcomings with te model's
abilit to pedict experimenta results, as well as inconsistencies in te expermental results. Te
exprimental measurement of hydrogen concentation suggest a signifcanty narower jet widt tha tat
infered fom schlieren photographs. Transient efects of hydrogen jet propagation trough the 17-m
distance between te injector vave and injector tp ae not handled properly in te JTX model, which
was developed for a diesel-typ injecor where te valve is very cose to te injector tp.
A number of suggestions have been dveloped during this study to addess te exteme sensitivty of the
spark-ignition event in hydrogen-feled engines. Perhaps some of these suggestions may be implemented
in fture engine tests.
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Contents
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Objectve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Approach o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2
Experimental Measurements o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Jet-Mixing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Comparison of Caculaions and Meaurement for Hydrogen-Air Mixing .................. 10
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Summary and Conclusions ................................................... 18
Recommendaions for Future Work ............................................. 1 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 20
Appendix A Equations for Conservaon of Jet Momentum Rate
ad Fuel Mass Flux m Free Jet and Wall Jet .................................. A-1
V
List of Figures
Figure

1 Typical pofles of fel-ar concentaton expressed in terms of

equivaence rao for gaseous fel injeced trough a simple hole-tpe injector,
where an equivaence rato of 1.0 represent a chemicaly corect, or
stoichiometc mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2(a) Staight-tp hydrogen-injection nozzle used in Musashi I.T. tests .e e ................. 5
2(b) Expaded-tip hydrogen-injection nozzle used in Musashi I.T. tests ................... 5
3 High-pressure bomb used for hydrogen injector tests at Musashi I. T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Optica set-up used for hydrogen concentation measurements at Musashi I.T . ........ . 6
5 Examples of signas fom hydrogen concentation measurements at Musashi I.T . ... ....o 8
6 Comparison of predicted (by JT) and measured hydrogen fel
concentations in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staight injector tip
5 m downstea of te injector tip. _
j
2.94 M A, ____ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 Compason of predicted (by JETIX) and measured hydrogen fel
concentaions in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staght injector tip 10 mm
downsteam of te injector tip, _
j
2.94 Ma, ____ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Compason of predctd (by JETIX) ad measured hydrogen fel
concentaons in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staght injector tip 15 mm
downsteam of the injector tip, _
j
2.94 Ma, __ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 Compason of predctd (by JETIX) and measured hydrogen fel
concentations in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staight injector tip 20 m
downsteam of te injector tip, _
j
2.94 Ma, ____ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10 Compason of predicted (by JET) and measured hydrogen fel
concentations in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staight injector tip 5 m
11
12
13
downsteam of te injector tip, _
j
2.94 Ma, ____ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Compason of predicted (by JETIX) and measured hydrogen fel
concentations in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staght injector tip 10 mm
downsteam of te injector tip, _
j
2.94 Ma, ____ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Compason of predcted (by JETX) ad measured hydrogen fel
concentations in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staight injector tip 15 mm
downsteam of the injector tip, _
j
2.94 Ma, ____ 0.98 Ma ................. 14
Compason of predicted (by JETIX) and measured hydrogen fel
concentations in a hydrogen-nitogen jet for staight injector tip 20 mm
downstea of te injector tip,

2.94 Ma, ____ 0.98 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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List of Figures
(Concuded)
14 Comparison of predictd and measured hydrogen-nitogen jet fom staight-tp
injector, _
j
1.86 MA, ____ 1.08 Ma .................................. 15
15 Comparison of predictd ad measued hydrogen-nitogen jet fom staight-tp
injector, _
_
2.45 MA, ____ 1.08 Ma ..... . ................. . ... . ... + . . 15
16 Comparison of predictd and measured hydrogen-nitogen jet fom staight-tp
injector, _
_
3.0 MA, ____ 1.08 Ma .............................. + ... 16
17 Comparison of predicted ad meaed hydrogen-nitogen jet fom staight-tp
injector, _
j
3.82 MA, ____ 1.08 Ma . .....

..... o ....... . . . . ... + .. ... 16

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Hydrogen-Air Mixing Evaluation in Reciprocating Engines

Background
Hydrogen-feled engines ae attactve power sources that do not produce greenhouse gases (C0
2
), wit
the exception of bued oil and carbon monoxide (CO). Te exhaust product ae nitogen (N
2
), water
vapr (H
2
0), ad nitic oxide (NO). Of these, only nitc oxide is considered a problem. Hydrogen ca
be burned in interal-combustion engines in vaious ways. Because it has a high autoignition temperature,
it is more attactive as a fel for spak-ignition engines than for compression-ignition engines.
Te hydrogen fel-air formation for a spak-ignited engine can be mixed extera to the cylinder or in the
cylinder. Mixing in-cylinder can be either ealy injection, which forms a homogeneous chage, or late
injection (nea top-dead-center, TC) so that te fel bus as it is injected, as in a diesel engine.
External mixing of hydrogen and air is limited bot by the power tat ca be produced and by backing
trough the intake system. Te power limitation is due to air being displaced by hydrogen gas. Because
the air/fel rato for a stoichiometic mixture of hydrogen is 2.4 by volume, te maximum air fow into
the engine is reduced by about 29% relatve to injecton of the fel into the cylinder, reducing the
maximum engine power by a similar amount Backring associated wit exteral mixing of te fel
occurs when pre-ignition of te fel advances at every cycle untl it fnaly occurs before te intake vave
is closed, causing the fame to propagate into te premixed charge in the intake system and explode
(Fuhama 1992). One approach to avoiding backre is to make te hydrogen-air mixture lea to slow
the fame speed; ts results in a pratica limit of about 50% of the power available fom stoichiometic
combustion of hydrogen in the same-size engine (Fuhama 1992). Extera mixing can result in very
high efciencies under lean operaton, but is limited in maimum power.
Tere are two choices for in-cylinder injection of hydrogen: (1) early-cycle, low-pressure injection
forming a pe-mixed chage, or (2) late-cycle, high-pressure injection (near IC). Te early-cyce
injection is limited by pre-igniton fom hot surfaces ad by knockng due to the very high fame speed
of hydogen (320 cm/s for rich mixtures versus 45 cm/s for most hydrocabon fels; Glassman 1987).
Tis results in erratc combustion and limits the power available. Te pre-ignition problem may be
somewhat reduced by injecting cooled hydrogen gas, but tis approach appas to be more efective for
2-stoke engines ta for 4-stoke engnes (uhama 1992).
Late-cycle injection of hydrogen overcomes the pre-ignition problem if te fel can be ignited ealy in
the injection process and then bued as it is injectd. However, the ignition and burning ca be very
rough if the ignition timing does not alow combuston to occur very early in te injection process
(Furuhama 1992; Koyanagi et al. 1993). Very caefl contol of sak timing ad location ca help
contol te erratc combustion. Also, late-cycle injection requires high injection pressures to overcome
te high cylinder pressures, wit injection pressures of aout 1 la (Koyaai et a. 1993). Tis late
cyce, high-pressure hydrogen injection may be more easily contolled and more practical using liquid
hydrogen rather tan gaseous hydrogen. Musashi Insttute of Technology (Musashi I.T.), Tokyo, Japa,
has developed liquid-hydrogen storage and high-pressure liquid pumps and injection systems suitable for
automobiles and has used tem on severa demonstaon vehicles (uruhaa ad Tomisawa 1991).
Storing liquid hydrogen on vehicles reduces the weight requirements (Fuhama 1991). However, it is
a very low-temperature cryogenic fel, ad tat, of course, intoduces a number of handling and storage
problems.
In addition to the requirement for developing cryogenic fel pumping and handling systems, late-cycle,
direct-injection of hydrogen has been limited by the exteme sensitvity to spak timng and location
(Furhama 1992; Koyanagi et al. 1993). Hydrogen has several properties that must be considered in
evauating tis problem. First, it has very wide fammability limits, making it easier to locate the spark
1
in a combustible portion of the fel-ar plume, an asset when compaed with gasoline. However, because
te fel is gaseous rater tan liquid when it is injected, tere is no liquid evaporaton to limit te burning
rate. Further, for stoichometc mixtures, the laminar fame speed of hydrogen is about four times tat
of gasoline. Tus, if a signfcant amount of hydrogen has been sprayed into the cylinder before igniton,
the initial combuston rate is so great that maximum cylinder pressures ae exceeded. Terefore, te spark
must occur early in te injection process, before much hydrogen has been injected. Ts meas that te
spark plug must be located close to the fel injector, ad te mixture must be ignited before very much
fel-air mixing h occured. Figure 1 shows a contour plot of gaseous fel-air mixing ratos, expressed
in terms of stoichiomety, where 1.0 is the "chemically corect" mixture. Note ta, cose to te injector,
te gradents in fel-air ratio are very high, mang it very dfcult to select a spak-plug locaon tat is
at a mixture ratio where ignition is easily achievable, especally considering te fact tat engine swrl will
defect te fel plume and tt chaging engine speds will cause diferent aounts of defection. Tis
was te problem addressed in tis project: to evauate hydrogen-air mixing in a direct-injecton engine,
early in te injecon process.
Objective
Te objective of tis work was to evaluae hydrogen fel-ar mixing in a direct-injection system for a
spak-ignited, hydrogen-feled vehicle, especaly ealy in the injection process. Te purpse of ts work
was t gain sufcient understanding of te problem of errac combustion of hydrogen to determine what
approaches might be ted to more easily ignite te hydrogen-air plume in te engine. Te computational
portion of tis work was performed at SwRI, San Antonio, Texas, while te experimental porton was
conducted at Musashi I.T. in Tokyo. Tis NRELOE contact sponsored te work conducted at SwRI
only.
Approach
Experimental measurements of hydrogen-air (actally nitogen in place of air) mixing in a hydrogen-fel,
direct-injecton system were conducted at Musashi I.T. Tese experiments included measurements of
hydrogen fel concentaton by Rayleigh light scatring of hydrogen ad nitogen (te background gas
in te bomb), and by high-speed schlieren photogahs of penetaton rates of hydrogen gas into a
nitogen-flled bomb. Te Rayleigh light-scatering measurements gave a determination of relatve
molecula concentation of hydrogen ad nitogen. Te molecula concentation ratios ae te same as
the ratios by volume of the two gases, so tese ratos can be compaed drecty wit raos computed by
the model. Te penetation raes also may be compaed with penetaton estimates made by te model.
Te experimenta measurement of hydrogen-air mixing fom Musashi I. T. tests were compaed wit
computationl estmates of mixing using te JTI computer model, a model previously developed at
SwRI for desel fel studies. Specifing te cone agle of te fel-air jet fom experimental
measurements, and the fuel pressure and hole size of te injector hole, te fel-ar mixing of a stady-stae
gas jet can be predicted in a two-dmensional plane. Te to dimensions are te aial distace fom the
injector tip and the radia dstance fom te centerline of the jet. Te tansient penetation rae can be
estmated as a faction of te steady-state pnetaion of a pacel of fel on te centerline of the steady
state jet
2
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20
#
16
E
E 1
^

