above the microwave region where satellite dishes and mobile phones operate, and the upper limit

is adjacent to the infrared frequencies used in television remote controls and similar devices. Thus, the THz gap is a fusion of microwaves and infrared electromagnetic spectra. This regime of the electromagnetic spectrum is rich with possibilities in sensing, imaging, communications, and unique applications in screening for weapons, explosives, and biohazards, as well as water content and human skin.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THZ WAVES

These screening applications employ spectroscopy, specifically terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz TDS). Unlike ordinary optical spectroscopy, which measures the intensity of light at specific frequencies, THz TDS directly measures the temporal electric field. Fourier transformations of this time domain data give the amplitude and phase of the THz wave pulse, therefore providing the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant without relying on the KramersKroning relations of ordinary spectroscopy. This allows precise measurements of the refractive index and absorption coefficients of samples that interact with the THz waves. The rotational and vibrational spectra of various liquid and gas molecules lie within the THz frequency band, and their unique resonance lines in this spectrum allow us to identify their mol DIGITALVISION ecular structures. Just as Raman spectroscopy directly uses the frequency domain to fingerprint lattice vibrations, THz TDS describes rotational and vibrational spectra of molecules, using the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric function, by measuring it in the time domaina feat not possible by any known optical or microwave technique. THz imaging does have a resolution limit, imposed by diffraction. An image at 1 THz cannot be resolved to a size much smaller than 300 m. This limits the spatial sensing

HE TERAHERTZ REGION OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC spectrum is emerging as a powerful weapon in the war on terrorism and illicit drug trafficking. There is still much work to be done in developing the technology, but it shows an amazing ability to single out explosives, fertilizer bombs, chemical and biological agents, and narcotics by their characteristic transmission and reflection properties in the terahertz range. Terahertz (THz) radiationthe socalled terahertz gap (100 GHz to 10 THz)is the last unexplored frontier of the radio-wave and light spectrum. Until recently, high-power sources and sensitive detectors in the THz range have not existed. The THz frequency range lies in the far-infrared region that is at the interface of electronics and photonics, as Fig. 1 shows. The lower limit lies just
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPOT.2007.906117

Fighting terrorism with terahertz

Shagun Galoda and G. Singh
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0278-6648/07/$25.00 2007 IEEE

Wavelength

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Longer Soccer Field Name Radio Waves

Shorter Baseball House Millimeter Waves Cell Bacteria Virus

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Fig. 1 The electromagnetic spectrum with representative applications

and imaging of biological objects to the cell level. To overcome this limit, researchers propose to develop nearfield THz imaging technology by focusing optical beams into an electrooptic crystal to generate and detect the THz wave with submicron resolution. This near-field microscope will have a subwavelength resolution better than onethousandth of the wavelength. The diffraction limit, however, does not affect the usefulness of THz wave scanning for security applications. THz wave detection has roughly a ten times better spatial resolution than millimeter waves because the wavelength of THz radiation is roughly ten times shorter than that of millimeter waves. Consequently, images of suspicious objects such as concealed metallic or plastic knives are much sharper and more readily identified when imaged with a THz scanner. And THz scanning offers another extremely important advantage: specificity. With the aid of known characteristic THz spectra of explosives, biological and chemical agents, and illegal drugs, a THz image can be spectroscopically analyzed to identify concealed contents and potential threats. In general, nonpolar, nonmetallic solids such as plastics and ceram-

ics are at least partially transparent and reflective in the 0.25 THz range. Typical clothing items, paper, and plastic packaging should appear transparent in the THz regime. Metals completely block or reflect THz waves. The skin, because of its high water content, would nearly absorb all the THz rays. The energy would be harmlessly dissipated as heat in the first 100 m of the skin tissue. The THz reflection image of a person would show the outline of the clothing and reflection of objects beneath such as weapons and key chains, but the persons skin would appear substantially dark.

RADIATING THZ
The applications envisioned for THz radiation will require innovations in highpower, compact, and efficient sources. Fundamental sources of THz power, such as backward-wave oscillators, freeelectron and quantum cascade lasers, novel heterojunction diode and transistor circuits, andmost recentlymicromachined vacuum electronic devices, are now beginning to round out the THz toolset. Most of the sources can not generate a THz beam with high power, although they have many potential applications. Figure 2 classifies the various THz sources according to bandwidth.

