International Studies Department IS 22: Theories and Practice of Contemporary Diplomacy Prof.

Angelo Goode Essay Question: What is security in international relations and why is the concept so contested? This essay is the result of my own work. Material from the published or unpublished work of others which is used in the mid-term essay is credited to the author in question of the text. The essay is exactly 3, 028 words in length. I have read and understood the Guidance on Plagiarism and Word Limits in the relevant course booklet.

Signature

Castillo, Nicaella S. AB International Studies

Feb.

11,

2014

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The Digital Age and Its Implications on Global Security in International Relations INTRODUCTION The term security is strongly contested because of its broad scope. Often, any definition that tries to limit this study, there will be numerous challenges by other writers or scholars of this field. According to Baylis (2003):
Most writers agree that security is a contested concept. There is a consensus that it implies freedom from threats to core values (for both individuals and groups but there is a major disagreement about whether the main focus of enquiry should be on individual, national, or international security. For much of the cold war period most writing on the subject was dominated by the idea of national security which was largely defined in militarized terms. The main area of interest for both academics and statesmen tended to be on the military capabilities that their own should develop with the threats that faced them. Instead a number of contemporary writers have argues for an expanded conception of security outward from the limits of parochial national security to include a range of other considerations.

Realists have the common notion that international relations is of dangerous nature and there is a certain amount of paranoia that states should emphasize on because anything can happen to their safety or security. Liberalists argue that security can be protected collectively through institutions wherein states can be a member of. Other schools of thought developed an entirely different set of assumptions regarding the matter of security and how it is deeply revered in international relations. In previous decades, security have always been purely militaristic or political but after the Cold War, things have changed to a point wherein it is not enough to just worry about those two aspects. Also, states only had to fear aggression from other states during pre-World War II but now, threats

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can come from anyone or anything especially non-state actors and global problems. The latter is possible due to many factors but in this paper, the writer tries to single out the implications of the Digital Age and how it shifted the perspective of what security is, more specifically global security. Because of the increase of technological development, it has provided stronger means not only for the states but also non-state actors in either formulating a threat or protecting against one. This paper will discuss the importance of the digital age as one of the main factors of the changing perspectives of security. The topics included will be a summary of the prominent IR theories of security, a concentration of global security which is considered one of the latest subjects on the topic, a brief history of the start of the digital age, and the incorporation of information and mechanical technology on global security. There are two cases included in this paper that would show how the digital age has affected the security situation in the global arena. One is looking at the military technology of the US and the other is looking at Al-Qaedas cyberplanning capacity.

SECURITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS The deviation of war patterns throughout history has changed how security was viewed by both scholars and state leaders. It is believed that due to how aggressors plan their attacks during conflict that countries are open to any kind of threat that can be present. It is certain as well that a

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threat can come from anyone as several large-scale wars had transpired. Threats evolved from being militaristic or political in nature into societal and individualistic. Human security is an example of individual security, including concerns on health, food and water, and other basic needs.
Threats and vulnerabilities can arise in many different areas, military and non-military, but to count as security issues they have to meet strictly defined criteria that distinguish them from the normal run of the merely political. They have to be staged as existential threats to a referent object by a securitizing actor who thereby generates endorsement of emergency measures beyond rules that would otherwise bind. (Buzan et. al, 1998)

There are two main competing ideologies on security in international relations. These are realism and liberalism. Even though that is an availability of other school of thoughts like social constructivism, feminism and many more, these two still remain dominant in different deliberations. Its just that there has become a diversion on how realism and liberalism is being applied in such situation. Multiple interpretations are presented by different authors of this theory but there are similar characteristics that make up the realist realm. Realists believed that the global arena is anarchic in nature, meaning that there is no central authority to guarantee the safety of each state. Therefore these countries should be fully prepared on the preservation of its territory, norms and culture. It is a common notion for realists that there is a lack of trust in the global system and states will always feel nervous about others actions. Preparations mean that they are equipped with offensive military capacities to defend their state interests. For liberalism, the terms collective security and democratic peace are the most common centers of discussion. They believe that through the

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cooperation of states on security and it will create a more peaceful environment for everyone. Through the creation of institutions, these nations are able to talk amongst them on regards of procedures on ensuring everyone security in this world. They believed that arguments can be dealt with peaceful diplomacy to stop it from going into conflict.

FOCUS ON GLOBAL SECURITY Global security was believed to have emerged at the start of globalization. It is considered that because of the phenomenon, states were deeply interconnected with one another and at the same time non-state actors have emerged as one of the key players of the global arena. Threats, like what have been mentioned before, can be in any form and the sources such have increased in number. It is therefore the responsibility of states, through their diplomatic interactions in different international organizations, to come up with methods of dealing with threats and security. (Makinda, 1998) But for other scholars, increased suspicions of other states was also due to globalization. Because of the growing capacities of all the actors of international relations, nations and individuals needed to be extra careful on their security. In the words of Keck and Sikkink (1998):
World politics at the end of the twentieth century involves, alongside states, many non-state actors that interact with each other, with states, and with international organizations. These interactions are structured in networks, and transnational networks are increasingly visible in international politics. .