U
L
4

0
U
-4
L
.

C1
-16
-20
0
`+-- *-
7
CONTOUR LINES FOR EQUIVALENCE RATIO FROM JET
|lo] 1 v|o, .1 mm,I66J6 Oly
10 20
..
_

.
.b
.D
U.U

30 40 50 60 70
PPL L1P|LL (mm)
80
90 100
Figure 1. Typical profiles of fuel-air concentration expressed in terms of equivalence ratio for gaseous fuel injected through a simple hole-type
injector, where an equivalence ratio of 1.0 represents a chemically correct, or stoichiometric mixture.
Experimental Measurements
All experimenta measurements were conductd at Musashi I.T. by K. Koyanagi, under the direction of
Yamane and S. Furuama and colleagues. Tese expriments were not fnded by NRL. A complete
descripton of the experimental apaatus and results is beyond te scop of tis project. However, some
background informaton has been provided by Koyanagi and is included here. Two hydrogen injector
tips were chaacterized for hydrogen concentaton downsteam of te tips. Te standad or staight tp
is shown in Figure 2(a), and te expanded tp is shown in Figure 2(b). In bot cases, te valve is located
17 m upsteam of te injector tip. Te injector tp being tested was mounted in an elevated-pressure,
room-temperature bomb as shown in Figure 3. Te optca apaatus for mang the Rayleigh scatterng
measrements of hydrogen concentation is shown in Figure 4. High-speed schlieren photogaphy was
used for penetaton-rate measurements on the standad injector tip.
Te hydrogen concentation measurements were based on Rayleigh scatterng measurement, which

measure molecula scattering. Hydrogen wa injected into a nitogen-flled bomb. As te hydrogen

'
displaced some of the nitogen, the scatterng intensity was reduced since te smaler hydrogen molecule
has a smaler Rayleigh scattering cross-section tan te nitogen molecule. Te genera expression for
the scatterng intnsity is
I C[No
(1)
where I is te scatterng intensity in mks units of wattsm-
2
; C is a constant for te optica system,
essentaly a efectve path length, with dimensions m; I is te laser light intensity incdent on the
molecule with units of wattsm-
2
; N is concentation of molecules in moleculesm-
3
; and c is the
Rayleigh scatterng cross-section in m
2
molecule-
1
.
Tus, for the frst experment when te bomb is flled wit just static nitogen, te scattrng intensity for
nitogen, I
N
, is
(2)
where N_ is te molecula concentaon for the experment, which is te molecular concentation of
nitogen, and c
N
is te Rayleigh scatterng cross-section for ntogen.
For te second experiment, when hydrogen is injected into te ntogen-flled bomb, te scatterng
intensity is due to scaterng fom bot nitogen and hydrogen. Assumng te mole faction of nitogen
is f
N
and the mole faction of hydrogen is f
H
, te combined scattrng intensity for nitogen plus hydrogen,
I
N+H
' is
(3)
where f
N
is te mole (or molecular) faction of nitogen molecules in te scattering volume, f
H
is the mole
fraction of hydogen molecules in te scatterng volume, N_is te tota molecula concentation, and c
H
is te Rayleigh scaerng cross-secton for hydrogen. Because f
N
f
H
1 uony nitogen and hydrogen
ae present in te bomb, te combined scattering intensity may be wrtten as
(4)
4

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mm
mm
' I

"^"*^^"^ '"
'
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Figure
2
(a). Straight-tip hydrogen-injection nozle used in Musashi I.T. tests.
` mm
mm
' I +
.
` ' "
--~-~-_~-~
mm
Figure
2
(b). Epanded-tip hydrogen-injection nozl e used in Musashi I.T. tests.
5
Figure 3. High-pressure bomb used for hydrogen injector tests at Musashi I.T.
3
2
1
1 AI-TOn L5eI
Len5
3 COUu5L1On
ChmUeI
4 Len5
b
Len5
b WOnOChLOmLOL
7 P.W."
7
Figure 4. Optical set-up used for hydrogen concentration measurements at Musashi I.T.
6