The key broadband sources are the photoconductive antenna and optical rectification. THz beam generation in the photoconductive antenna begins with an ultrafast visible laser pulse with photon energy larger than the band gap of the material, which creates electronhole pairs in the photoconductor. The free carriers then accelerate in the static bias field to form a transient photocurrent, and the quickly varying current radiates electromagnetic waves. In optical rectification, a femtosecond laser pulse is generated, and the energy of the THz radiation pulse comes directly from the exciting laser pulse. This technique was first demonstrated for generating far-infrared radiation in lithium niobate (LiNbO 3) crystal. Optical rectification relies on coupling of the frequencies at relatively low frequency. It usually provides lower output power than the photoconductive antenna, but it has the unique advantage of extremely broad spectral bandwidth. The narrowband THz sources include free-electron, quantum-cascade, and semiconductor lasers. Free-electron lasers use a beam of high velocity bunches of electrons propagating in a vacuum through a strong periodic magnetic field that causes the electron bunches to oscillate

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and emit photons. Mirrors confine the photons to the electron beam line, which forms the gain medium for the laser. Free-electron lasers can generate continuous or pulsed waves, and provide an average brightness more than six orders of magnitude higher than typical photoconductive antennas. Semiconductor lasers, although extremely promising for the narrowband THz generation, have many inherent limitations, including low efficiency, low output power, and the need for cryogenic cooling to maintain lasing conditions. The quantum-cascade laser consists of coupled quantum wells [nanometerthick layers of gallium arsenide (GaAs) sandwiched between potential barriers of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)] of a repeating structure in which each repeating unit is made up of an injector and an active region. In the active region, a population inversion exists and electron transitions to a lower energy level occurs, thereby emitting photons at a specific wavelength. The electrons then tunnel between quantum wells, and the injector region couples them to the higher energy level in the active region of the subsequent repeating unit. Among the nonlaser narrowband sources, the photomixer employs an optical heterodyne scheme in which outputs of two continuous-wave singlemode lasers, whose frequency difference falls in the terahertz range, mix in a nonlinear medium such as a photoconductor and generate a THz signal. The THz signal can be coupled either to a transmission line for circuit applications or to an antenna to radiate it into free space. The backward-wave oscillator (BWO) is a novel narrowband tunable source, but it operates in the sub-THz (several hundred GHz) regime. Above 1 THz, its tunability rapidly decreases. How do all these methods compare? Optical rectification is highly effective for time-domain spectroscopy and lab-based use, but it does not generate enough average power for security applications because of low average power and poor conversion efficiency. Quantum cascade lasers produce very high average power terahertz radiation, but their power drops off significantly below 2 THz because of the structure of the semiconductor itself. They also require cryogenic cooling. Difference frequency mixing of near-infrared lasers has generated sig-

nificant peak-power signals in nonlinear optical crystals, but with low average power output because of low repetition rates. They require complicated optical systems to generate the two mixing beams. Accelerator-based sources can produce very high average power (about 20 W) at THz frequency, although they are rather large. All of these sources are highly effective in generating tunable THz radiation, but they do not produce significant power for stand-off detection applications in the appropriate frequency ranges for security applications. Higher THz output power would allow for longer stand-off distances for remote sensing and imaging. Thus, a THz imaging system will benefit greatly from the future high-power THz sources such as the quantum cascade laser. The highpower THz sources, coupled with sensitive detectors, will result in higher signal-to-noise ratio and faster acquisition of images. Future research will continue to push forward on all fronts, particularly in the THz imaging systems to increase the speed, bandwidth, and resolution. With advances in coherent generation and amplification, it will be possible to develop arrays of these sources and detectors in imaging systems to offer a new screening technology. Further potential advantages of this new approach to security over microwave imaging include smaller size, lower cost, and potential for integrating directly into existing security portals, all resulting from an integrated circuit approach that uses no moving parts.