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Globalization is responsible not only for the advancement of communications and interconnections but also the panic that a strike can happen to anyone, anywhere at any given time. While international organizations are created out of good will and certainty for mutual gains and benefits, non-state actors like terrorist groups have contributed to the growing tension of fear and security dilemma. These actors are yet to find balance of these interactions in order to normalize the security situation of the world today. The scope of global security however has expanded to into other aspects of the society. Some states still maintain that national security through military and political capacity as their utmost priority but the concerns on economic and social security has been gaining support from different citizens. Individuals pressure their governments in the protection of freedom and human rights as well as the necessities of everyday life like food, water and shelter. All of these fall under human security which entails the protection of Environmental security is also categorized as one of the leading forms of security concern as it has profound effects on every state. Many see that that these different aspects of security are in relations with one another that it might be difficult for states to deal with it alone.

INNOVATIONS OF THE DIGITAL AGE The digital age is the time period wherein globalization has reached its full potential and its integration in different parts of the society still

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continues on. People believed that the future will be seeing more of the technological revolution imposed by the said era. Computers and different devices are the inventions that helped globalization go further and the improvement of this area goes to show that it also affects all levels of associations from states to individuals. Because of the digital age, another fundamental dimension has been created and it is called the cyberspace. Writers were rather surprise with the impact this dimension has created. This was created upon to improve the communication of different people without the hassle brought upon by physical distance and other kinds of difficulties that have arose before the recent era. Sharing of information in simplest forms like news and messages and transactions were made possible because of computers. The public sphere has been changed because of this and ideas are accessible from one part of the globe to another. These people have been empowered with the knowledge that was hard for them to achieve at first. In a paper entitled the The Age of Globalization: Impact of Information Technology on Global Business Strategies by Benjamin Lawler in 2007, he stated that there were six significant processes that globalization was able to accomplish because of the digital age. These are:
1) Speeding up of flows of capital, people, goods, images and ideas across the globe, 2) intensification of the links, modes of interaction and flows that interconnect the world, 3) Stretching out of social, cultural, political and economic practices across frontiers, 4) Interdependency of the global and the local landscape such that, while everyone might continue to live their local lives, their actions

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made in their local environment have become global events that come back to have an impact on local spaces 5) Movement and practices of different culture, values and concerns from one place to another, and lastly; 6) People are able to customize their own ideas, values and lifestyles from the mixture of knowledge from all parts of the world.

These processes showed the capabilities of the digital age in the micro-level of things. Political writers were reluctant on accepting this said era as a transformative factor of how states deal with everyday situation internally and externally. But because of impossible halting of such trends, governments, international organizations and other non-state actors have also adapted to the digital age. They have utilized the means of technology to move forward with goals and projects, especially with security.

INFORMATION AND OTHERS FORMS OF TECHNOLOGY ON GLOBAL SECURITY Handling of information is one of the critical skills that states have to master in order to protect their security. Information is the key to many forms of warfare through its influence on telecommunications and networks. It is a vital weapon in which it can provide data on enemy attacks, security measures, people movement and many more. Through the use of computers, viruses, and softwares, the struggle for security starts of in the electronic mainstream. Even though that it is intangible data being fought for, it can disable several networks all over the world especially in the digital age wherein technology is in every aspect of the human life. Businesses can go bankrupt with just a few clicks of hacking. Viruses can spread rampantly, invading the privacy of those

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people in the society. In fact, even at the largest scale of things, the worst thing that can happen is that world systems can shut down in an instant, causing fear and trauma for the people once the government is unable to provide the protection they were entitled to before. (Greenberg, et. Al., 1998) Because of the digital age, there is a higher degree of transparency of world politics for every person to see. This has been continuously pursued by nongovernmental organizations in their pursuit of a stronger protection of human rights and access to freedom. The phenomenon has open up the government to be held accountable in their role for global human security. It has been an effective means for these organizations to use it for transnational advocacies as it is not only confine within the boundaries of the state. Some analysts are convinced that the successes of their campaigns is greatly influenced by the power of the digital age. The military aspect of global security also changed. It has grown from a reckless form of attack, like the kamikaze pilots of World War II, to a more calculated and even dangerous tactic. Coordinates enable the military in precised warfare, knowing when and how they can attack the enemy without creating a dangerous experience for their citizens. States and terrorist groups alike can strike where the enemy is the weakest and create a facade for people that nothing is going on the surface of things. Wars can be happening without people realizing it because of the manipulation of information. Also, there are also developments in the

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weapons used by the states in dealing with security. It is evident during the Cold War period that nuclear arms race is proven to be the competition of leading technological capacities of states. Other forms fall under biological, chemical and even psychological warfare.