+ &

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h
~-
Tis equaton may be solved for the mole facton of hydrogen as follows
(5)
If te injecton of hydrogen does not signcantly incease the overal pressure and terefore te molecular
density in te bomb, ad likewise if the high-velocity jet is assumed to have te same pressure as te
stagnat gas in te bomb, ignorng the nora reducton in statc pressure and densit wit velocity, and
if te local pressure increase at te head of te pnetang jet is ignored, ten N
b
N
a
, and
(6)
Because hydrogen is a smaler molecule tan nitogen, its scattering coss-section L is smaller, and the
scattring intensity of te mixtue is less tan te scatterng intensity of nitogen alone. Some exaples
of the Rayleigh sca ering intensity measurements 5 mm downsteam of te injector tp ae shown in
Figure 5. Note tat scattring intensty actualy deceases wit inceaing hydrogen concentation.
Jet-Mixing Model
SwRI developed a computer model caled JT for evauating fel-air mixing mdirect-injected, diesel
feled, compression-ignition engines prior to this NRELOE project. Te JT model simplifes the
mixing process by ignoring te phase chage of diesel fel fom a liquid to a gas, teaing te liquid as
a dense gas. Tis is apropriate since te limit to fel-air mixing is usualy not due to evaporation of the
liquid fel, but to the mixing of the evaporated fel with the air m te chaber (Heywood 1 988).
However, tis assumption of ignoring te liquid-fel evaporation is not a issue mthe injection of gaseous
hydrogen. (Te Musashi I.T. design stores and pumps the hydrogen as a cyogenic liquid, ten vaporizes
it and injects it as a gas.)
Te JT model is described in detail in Appendix A as it was developed for diesel injecton; some
of the modifcatons required to apply it to hydrogen gas injection ae descibed below. Tree assumptions
commony used in te aalysis of jets were used to derive te equaions used in tis model:
(1) Te fel mass-fow rate of te jet at every aia cross-section is the sae, and is equa to te
fel mass-fow rat at the source.
(2) Te momentm rate of te jet at every cross-section is te sae, and is equal to te
momentm rae of te jet at the source.
(3) Te spreading angle of te jet is assumed to be constant, and te profles of velocit and fel
mass facton are assumed to be self-similar and to follow te profles descibed in
Appendix A.
Appendix A shows how, stg wit tese assumptons, te fel-air mixing rate of fel and air are
predicted. However, the appendix illustates the development of te model for an (appoximately)
incompressible fuid, diesel fel. Certain modcaions were required to adat te model t hydrogen.
Te chages required for hydrogen-air mixing caculations are outined in tis section.
7

Hydrogen
J
pressure * V1
Single-hole
nozzle
Measurement
.
(Spark gap)
I C
/

&
M
1 )

&
l
W
Ill o.
21 cc _
U
C
.
.
I

Injection valve lift

|11 I
f
P=4.UHPB
_.
Pressure
l l
Pmax=3.52MPa
100
0

.
.
Pmax=2.65MPa
100
U
'
'
,
I
.
Pi=2.0MPa
Pmax=1.72MPa
m
100
0
u
\ 2 3
Time after valve open (ms)
Figure 5. Examples of signals from hydrogen concentration measurements at Musashi I.T.

Te orginal equations for fel mass-flow rate ad velocity, shown in Appendix A, have been replaced
with equatons approprate for compressible gases. Te equations used ae based on mach number
relationships fom Shairo (1953); see especialy Equaton 4.14b, pg. 83; Equaton 4.16, pg. 84; and
Equation 4.5b, pg. 79. H addition to fel mass factons tat were already caculaed, JTX was
moded to comput fel volume factions tat can be compaed directy wit te Rayleigh light-scatterng
meaements of hydrogen-nitogen raos.
Te mach number M trough te injection nozzle is calculated as
(7)
where p0 is te pressure upstea of te injector, p is te pressure in te bomb, and ' is te specifc heat
ratio. Te mach number is converted into a velocit using te sonic velocity, c0, whch is
c0 V'R T/
(8)
where R is te unversal gas constant, T is te absolute temperature, ad N is the molecular weight.
Te gas velocity in the nozzle is estimated fom te mach number ad te sonic velocity as
(9)
where c0 is te dischage coefcient Te fel mass-flow rate in te injector is calculatd as
(10)
where m is te fel mass-fow rate and A is the orifce aea.
Te JTX model was constctd for a amost incompressible fel, while hydrogen is a compressible
gas. Terefore, essentally insttaneous exasion of hydrogen at te exit of the injector must be taken
into account. Furter, te velocity profle in te injector is assumed to be plug fow wit uniform velocit
acoss te orifce, while at te orce exit te jet must tansiton into a aproximatly Gaussian profle.
To address te problem of hydrogen gas expansion, rater tan modeling te expasion of the hydrogen
gas at te exit fom te injector, te gas is assumed to have already expanded in te injector. Te densit
of te hydrogen in te injector is tereby reduced fom its actual densit by te rato Q
bomb
p0, where
Q
bomb
is te background pressure in the bomb and p0 is te pressure upstea of te injector. H is
important to maintain te proper mass-fow rate and momentum rate (momentum velocity) in te
injector, so reducing te gas densit requires tat the aea be increased by Q

Q
bomb
. Te fel mass-fow
rate ad te total momentum rae of te jet are constant at every jet cross-section downsteam of te
injector and ae equal to tat in te injector. Terefore, both must be correcty spcifed in te injector.
9
To address te rea angement of the hydrogen-fel profle fom radialy uniform in te injector to
approximately Gaussian outside te injector, the tansition tat takes an unknown fnite distance in rea
life is modeled as occuring instataneously at te nozzle exit. Te diaeter of te jet must
instataneously increase by a factor of 1.72 to conserve fel mass for te radial pofle of fel
concentation assumed in the model.
Another problem in modeling the gas fow is tat, at typical operatng conditions, te hydrogen gas
velocity in te injector is sonic. For hydrogen at room temperatre, this velocity is about 1300 rs. As
te gas exits the orfce, it acceleraes to supersonic and then shocks down to subsonic. However, afer
M mixes into te jet, sonic velocities ae eventualy reduced to about 340 rs. Te jet might contnue
to fer shock to reduce to subsonic velocites relative t air sonic velocties. Tis might cause some
ireversible losses tat ae not accounted for in te model.
Comparison of Calculations and Measurements for Hydrogen-Air Mixing
Te computer model JT was used to caculate te concentation of hydrogen downsteam of two
1-mm diameter injector tips, one with a staght tip, Figue 2(a), and one with a expanded tip,
Figure 2(b). Te model results were compaed with expermenta results for hydrogen concentaton
measured by Rayleigh light scat ering and wit penetation results measured fom schlieren high-speed
-.
photograhy. All experimenta results were provided by Musashi I.T.
Compasons of predicted ad measued hydrogen concentaions for te staight tp are provided in
Figures 6-9 for axia distances _fom te injector tip of 5, 10, 15, and 20 mm, respectively. Injection
pressure was 2.94 Ma, bomb pressure was 0.98 Ma ad te orfce was 1 mm in diameter and 17 mm
long. Te cone angle of te jet was fxed at 22 for these calculations. Te mass fow through the
injector was measured to be 0.896 10-
3
kg/s (630 NLlmin, normal conditons being 760 mm Hg, 15C).
Te dischage coeffcient in te JT model was adjusted to a vaue of 0.629 to match te predicted
fow rate to te measured vaue. Tis is a reasonable discharge coefcient for te shap-edged, 17-mm
long, 1-mm-diameter orifce. Te fgures show that te cone angle as measured fom the hydrogen
concentaion measurements was less ta 22. However, te schieren photographs showed this cone
angle to be larger, so 22 was a compromise. Te genera development of te jet is well predicted by te
model, but te absolute concentatons, or hydrogen-nitogen ratos, show some discrepancies between
exprimental measurements and the model. In spite of having a lager computed cone angle, te model
predicted higher hydrogen concentations tan were measured. By conservation of mass, the predictions
should have been lower ta te measured values at centerline if te shaes were broader (larger cone
agle).