PUTTING TERAHERTZ TO WORK

Terahertz spectroscopy has been hindered by the low brightness of incoherent far-infrared sources and poor sensitivity of bolometric detectors, but with the advent of THz TDS, these difficulties can be overcome in a radical way. THz TDS is based on electromagnetic transients generated optoelectronically with the help of femtosecond laser pulses. These THz transients are single bursts of electromagnetic radiation of typically less than 1 picosecond duration, and they have considerable brightness. THz TDS can provide complete security screening in a single system. Its ability to detect both metallic and nonmetallic objects, including weapons, is a distinct advantage over current security screening methods. There are three prime reasons for security experts interest: Terahertz radiation is readily transmitted through most nonmetallic and nonpolar media, thus enabling THz systems to see through concealing barriers. Many materials of interest for security applications, including explosives and chemical and biological agents, have the characteristic THz spectra that can be used to fingerprint and thereby identify these concealed materials. Terahertz radiation poses little or no health risk to either a suspect being scanned by the THz system or the systems operator. THz TDS is also promising for homeland security tasks such as detecting the presence of toxic and semitoxic gases. It has two main uses in homeland security:

Quantum Cascade Laser Free Electron Laser Backward Wave Oscillator Photo-Mixing Semiconductor Laser

Narrowband THz Sources Broadband Fig. 2 Major THz radiation sources

Photoconductive Antenna

Optical Rectification

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Absorption (Offset for Clarity)

PE4 RDX PETN HMX TNT

A further advantage of THz spectroscopy is that it does not require a high vapor pressure for its operation. And it can detect an amorphous explosive, which does not contain sharp features, such as ammonium nitrate (NH 4 NO 3 ), an agricultural fertilizer, when it is mixed with fuel oil, as terrorists do in truck or car bombs. The mixture produces monotonically increasing attenuation in 0 to 3-THz range that can be readily detected by THz TDS.

DETECTING AND IMAGING THZ

0 1 2 Frequency (THz) 3 4

Fig. 3 Absorption spectra of various explosive materials at THz frequency

Vibrational spectroscopy uses emitters and detectors of the THz radiation to detect materials, such as anthrax or other biological or chemical weapons, that resonate at THz frequency when exposed to THz radiation. Imaging uses a THz emitter and a camera for package inspection and wholebody inspection to look for concealed weapons or explosives. For inspection imaging applications, we want to detect and differentiate

between different materials on the basis of their THz wave response. Fortunately, explosives have unique and clear THz spectral identities, as Fig. 3 shows. The spectra from combined explosives can be traced to their constituents. By comparing the measured reflectivity of the THz spectra with known calibration spectra, we can identify the presence of these agents and distinguish them from benign objects.

Parabolic Mirrors

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Fig. 4 Schematic of an imaging system. The system is still experimental.

In a THz imaging system (Fig. 4), the THz beam from the source is reflected by a glass plate coated with an indiumtin-oxide (ITO) layer, which is used as a dichroic mirror in order to combine the THz beam with a visible beam, as is necessary for optical alignment. The conductive ITO layer provides good reflectivity for the THz waves and more than 80% transmittance in the visible range. The THz beam is then collimated and focused onto the sample by two off-axis parabolic mirrors. For image acquisition, the sample is scanned with a linear motor stage that moves it through the focused beam. The beam transmitted through the sample is again collimated and focused onto the detector with another pair of off-axis parabolic mirrors. Various detection techniques can be used, as listed in Fig. 5. shows the different detection techniques. There are two possible operating modes for a THz detection systems: transmission or reflection. The reflection mode is likely to grow in importance because many materials of concern are absorptive/reflective rather than transmissive in the terahertz frequency band. The pattern of the reflection versus frequency gives rise to signatures that are remarkably specific to the composition of the target. In both transmission and reflection modes, THz sources illuminate the person or object under study, as shown in Fig. 6. Much thicker samples become virtually opaque to the THz waves, the reflection mode is preferred [Fig. 6(a)]. The THz radiation propagates through a persons clothing, reflects from the hidden explosive, propagates back through the clothing and is finally detected. In the transmission mode, the THz radiation propagates through the material to be inspected to the receiving detector [Fig. 6(b)]. The transmission