US MILITARY TECHNOLOGY The United States of America is the global hegemon for many decades after the Cold War. This position put them at the receiving end of threats in the global arena. Even as a democratic country, it has put all forms of defenses for these threats. The latter always change rapidly and thats why the US government has to improve on its security much more. In order to stay ahead of the game, the US defense agencies always make it top priority to be have their military forces superior compared to other states. These members of the military are highly trained on special operations that deals with great sensitivity related to the nations security.
US should rely primarily on its technologically advanced intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities, airpower, and special operations forces to combat terrorist organizations... Special operations forces may be particularly important to secure weapons of mass destruction in failing states or during civil conflicts involving organizations hostile to the US. (Peterson Foundation, 2012)

The advancement of US military technology is comparatively higher than others. They have developed complex networks of information sharing and information as well as surveillance to preemptive threats. Even though that military spending is being cut, the arsenal of the countries are still highly competitive for their efficiency and accuracy in the field. They have programs that can detect possible risks in any parts of the world. With the

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use of satellites, surveillance and information can be within in their grasps easily. The government is able to plan counter-insurgency measures and such in case another September 11 attack might arise. They also stay connected with other states to coordinate security plans through improvement of information-sharing on different terrorist groups and international criminals that can provide danger for the people.

CYBERPLANNING OF AL-QAEDA Al-Qaeda is one of the leading terrorist groups of the world today coming from the Middle East that is described to be Islamic extremists and launched a jihad. Even though that most of their activities involved guerrilla warfare, evidences have shown that they have also been using technology to increase the strength of the group. According to Thomas (2003), Al-Qaeda is also one of the users of information technology. Different reports showed that computers from Afghanistan contained detail plans of the September 11 attack and other related events. Cyberplanning enabled the said terrorist group to conduct these strategies without being immediately caught by authorities. The Internet has provided them unrevealed identities and command without any restriction from the law. Because data is stored in computers in the digital age, it can be hacked by experts of the terrorists groups and this will help them plan calculated strategies with the information they have gathered. Al-Qaeda has now thr ability to retrieve such information without being physically near to the

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location where it is being stored. This has also been their method of communication with other personnel regarding the accurate execution of attacks and spreading terror. There are also evidences wherein Al-Qaeda have spread information with the use of technology. Different hosting sites are filled with videos allegedly coming from the group that discloses horrifying messages and propaganda to recruit Muslims in joining their cause. They are also instances wherein humanitarian reliefs for Muslims have connection with the funding of the group. They were able to call for donations supposedly to be used for scholarships and rehabilitation projects. But the money is transferred to the bank accounts of some Al-Qaeda members and used for their attacks.

CONCLUSION The subject area of security has brought upon vast knowledge and perception on how it is accepted in the international arena. From being limited to as a state affair into a matter that involves individuals, the definition and scope security has broadened and sometimes created debates for multiple school of thoughts. The changes that the digital age has brought on the societal scope of events also affected on how the world politics ran in international relations. Since one of the focuses of international relations is security, technology has been adapted in this phenomenon. Its implications are greatly felt through the usage of

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information and communication. As there is the existence of good effects like how ones state improved its military capacity by employing technology to manage threats and easier access to information have prevented the transpiration of threats, it has also provided means for dangerous groups to spread terror not only in the country they were located but they can strike an attack in any part of the world. The digital age has opened the accessibility of both information and innovation to possibly anyone who knows how to fully maximize the use of technology. It can be used for the better or worst of global security situations. All thats left is how the actors of international relations will manage the cyberspace created by the digital age and find ways of adapting to it efficiently.

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Books Burchill, S. (2005). Theories of International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan.

Hampshire:

Mallik, A. (2004). Technology and Security in the 21st Century: A Demand-side Perspective. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Articles Baylis, J (2003). International and Global Security in the post-cold war Era. Buzan, B., Waever, O. and de Wilde, J. (1998) Security. A New Framework for Analysis, Boulder,CO: Lynne Rienner. Greenberg, L., Goodman S., Soo Hoo, K. (1998). Information Warfare and International Law. US: National Defense University Press. Kalathil, S. (2013). Diplomacy Development and Security in the Information Age. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University School of Foreign Service. Keck, M. E., K. Sikkink, (1998) Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithica: Cornell University Press. Lainhart, J. (2011). Managing Threats in the Digital Age: Addressing Security, Risk and Compliance in the C-Suite. IBM Global Services: New York. Lawler, B. (2007). The Age of Globalization: Impact of Information Technology on Global Business Strategies. US: Senior Capstone Project. Makinda, M. (1998). Sovereignty and Global Security, Security Dialogue. Sage Publications, Vol. 29(3) 29: 281-292. Peterson Foundation (2012). A New US Defense Strategy for a New Era: Military Superiority, Agility, and Efficiency. Washington, D.C.: Stimson. Reardon, R. (2012). The Role of Cyberspace in International Relations: A View of the Literature. California: ISA Annual Convention. Thomas, T. (2003). Al Qaeda and the Internet: The Danger of Cyberplanning. Parameters.