Similar comparisons for te expanded tp ae shown in Figues 10-13 for te expanded-tip hydrogen
concentations at axial distances fom te injector tip of 5, 10, 15, ad 20 mm, respectively. Conditions
were te same as for the staght tip, except that a cone angle of 33.4 measured fom schieren
photography was used for al computatons. Aso, te measued mass-fow rate throug this injector was
0.931 10-
3
kg/s (655.0 N L/min). Te discharge coefcient used in te JT calculatons was
adjusted t 0.654 so that te computed mass-fow rate agreed wit the measued vaue. Again, te
computed hydrogen concentatons in te jet were larger tan te measued concentatons, and te cone
angle for the computed profles was broader tan for te measued pofles. Te computed and measured
profles showed simila shaes ad simila evoluton moving downstea fom the injector tp.
Comparisons of predictd and measured hydrogen jet penetation rates for the staight tip ae shown in
Figures 14-17 for injection pessures of 1.86, 2.45, 3.04, and 3.82 Ma, respectively, injecting into te
bomb at 1.08 Ma. Te beginning of injection for the expermental data was somewhat difcult to
esablish in a format directly comparable with te JTX model. Te model assumes that the vave
10
\

I
:
!00
qPREDICTED
OQQ MEASURED
Q
O
0
D

2
C
0

r
2
u
L
2
^0
C
L
2
u
C
C Z0
Q
C
>

I
I
d
0
I
ASSUMED CON ANGLE: ZZ deg.
|
|
F
|
w
|
I
I
;;;-;;;-,
~.U ~4U ~Z.U 0.0 Z.0 4.0 .U
mm8
lANL M LNLLlNL JL (mm)
Figure 6. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX) and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrgen jet for stright injector tip 5 mm downstream of the injector tip.
Pinj.
2.94 MPA, Pchem. 0.98 MPa.
!00

M
O
Q
O
0
D

2
C

0
<
O
P
2
U
L
2
^0
C
L
2
w
C
O Z0
Q
C
>
3
0
~.U
N T
OQQ MEASURED ASSUMED CONE ANGLE: ZZ deg.
PREDICTED
\
OJ O
\
l
\
l
H
\ _
H
/
V
U.0 Z.U 4.U .U
~4.U ~Z0
lANL M LNLLNL JL (mm)
Figure 1. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX) and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for straight injector tip 10 mm downstream of the injector tip,
Pinj. 2.94 MPa, P chem. 0.98 MPa.
11
HT
OQQ MEASURED
"PREDICTED
0
/
/
O
0 /
/
ASSUMED CONE ANC!E: ZZ deg.
1

c o
/
V
V
\
0
\
0
\
O
\
\
\
Figure 8. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX) and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for straight injector tip 15 mm downstream of the injector tip,
Pinj. 2.94 MPa, P __
_
0.98 MPa.
2
C

0
<

P
2
u
L
2
^0
C
L
2
u
C
C Z0
O
C
>
3
OQQ MEASURED
g PREDICTED
ASSUMED CONE ANGLE: ZZ deg.
/
/ O
_*
^
O

y0

V
V O
V
V
V
V
O
V
X
Figure 9. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX) and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for straight injector tip
20 mm downstream of the injector tip,
Pinj. " 2.94 MPa, P __
_
0.98 MPa.
12
f
. .\
`
0 MLAUL
rL|LL
,

'
ASSUMED CONE ANGLE: .+ deg.
,

| !
J
I I
/
\

,r

_ 1IIMT1I1I11MTW1|I11111IW1TI1I11|11I11M1+1W1M11[1W1W1W|IT11W7
w
+

ANL M LNLLNL JL (mm) "

Figure 10. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for stright injector tip 5 mm downstream of the injector tip,
Pinj. 2.94 MPa, P __
,
0.98 MPa.

C
C

L
C
C
D
C
>
3
0 MLAUL
rL|LL
l
l
J
O
l
O

ASSUMED CONE ANGLE: + d9

l \
r
l
\
o
` O
\
O_
\
J

I11T77
I1TITI++ |!!!!1!1

QT
lANL M LNLLNL JL (mm)
Figure 11. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for straight injector tip 10 mm downstream of the injector tip,
Pinj. 2.94 MPa, P __
_
0.98 MPa.
13
2
O
0
0

2
u
C
2
^0
O
C
2
-w
g Z0
OQQ MLAUL
"rLLL
O
o
b
/

ASSUMED CCNE ANGLE: .+ deg.

\

\
\
\
\
o


~.0 ~.0 ~^.0 ~Z.0 0.0 Z.0 ^.0 .0 .0
lANL M LNLLNL JL (mm)
m!
Figure 1
2
. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for straight injector tip 15 mm downstream of the injector tip,
P
inj.
2.94 MPa, P __ 0.98 MPa.
+
~
O
O

~
0

2
u
C

O
C
2
w
C

0
C
>
3

MLAUL ASSUMED CONE ANGLE: .+ deg.

"rLLc
0
+0^

_ o o
_o
Z0
H
I
o
o
O
/
~.0
:
~.0 ~4.0 ~Z.0 0.0 Z.0 4.0 .0 d.0
lANLL M LNLLNL JL (mm)
Figure 13. Comparison of predicted (by JETMIX and measured hydrogen fuel concentrations in. a
hydrogen-nitrogen jet for straight injector tip 20 mm downstream of the injector tip,
P
inj. " 2.94 MPa, P ___ " 0.98 MPa.
14
80.0
f cccco MEASURED PENETRATION RATE
~
PREDICTED. CONE ANGLE ZZ deg Cd ~ 0.
70.0
EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHIFTED T ~0. O&

c
c
.... so.o
u
L
50.0
b
v

4
0.0
2
C
1
30.0
20.0
0
c
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

'
:

: [ l L L + L L ` L : . I 1 L L L L L 1 ' 1 L L L

-o.5
o
.
o
o.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 J.o
1lML M b1A1 |NJL1lN (ms)
Figure 1
4
. Comparison of predicted and measured hydrogen-nitrogen jet from stright-tip injector,
Pinj. 1.86 MPA, Pchem. 1.08 MPa.
80.0
f cooco MEASURED PENETRATION RATE
~
PREDICTED. CONE ANGLE ZZ deg Cd 0.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHIFTED 8T ~0. OG
70.0

c ,
.so.o
u
L
50.0
~
v
4
0.0
2
C
30.0
0
~
u
20.0

10.0
a
o
0
0
c
c
c
0
c
c
0
0
0
a
0
o
.5
ow
.
oWo
.
s
1

.
o ________
1lML M b1A1 lNJLlN (ms)
Figure 15. Comparison of predicted and measured hydrogen-nitrogen jet from straight-tip injector,
Pinj. 2.4 MPA, Pchem. 1.08 MPa.
15
&OOO !EASURED ?ENETRATION RATE
80.0 t
*PREDICTED, CONE ANGLE Z deg., Cd P 0.6

c
EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHirTEO T ~0 O&
70.0
c
_60.0
50.0

40.0
O
O
O
30.0

`
::::
O
O
! " J j
+ J ! I 1 * 1 1 l 1
0

o.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1lML rM b1A1 |NJL1lN (ma)
Figure 16. Comparison of predicted and measured hydrogen-nitrogen jet from stright-tip injector,
Pinj. 3.04 MPA, Pchem. 1.08 MPa.
80.0
70.0