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mode is effective for fairly small quantities of explosives [Fig. 6(b)]. A simple Kramers-Kronig argument suggests this is reasonable and that rapid changes in THz transmission as a function of frequency can be attributed to rapid changes in the imaginary index of refraction (absorption coefficient). Since the reflectance of a material is determined by the real and imaginary indices of refraction, rapid changes in the imaginary index of refraction should occur in the reflection mode as well. However, the reflectivity of an object depends not only on the indices of refraction, but also on the surface roughness, polarization of the incident THz radiation, and other geometric factors.

Transmission Versus Reflective Geometry

2 THz Detection Techniques

Close-Range Versus Stand-Off Detection

Pulsed Versus CW Sensing

Stand-Off Sensing Modalities

CLOSE RANGE OR STAND OFF?

The simplest method of THz imaging is to use a single transmitter and a detector that is in the transmitters line of sight. An image is obtained on a point-by-point basis by scanning the transmitter/detector pair over the sample and recording the THz phase and amplitude at each point. Over short distances, atmospheric attenuation and scattering are minimal. Screening of mail, packages, and baggage is a closerange application, whereas detection of explosives, weapons and illicit-drugs on people approaching a checkpoint or portal is a stand-off application. Close-range imaging has been intensely studied. The three main techniques are the following: Raster scanning. A tightly focused THz beam is scanned across the surface of a thin sample. The reflected or transmitted THz radiation is measured, and an image is produced on a pixel-by-pixel basis. Impulse scanning. Time-delayed THz signals are used to stack an image. This technique provides fine transverse resolution. Electrooptic imaging . THz images are shifted into visible light, allowing conventional CCD cameras to acquire images at a very rapid rate. The main disadvantage of the first two close-range imaging techniques is the low frame rate. Except for electrooptic imaging, which provides a poor dynamic range, these systems can not be implemented as turnkey, video-rate scanning systems. Consequently, a high-speed THz imaging device that can scan and positively identify harmful materials at
5 Estimation of Stand-Off Range

Fig. 5 Important THz detection techniques

video frame rates is in high demand for security applications. Stand-off (with distances greater than 3 m) THz imaging allows for longrange screening and detection and potentially offers a solution for scanning persons in open areas such as airports and stations. It requires high average and/or peak terahertz powers for added range. The THz imaging approaches have typically used either short pulsed laser or continuous-wave (CW) THz generation and detection. The technology for growth, design, and characterization of the low-temperature grown gallium arsenide (GaAs) photomixers has improved dramatically, enabling the use of CW THz systems for sensing, spectroscopy, and imaging applications. An example of quasi-CW THz detection for detection of illicit drugs uses a THz-wave parametric oscillator (TPO). In the CW generation method, two narrowband infrared laser sources are mistuned by roughly 1 THz. Continuouswave THz radiation is generated by mixing of two laser sources in a nonlinear crystal. One limitation of this technique is that a coherent CW laser, or at least a relatively fast-pulse laser, is required. Short-pulse sources seem to be more promising because they can be used for acquiring depth information. Pulsed THz time-domain spectroscopy can

acquire an image from a single-picosecond THz pulse and depth information from the difference in arrival times of the short pulses. On the other hand, CW imaging systems have the advantage of higher THz power at a distinct THz frequency. Further advantages of CW THz spectroscopy over pulsed THz time-domain spectroscopy are that it can measure narrow spectral features because the CW spectrum is inherently narrow, and that it does require the long scanning delay that is needed for high spectral resolution in a time-domain system. For stand-off detection, a dominating issue in choosing a pulsed or continuous wave source is the need to propagate through the atmosphere. For the THz time domain pulses that are generated by short-pulse laser systems, the THz spectrum of the pulse spreads over several transmission bands. However, the THz power that is outside the transmission bands is highly absorbed. Consequently, the amount of usable THz power in the pulse is drastically reduced. In addition, the time duration of the picosecond THz pulses is considerably lengthened by water absorption, which makes pulsed time of-flight THz detection impossible. In stand-off detection, the received THz power is a function of distance. But, to determine the precise effect of target

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THz Source

Hidden Explosives

THz Imaging Array (a) THz Sources

Explosive THz Imaging Array

(b)

Fig. 6 THz imaging in (a) reflection mode and (b) transmission mode

range for THz stand-off detection, a detailed analysis of the transmitted THz power, received THz power and noise sources in the detector, background THz radiation, and the detection method is required.