c
Sso.o
u
L
50.0
~
v

40.0
2
C
30.0
0
~
u
Q20.0
0
10.0
00000 MEASURED ?ENETRATION RATE
*PREDICTED, CONE ANGLE ZZ deg., Cd 0.6
EXPERIMENTAL OATA SHirED T ~0 O&
v
0
0
0
v
0.0 . 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
1lML M b1A1 lNJL1lN (ma)
Figure T1. Comparison of predicted and measured hydrogen-nitrgen jet from stright-tip injector,
Pinj. 3.82 MPA, Pchem. 1.08 MPa.
16
contolling the fel fow is just upsteam of te injector holes, as is te cae in diesel injectors. However,
for tese experiments, te contol vave was followed by a 17-mm-long, 1-mm-diaeter injecton tube,
as shown in Figure 2(a). Tus, when the injection vave opens, te high-pressure hydrogen begns to flow
down the 17-mm-long injector tube, forcing out a jet of nitogen tat was at rest in te tbe. Aer
explling al the nitogen, the hydogen begins fowing fom the tube, and gradualy builds up to fll
pressure. Te relative response of te schlieren to te initia jet of nitogen ad ten to the hydrogen is
unknown, but it is clea fom the experimenta profles tat the inita jet velocity measured by te
schlieren photograhs was chaacteristic of a lower pressure than latr experimental profles. In an attempt
to account for the gradua buildup to the fll injection pressure, all te experimenta profles were shifed
by -0.3 ms fom te measured times, assuming te tansit of the hydrogen jet through te 17 -mm-long tip
ad te buildup to fll injecton pressure required about 0.3 U. Te pedicted penetaion raes were
greater ta the measured rates, but the agreement was bettr for te higher pressure injections (3.0 Ma
and 3.82 Ma) ta for lower pressure injections (1.86 Ma ad 2.45 Ma). Perhaps te higher-pressure
injection cases had less delay times in tasiting te 17 -mm tube and reaching fll injection pressure.
Tese calculatons we:e again based on te 22 cone agle for te staigt tip.
Discussion
Tis project h allowed an opportunity to apply te JT model to fel-air mixing where te fel
concentation can be measured. Te model was developed for diesel fel injection, where te fel
concentation is much more difcult to measure. Terefore, tis is a interestng problem. Of course,
there ae many dferences in the injection techology used for diesel fel and for hydrogen fel, and some
of te special aspects of inecting a compressible gas raher tan a incompressible fel ae not handled
by the standad JT model.
Te JT model was usefl in predictng the hydogen jet behavior, atough tere were signifcat
diferences between the predicted and experimental profles for hydogen concentaton ad hydrogen jet
penetation. Cern assumptons were made in both te expermenta ad computationa work tat would
need to be investgated fer to determine te reasons for the diferences. For example, te expermenta
measurements of hydogen concentaton rely on the assumption tat te high-velocity jet has te same
molecula density, ad terefore pressure, as te static bomb. Te computational work had to use
assumptons about the rea angement of te hydrogen jet profle fom plug fow witin the injector tip to
a rougy Gaussian pofle outside te tip. Aso, te computatons ignored losses associaed wit shock
waves as te hydrogen jet mixed with nitogen. Furter investigation of al tese experimental ad
computationa assumptions is beyond te scope of this project.
Figure 1 illustates why the use of spak plugs to ignite the hydrogen fel-ar mixte on the edge of a
direct-injected hydogen jet is so difcult. Te gradient of fel concentation ae very high, so tat in
spite of te wide fd abilit range of hydrogen-air mixtues, it is difcult to assure tat te spark plug
is located in a fd able mixtue. Tat is, the center of the jet is much too rich to bu, outside te jet
is too lean, and the region tat contains te proper range of fel and air t bu is extemely na ow.
Fuher, as in-cylinder ar motion such as swirl changes with engine speed or loa, te fel plume may
be defected such that te spak is no longer located in a fammale region.
By going downsteam fom the injector, te gradients in fel-ar ratio are less severe, providing a larger
area in which to locate a spak plug. However, te faer away fom te injector te spak plug is
locatd, the more the plume ca bend because of swirl in the chaber. A more important objection to
moving te spak plug fer fom te injector tip is tat more hydrogen fel would have to be injected
into the chamber before reaching the spak plug, and te hig fame speeds of hydrogen generally lead
to eratic combustion.
17
Tere appear to be at least two aproaches to resolving the problems assocated with spak plug location
ad spak timing in te direct-injecton hydrogen engine. One approach is to reduce te flame speed of
te hydrogen-air mixtue, at least at te time of the spark. Te second is to very rapidly mix te hydrogen
and ar to a combustible mixre over a broader region ta is cur enty avalable.
Tere ae several potental appoaches to reducing te extemely high fame speed of te hydrogen-ar
mixture. Te fame speed of hydrogen is paiculaly high at conditons well rich of stoichiometic,
peaking at < " 1. 8 (excess air rato " 0.55), and dropping off rapidly for fel-lean mixtures (Glassma
1987). Ua pe-mixed hydrogen-air mixture could be direct-injectd at about <I = 0.7 (excess air rato =
14), te peak fame speed would be reduced by aout a factor of 4 (relative to a < = 1. 8 mixte). Ts
would allow high power to be achieved when required, but might provide more stable igniton and
combustion by avoiding te rich mixtures and high fame speeds. Two pssible disadvatages of this
appoah are tat it requires a very high-pressure suply of air and te mixture is ten at a flammable
mixture rato in te injecton equipment.
Another approach t reducing te fame speed would be to use early-cycle pilot injection to provide a
homogenous fel-lean chage in te cylinder at a equivalence ratio < of about 0.2 (excess air rato of
5). Te chage is ignited by the spak plug, and the hydrogen is direct-injected into te already burning
mixture. Plot injection would provide the energy requred for low-power operation, ad te direct
injected hydrogen would be used at higher power levels. A variation of tis aproach was recenty used
by Koyaagi et a. (1993) in which hydrogen was pre-mixed with M outside te cylinder at < = 0.2.
Tey obtained excellent result in ters of stable combustion ad low NOx emissions. Ealy-cyce pilot
injection of a smal aount of hydrogen might have some safet advantages compaed with using
premixed gases outside the cylinder.
It might also be possible to use a rch prechamber and lea main chamber as in some natural gas engines.
In this case, a small prechamber wit a spark plug is used wit a very rich mixture of hydrogen. Te
fae speed is low, but still in the combustble range. Hydrogen is direct-injected into tis pilot chaber,
and a small aount of air enters te chamber afer te fel is injected. Te spark-ignited rich mixtue
propagates a fame out of te pilot chaber and into te main chamber, which contans a lean premixed
hydrogen-air charge. Tis approach is used for NOx contol W a number of natural gas engines (e.g. ,
Ajax-Superior).
A conventional approach to reducing fame speeds is to use exaust gas recirculaton (GR) gases. Tis
ha been done wit some success by Ninomiya and Fuhaa (1992) to reduce NOx in hydrogen-feled
spak-ignition engines. EGR in hydrogen engines has the advantage of never contaning soot materias
that cause problems in some hydrocarbon-feled engines.
Te second appoach to avoiding the sensitivity to spark-plug location would to rapidly pre-mix a
combustble hydrogen-air mixture close to te injector. One method would be to positon te spak plug
so tat the gound lead always faces up into te hydrogen plume, foring a recirculaton zone downsteam
of te ground lead, right at te spark plug location. Tis should provide 8 broader region of well-mixed
gases and also help stabilize te fame near the spark plug. Te size of te ground electode might be
inceased to t to enhance the mixing. A poten
t
al disadvatage of any engine wit the spak plug close
to the fel injecor is reduced spak plug lifetme because of termal stess.
Summary and Conclusions
An essential part of ths effort was for SwRI personnel to become familiar wit te progress made in
hydrogen fel use in interal-combustion engines through research conducted at Musashi I.T. over te past
18

20 or more yeas. Visits by SwRI personnel to Musashi LT., and vice versa, accomplished te goa of
sharing experence with hydrogen fels.
Te genera shap of the hydrogen-air (actally hydrogen-nitogen) mixing as measured by Rayleigh light
scatterng measurements was predicted by te JT model, including bot axia and radia variatons.
However, te modeled predictons of hydrogen concentaon were greaer tan te measured vaues, and
the widt of te computed hydrogen-nitogen plume based on schlieren photograhy was greater tan the
widt measured by Rayleigh light scatterng. Tese observatons indicate tat eiter te model or the
expriments ae not propery conserving mass. Te expermental measurements of hydrogen concentation
suggest a signifcanty narower jet ta te widt inferred fom te schlieren photgraphs. Tere ae also
tansent efects of te hydrogen jet propagaton troug te 17-mm distace between the injector vave
and injector tip tat ae not handed propery in te JT model, whch was developed for a diesel-type
injector where te vave is very close to te injector tip.
A number of suggestons have been developed dung this study to address the exteme sensitivty of the
spak-ignition event in hydrogen-feled engines. Some of these suggestions may be implemented in fture
engne tests.
Recommendations for Future Work
Hydrogen ofers promise as a fel ta does not produce greenouse gases. Production,1. Storage, ad
combustion of hydrogen provdes numerous interesting research opportntes. Te rougp ignition of
hydrogen in a spak-ignition engine is a problem observed at Musashi I.T. in Tokyo. SwRI ,has observed
te same rough igniton of hydrogen at some conditions in a diesel-fel, pilot-ignited, direct-injected,
hydrogen-feled engine. Te high fae speeds of hydrogen present unique chalenges to the combustion
scientist Te discussion above outined a number of aproaches to addressing te rough ignition of
hydrogen-feled engines.
19
References
Furuhama, S. and Tomisawa, N. (1991). "Te Power System of a Computer Contolled Hydrogen Car
GH2 Injection and Spak Ignition Engine wit LH2 Tank and Pump," /MechE C430/028.
Furuhama, S. (1991). "Hydrogen Engine Technology, 'R&D at Musashi I.T.,"' Project Hydrogen '91
Conference Proceedings ofIA.H.E. , p. 161-172.
Furuhama, S. (January, 1992). "Trend of Socia Requirements and Technological Development of
Hydrogen-Fueled Automobiles," ISAE Review, Vol. 13, No. 1.
Glassman, I. (1987). Combustion, New York: Academic Press, Inc. p. 137.
Heywood, J.B. (1988). Interal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, New York: McGraw-Hill

v
Publishing Co.
Koyanagi, , Hiruma, M., Hashimoto, H., Yaane, , and Furuama, S. (1993). "Low NOx Emission
Automobile Liquid Hydrogen Engine by Means of Dua Mixture Preparation," SAE 930757, Warendale,
P P. Society of Automotive Engineers.
Ninomiya, S., ad S. Furuhama (1992). "NOx Contol m LH2-Pump High Pessure Hydrogen Injection
Engines," Proceedings ofthe 9th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Pais, Frace, Vol. 2, p. 1295-1304.
Shapiro, A.S. (1953). Te Dynamics and Therodynamics ofCompressible Fluid Flow, Volume /, New
York: Te Ronad Pess Compay.
20

.
=

. '
-
v :

Appendix A
Equations for Conservation of Jet Momentum Rate and Fuel
Mass Flux in Free Jet and Wal l Jet
Tls appndix documents te development of te equations used in te jet mixing model for te fee jet
and te wal jet. Because the applicaton in tis project was limited to the fee jet close to te injector,
the wal jet porton of te code was not used.
Te derivation of te equations for conservaton of jet momentum rate and fel mass fux follows that of
Sinnamon et al. (1980), except tat a constant cone agle is assumed (elton 1971) rater tan the
assumptons about entainment rate used by Sinnamon et a. Tls was for ease in apting te model for
the wall jet, where te speang angles ae presumably easier to measure than te entainment rate.
Another excepton to te approach by Sinnamon et al. is tat te efect of swrl on the tajectory of the
fee jet is not incuded in the caculations reported here. Te efect of swrl on entainment rate is
included bot in tis model ad in the model by Sinnamon et a. Please see Sinnamon et al. (1980) for
a more thorough discussion of te development of a similar set of equatons.
Tree assumptons commonly used in the anaysis of jets were used to derive te equations used in this
model:
(1) Te fel mass-fow rate of te jet at every aia coss-secton is te same,
and is equal
to te fel mass fow rate at te source.
(2) Te momentm rate of the jet at every cross-section is the same, and is equal to the
momentum rate of te jet at the source.
(3) Te spreading angle of te jet is assumed to be constant, ad the profles of velocity ad
fel mass faction ae assumed to be self-simila and to follow te profles descrbed
below.
Flow Char
A fow chart of te model as curenty confgured is as follows:
A. Desciption of program
B. Defnitions
C. Input
1. Fixed input
2. Keyboad input
3. File input
D. Cone ange caculaton
1. Hroyasu correlaton for cone angle.
2. Calculate haf-angle fom centrine to 1/ velocit point.
3. Caculate radius of fee jet at piston bowl wal.
A-1
E. Caculate orifce discharge coefcient, exit velocty, fel mass fow rate, and momentum rate of te
source of te jet.
F. Jet breakup caculations (not used except for compason purposes)
1. Breakup time and distance according to Yule et a.
2. Breaup time and distance according to Sinnaon et a.
G. Caculate jet fel concentaion, density, and velocity at al raia locations at a given axia location.
Repeat al itms in G untl fna axia distace is reached.
1. Guess large initial vaue for centerline fel mass faction.
2. H8jet reached te wal a this axia locaton?
a. Yes - go to 0.5.
b. No - go to 0.3.
H. Free jet. Calculate integras for fel mass flux conservaton and momentum rate conservation, and
corresponding centerline jet velocities for fee jet fom each of these conservation equations.
I.
1. Does centerline fee jet velocity computed fom fel mass fux conservaton approx. equa jet
velocity fom momentm rate conservation?
a. Yes - go to 0.8.
b. No - decrease guess for centerline fel fcton ad go to 0.3.
2. If this is frst time at tis step, guess large initia vaue for centerline fel mass faction for
wall jet. Otherwise, initia guess is previous vaue fom converged solution for next ealier
axial location.
3. Wal jet. Caculate integrals for fel mass fux conservaton ad momentum rate conservation,
and corresponding centerline jet velocities for wal jet for each of tese conservaton equatons.
4. Does centerline wal jet velocit computed fom fel mass fux conservaton aprox. equa jet
velocity fom momentum rate conservation?
a. Yes - go to 0.8.
b. No - decrease guess for centerline fel mass faction and go to 0.6.
5. Limit jet velocit to tht measured by Aai et a. Caculate tasit tme and average velocity
between axial locations.
6. Caculate fel mass fux a axia locaton fom conservaton of fel mass fux for fee jet or
wal jet as approprate.
7. Caculate totl amount of fel injected to time T(l) fom: (a) the mass fow rate trough te
injector hole, and (b) fom summing up the mass fux at each aial location. Compae tese
two for check of computaion of (b).
8. Writ penetaton data (time, axia distance for fee jet and wall jet, centerline velocity, and
centerline fel concentation).
9. Increment axia locaton ad check to see if beyond fna aia locaion.
a. Yes - go to H.
b. No - go to 0.2.
Starting at frst axia locaton, and continuing to fna axia locaton, determine the fel-air
equivaence ratio () at each radial location.
1. Caculate te haf width of the jet to te 1/2 velocity point.
2. Caculate te widt of the jet to zero velocity pint, and divde into JM number of equal
radia locations.
3. Caculate te fel mass faction and jet velocity at eah radia location for JM locations at
one axia location.
A-2
"
' '

C
'
|
1
. .
\.