CONCLUSIONS
With THz waves, we can not only image concealed objects, but we can examine the absorption, reflectance, and transparencies of different materials so that we can more accurately identify the concealed objects. THz imaging, coupled with spectroscopic detection of explosive or hazardous materials, may provide robust and complete real-time security screening without the need for multiple systems and detection methods. The biggest challenge to THz security applications is stand-off detection. As the stand-off distance increases, the effects of a humid atmosphere, dust, smoke, and so forth, as well as of possible barrier materials, have to be considered. In order to overcome the attenuation losses of barrier materials and the atmosphere, higher power sources with low-noise THz receivers need to be developed. Overall, it seems to be a whole new area of research, which is perhaps less relevant for communication

technology than for detection and imaging of concealed weapons for security and for biological and medical imaging. The difficulties in developing THz sources have not stopped an explosion of interest in THz technology; its emerging applications are too important. The emerging applications will require sensitive systems, and thus developments in new quantum sources and detectors will become important. And as imaging sensors drop in cost, the deployment of scanned THz systems in security will certainly increase.

radiation from relativistic electron beams, Nature, vol. 420, pp. 153156, 2002. K. Suto and J.-I. Nishizawa, Widely frequency tunable terahertz wave generation and spectroscopic applications, Int. J. Infrared Millim. Waves, vol. 26, no. 7, pp. 937952, 2005. B. Ferguson and X.-C. Zhang, Materials for terahertz science and technology, Nature Materials, vol. 1, pp. 2633, 2002. J.F. Federici, B. Schulkin, F. Huang, D. Gary, R. Barat, F. Oliveira, and D. Zimdars, THz imaging and sensing for security applicationsExplosives, weapons and drugs, Semicond. Sci. Technol., vol. 20, pp. S266S280, 2005. K. Kwase, Y. Ogawa, H. Minamide, and H. Ito, Terahertz parametric sources and imaging applications, Semicond. Sci. Technol. , vol. 20, pp. S258S265, 2005. D. Sacedkia, A.H. Majedi, S.S. Naeini, and R.R. Mansour, Analysis and design of photoconductive integrated photomixer/antenna for terahertz applications, IEEE J. Select. Topics Quantum Electron., vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 234241, 2005. D.L. Woolard, E.R. Brown, M. Pepper, and M. Kemp, Terahertz frequency sensing and imaging: A time domain of reckoning future applications?, Proc. IEEE , vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 17221743, Oct. 2005.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Shagun Galoda (capris_2k4@ yahoo.co.in) completed the M.Sc. degree in physics with specialization in applied electronics from Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, India, in 2005. She is pursuing the M. Tech degree in Optical and Wireless Communication Technology from the Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India. G. Singh (drghanshyam.singh@ yahoo.com) received the Ph.D. in electronics engineering from the Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India, in 2000. He was a visiting researcher at the School of Physics, Seoul National University, Korea. At present, he is an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India. His research interests include relativistic high-frequency electronics and electromagnetics.

READ MORE ABOUT IT

D.M. Mittleman, R.H. Jacobsen, and M.C. Nuss, T-ray imaging, IEEE J. Select. Topics Quantum Electron., vol. 2, pp. 679692, Sept. 1996. D.M. Mittleman, M. Gupta, R. Neelamani, R.G. Baraniuk, J.V. Rudd, and M. Koch, Recent advances in terahertz imaging, Appl. Phys. B, vol. 68, pp. 10851094, 1999. G.P. Williams, Filling the THz gapHigh-power sources and applications, Rep. Prog. Phys., vol. 69, pp. 301326, 2006. G.L. Carr, M.C. Martin, W.R. McKinney, G.R. Neil, K. Jordan, and G.P. Williams, High power terahertz

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