` 1

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1 1 .
For a given axial location and radial locaton, calculate te fel mass fow rat trough a
annulus of widt B/J fom te conservation of fel mass fux equation. Use te equation
for a fee jet or wall jet as apropriae for te axial locaon.
Sum fel mass fow rates through all annuli to get totl fel fow rate at a axia locaion.
Multply tota fel mass fow rae integraed over all radial locations at one aial location by
tansit tme for jet centerline beteen axial locatons to compute mass of fel in jet between
aial locations XC(I-1) ad XC(I).
Determine fel-ar rato ad equivalence ratio at each raal locaton for a given axial location.
Writ out plot fle for contours of equivaence rato (4).
Form sums that represent te mass of fel in equivalence rato bands "K" at a given axial
locaton I.
Updat raia location and check to see uall radial locaions have been calculated.
a. Yes - go to H. 1 1.
b. No - go to H.3.
Update ra locaton and check to see if all aial locaions have been calculated
a. Yes - go to I.
b. No - go to H. l.
J. Sum up the mass of fel in equiv. ratio bad "K" over axia locatons 1=1 to I where I varies
fom 1=1 to XS1PM, te total number of aial steps.
1. Wrte fle name coresponding to axia step I --l
2. Determine cumulaive fel mass at equiv. ratio "K" for all aia locatons fom 1=1 t I.
3. Smoot te cumulatve fel mass values (MASFC(K)) using 3 pt. to 5 pt. smoothing routine.
4. Normaze te cumulative fel mass values at each equiv. ratio by the widt of the equiv. ratio
bads.
5. Writ equiv. ratio band center (PHI(K)) ad normalized cumulative fel mas in. that equiv.
rao band summed over axia locations 1=1 t I to outut fe.
6. Check for mass conservation.
7. Update axial locaton I to next aial location. Check to see if I is at fnal location
XS1PM.
K End
a. Yes - go to K
b. No - go to J. l.
L. Functions
1. Function DISCHR. Caculate dischage coef. of injector orifce.
M. Subroutnes
1. Subroutne Xl21. Calculate integral 121, for fee jet momentum rate conseraion.
2. Subroutne XI33. Calculate integral 133, for fee jet fel mass fux conservation.
3. Subroutne X41. Calculate integra 141, for wall jet momentum rate conservation.
4. Subroutne XI42. Calculate integral 142, for wal jet fel mass fux conservaton.
5. Subroutne ADEN. Calculate air density, piston locaion, cylinder volume, etc. as a fnction
of ca angle. (Not currenty used.)
6. Subroutne CYCLE. Calculat bulk gas temperature fom cycle simulaton. (Not currently
implementd.)
A-3
Mathematical Development of JETMIX Model
Te jet velocity profle is described by
(1)
where u is te loca jet velocit, is te centerline jet velocity m a gven axial location, f(e) 1. L`,
and L r/, where r is te local radius and b is te radius of te jet fom te centerline to the point where
the velocity is zero. Te fel mass facton profle is simila t the velocty profle but slighty broader.
Te fel mass faction at any radial locaton, c, is descibed as
C C f(e)
(2)
where U is te centerline fel mass facton and f(e) is te same as above. Tese profles are shown in
Figure A- 1.
Free Jet Analysis
For the fee jet, te conservation of fel mass fow rae called for in assumption (1) above may be writen
(Sinnamon et al. 1980),
[]cpudA] " 0
dx
(3)
where x is te aial distace, c is local fel mass faction, p is te local jet density, u is the local velocit,
and A is the coss-sectional area of te jet. Defning 1 1 -
9,
9 where
9
_is the densit of te 8
or gases in te chaber, and
9
is the densit of the fel, then the local density p is related to te fel
mass faction c by,
(4)
Te cross-sectional area of the fee jet is related to the local radius r and the non-dimensiona radius L by
and te diferental area is ten
Substitutng Eqs. (1), (2), (4), and (6) into (3),
d
Z

.
t(c)

c
d

] " c
-
[21b
,
^-
_

dx i e
_
t(c)
A-4
(5)
(6)
(7)

Jl YL. -
.

QP PPT
Figure A-1. Radial distribution of fuel jet velocity and fuel mass concentrtion.
Now at the jet source (the exit fom the hole), te fel mass flow rate is just
"
- , v
.
A
.
where the subscrpts s refer to tose values at te source. Te inita jet velocity, u8, is just
(8)
(9)
where cd is te dscharge coefcient of the injector hole ad D_ is te diferental injection pressure.
Te injector hole aea A. is
Terefore the fel mass fow rate at the source is
but fom assumption 1 ad Eq. (3), m ms, so Eq. (7) is just equal to 11, or,
Z
_. t(c)

c Z
'r
b
,^
_
-
_ ec - ,

'
e
/^
1 e
_
t(c)
A-5
( ic)
( 1 1 )
(1')
Equation (12) represents the conservation of fel mass fux for te fee jet at every cross-secton. Tere
are two unknowns in Eq. (12), te centerine velocity at a given axia locaton, and te centerline fel
faction, em. By developing te equaton for conservation of jet momentum rate of the fee jet in terms
of the sae two unknowns, the two equations may be solved simultaneously t determine te two
unknowns. Once te centerline values of velocity ad fel mass faction are determined at every axial
locaton, te radial pofles may be determined fom Eq. (1) and (2).
Te conservaton of momentum rate of te fee jet may be expressed as (Sinnamon et a. 1980)
(i)
Tis may be rewritten by maing substtutons in te sae maner a above to obtain
(i
^
)
Now te momentum rate at the souce is just
(i)
and fom Eq. (14), ts must be equal to te jet momentum rate at every cross-section downsteam, or
Z
Z _ t(c)
-
c Z
Z
'r
t ,,v_
ec " x
(_'N/,
) e /^
i e
_
t(c)
(i)
Equaon (16) may be solved simultaeously with Eq. (12) to determine te two unowns, um and em.
Because em is incuded in integra expressions mboth Eqs. (12) and (16), it is most practica to solve
tese equations numericaly. Tat is te procedure used in this computer code. Tus, at a given axial
locaton, a large inita vaue is assumed for em ad bot Eqs. (12) ad (16) are solved for um, ad a check
is made to detrmine if tey are aproximately equal Uthey are not equal, te guess for em is decreased
and te process is repeated until the vaues for um are approximately equal Tis procedure is repeated
for each axia locaion fom close to te jet source t a fll set of downsteam locations. Te frst inita
guess for em cose to the injector is taken as 0.998, ad then the guessed vaues for em are decreased until
te values ae approximately equa. At te next axia location, te initia value for em is taen as te
fmal value fom the previous axia locaon, and ten decreased until the vaues fom te two equations
ae again approximately equal Tis is based on te assumption tat te centerline fel faction em is
constanty deceasing as te axia distance inceases. Te ony exception to tis is for te frst step aer
te jet has reached te wall, where the initia guess for em is again taken as 0.998.
Wal Jet Analysis
Te teatment of te fel jet behavior aer it hits the wal has not been teated in the literature in a simila
maner to tat of te fee jet. However, tere is literare describing te impingement of gas jets wit
wals (e.g., Poreh et al. 1967; Beltaos and Rajaatam 1977; Iida et al. 1990), and ts is being used to
A-6
'
.
'

'

improve the wal jet model. Tere is aso litrature describing the interaction of a two-phase jet wit a
wal, but tat is not pernent to tis discussion.
Te initia approah used here in teatng te wall jet is to mae similar assumptions to tose used in te
fee jet wit adjustments made to the geomet. U fact, te tree assumptons listed above for te fee
jet were assumed t hold te for te wall jet, ad te profles of velocity ad fel mass faction were
assumed to be te same as for te fee jet, with the centerline vaues now assigned to te steamlines next
to the wal, ad wit velocity and fel mas faction decreasing in te directon away fom the wal. Tis
approach ignores te fction of te wall, and te resulting boundary layer next to te wall. Also te
inita efort assumes impingement a normal incidence, atoug impingement at oter agles will have
to teated in te fture.
Te wall geomety is assumed to follow tat shown in Figure A-2, with the axia coordinate x'
representing te distace aong te wal and the radial coordinate r' now repesentng te distance away
fom te wal. Te aea of the anulus representng the jet at a given aia location x' is
( 17)
and since r' b'c' , where b' is the distance fom the wal to the edge of te wal jet and c' r' H , then
the wal jet aea can be witten as
( 1 8)
and te diferenta writtn as
( 19)
Te conservaton of the fel mass fux of te wal jet is the sae as te fee jet in general terms, i.e.,
Eq. (3), except that the inita upper limit of integraton is c' r1/b' , where r1 is the distace fom the
maximum velocity point in te wal jet to te zero velocit point.
! [jc pudA] " 0
(20)
but the values suitable for the wal jet must be substituted gving
(21)
or pulling out te constant terms to get
(22)
A-7
:
C
WLL MPlNMNJ
ML UMP1lN
WLL41
ot
1 3
ot
NM PM1
WLL4LULN
41

FREE,W
FREE, W '
113
FREE,W
Figure A-2. Schematic of free-jet impingement with wall, and creation of wall jet.

---~.
. F y. .
x- .:.

Equating the mass fux at any cross-section to that at te source

(')
so tat in a similar way t te fee jet, E.(23) represents te conservation of fel mass fux ad provides
one equation with to unknowns, te "centerline" velocty, _in this case te velocity just outsid te
bounda layer at te wal, ad te "centerline" fel mass facton, U, defned a the sae point. Again
adding te equaion for jet momentum rate conservation alows the oppornit to solve simultaeous
equations to determine te two unkowns.
Te conseraton of momentum rate for te wal jet is te same in genera ters as for te fee jet,
,v
2
d|
-
0
ex
Substitutng te appropriate values for te wal ad simplifing gives,
(
'^)
(')
Because the jet momentum rate is conserved, the jet momentum rate a ay distance aong te wal is
equa to te momentum rat of the source, which is given by Eq. (15), so
2 (1 t(c' )
-
2
2
xx ' ' , v_

ec'
- x,
(_ 'N_
) e
'^
1 e
_
t(c' )
(')
Equations (23) ad (26) ae solved simultaneously using te same numerica procedure as described above
for the fee jet.
Te solution of te fee jet and wal jet equations are independent of each oter. Te actua process
between a fee jet and a wal jet involves a complicated tansiton region that is not modeled using this
approach. However, solving te fee jet and wal jet independenty requires that inita conditons be
established for te wal jet tat may depend on te fee jet. Te best approximation for the inita
condtions of te wall jet are curenty under study. Te caculations perfored to date have asumed tat
te inita height of the wal jet in a directon at right agles to the wal is identica to te caculaed radius
tat the fee jet at a axial location coresponding to the wall. Tis is illustated in Figure A-2. Te
inita location of te wal jet was assumed to be 113 of te way out fom the centerline to te fll jet
width at te wal, a shown in Figure A-2. Tis may be staed in words tat te fee jet is assumed to
appoah te wal ad ten open up uniformly at the wal wit te maimum jet velocity close to te wal,
wit decreasing velocity going outward fom te wal.
Te aalysis by Poreh et a. (1967) suggests that te initia height of te wal jet is much less tha tat
assumed for the calculatons shown in tis report. Tus, te initia conditons of the wal jet will probably
be changed, but a more torough review of te literature is required before this change is made in te
model.
A-9
HeefenCeS
Arm, M., Taata, M. Hiroyasu, H., and Shimizu, M. (1984). "Disintegrating Process ad Spray
Chaacterization of Fuel Jet Injected by a Diesel Nozzle," SAE Trnsactions, Vol. 93, and SAE Paper
No. 840275.
Beltaos, S., ad Rajaratam, N. (1977). "Impingement of Aisymmetic Developing Jets," Joural of
Hydraulic Research, Volume 15, No. 4, pp. 31 1-325.
Iida, N., Hirawo, K., ad Sato, G. T. (1990). "Experimental Study of Transient Gas Jet Impinging on a
Wal," SAE Paper No. 900479.
Melton, R.B., Jr. (1971). "Diesel Fuel Injection Viewed as a Jet Phenomena," SAE Paper No. 710132.
Poreh, M., Tsuei, Y.G., and Cermak, J.E. (1967). "Investigation of a Turbulent Radial Wal Jet," Joural
ofApplied Mechanics, pp. 457-463.
Sinnamon, J.F., Lancastr, D.R., and Stener, J.C. (1980). "P Experimental ad Anaytcal Study of
Engine Fuel Spay Trajectories," SAE Paer No. 800135.
Yule, A.J., Mirza, M.R., and Filipovic, I. (1991). "Corelations for Diesel Spray Penetaton including te
Efects of the Break-Up Zone," Proceedings ofthe Fifh Interational Conference on Liquid Atmizaiton
and Spray Systems," H.G. Semeria, editor, pp. 267-274.
A-10

a..
.
Nomenclature
A aea of jet
^s
aea of jet at source
b raa distance fom jet centerline to point where jet velocity is zero
b' distance normal to wall in wal jet between maimum velocity and zero velocity
c local fel mass facton
c
0
dischage coefcient of injector hole
'm
centerline fel mass facton
d injector hole diameter
",O
fel mass (kg) summed over all radial locations and between aia locatons and X
i+I
and sU ed over al equvaence rato bands for
[
to
[+I
x,O
fel mass fow rate (kg/s) summed over al radia locations at aia locaton X, and
summed over al equivalence raio bads for
[
to
[+I
N
I
see Eq. (1) and Eq. (4)
N_ see Eq. (2)
N_ see Eq. (3)
n engne sped (rpm)
r raal distance
r
s
swirl ratio in engine
u local jet velocity
u
m
centerline jet velocity at a given aial location
u
s
jet velocity at source
u
0
inita jet velocity at injecor tip
X aia distace paralel to fee jet ais
X` distace along wal jet paalel t wal
Greek Symbols

A
m ]
c
c

d
s
P
9
I
9,
9

_
[
1
9, 9
I
pressure diferentia across injector hole
normazed radia distance fom centrline of fee jet, rib
normaized distance nora to wall fom maimum velocity point in wal jet, r'lb'
spray cone agle, witout swir, between visua edges of spray
spray cone angle wit swirl
loca jet density
density of te liquid fel
density of 3 or gases in chamber
equivalence ratio, or (fell3)
e
a / (mv!stcieLicmeuie
equivalence rao limit associated with mixing paameter #1, N
I
equivaence ratio limit associated with mixing paameter F, N _
equvaence ratio limit associated with mixing paameter F, N_
equivalence rao for the K equivaence rato band
A-l l
REPORT DOCUMENTATI ON PAGE
ForApproved
OMB NO. 0704-0188
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Washington, DC 20503.
1 . AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED
June 1 994 Subcontract repor
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS
Hydrogen-Air Mixing Evaluation i n Reciprocting Engines (C) AW-2-1 2266-1
(TA) FU421010
6. AUTHOR(S)
L. Dodge and D. Naegeli
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZTION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER
Southwest Research Institute
San Antonio, Texas 78228-051 0 DE94006950
9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 1 0. SPONSORING/MONITORING
AGENCY REPORT NUMBER
National Renewable Energy Laborator
1 617 Cole Boulevard NREUP-425-6346
Golden, CO 80401 -3393
1 1 . SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
1 2a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILBILITY STATEMENT 1 2b. DISTRIBUTION CODE
National Technical Information Serice UC-335
U.S. Deparment of Commerce
5285 Por Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
13. ABSTRACT (Maimum200 words)
This repor presents the results of a computational study of fuel-air mixing in a hydrogen jet using a spark-ignited, hydrogen-fueled engine. The computational
results were compared with experimental measurements being conducted at the Musashi Institute of Technology in Tokyo, Japan. The hydrogen-air mixing work
was directed at understanding the extreme sensitivity of ignition to spark plug location and spark timing in direct-injected, hydrogen-fueled engines.
14. SUBJECT TERMS
Hydrogen fuel, hydrogen-fueled engines, hydrogen-air mixing
1 7. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 1 8. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE
NSN 7540-01-280-5500
1 9. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
OF ABSTRACT
1 5. NUMBER OF PAGES
38
1 6. PRICE CODE
A03
20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
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