Compaction, Excavation and Earthwork

Compaction, Excavation and Earthwork Publications Available for Downloading

NAVFAC 7.02 - Foundations and Earth Structures. Main topics includes excavations,
compaction/ earthwork/ hydraulic fills, analysis of walls/ retaining structures, shallow
foundations and deep foundations. This manual includes guidelines for braced excavations,
excavation stabilization, embankment compaction, underwater fills, cofferdams, uplift resistance,
foundation waterproofing and lateral load capacity on deep foundations.
NAVFAC 7.03 - Soil Dynamics and Special Design Aspects. Main topics include soil dynamics,
earthquake engineering and special design aspects. Information pertaining to these topics include
machine foundations, impact loadings, dynamic soil properties, slope stability, bearing capacity,
settlement, vibratory compaction, pile driving analysis and field testing, ground anchor systems,
seismic design parameters, liquefaction, sheet pile walls and laboratory testing.
USACE TM 5-852-4 - Arctic and Subarctic Construction - Foundations for Structures. The
main topics are site investigations, foundation design, construction considerations and
monitoring for structures in cold weather. Includes material considerations, excavation, backfill,
inspection, slope stability, retaining walls, creep and bearing capacity.
USACE TM 5-818-4 - Backfill for Subsurface Structures
USACE EM 1110-2-2906 - Design of Pile Foundations. Note: This publication does not have an
appendix. For link to appendix, click here.
USACE ETL 1110-1-185 - Guidelines on Ground Improvement for Structures and Facilities
USACE TM 5-822-5 - Pavement Design for Roads, Streets, Walks and Open Storage Areas
USACE EM 1110-2-2502 - Retaining and Flood Walls. Note: This publication does not have an
appendix. For link to appendix, click here.
USACE EM 1110-1-2908 - Rock Foundations
USACE TM 5-822-14 - Soil Stabilization for Pavements
USACE TM 5-818-1 - Soils and Geology Procedures for Foundation Design of Buildings and
Other Structures (Except Hydraulic Structures)

References to Compaction, Excavation and Earthwork in other Publications
Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Cold Climate Utilities Manual, Canadian Society for
Civil Engineering, Montreal, 1986. An in-depth publication concerning water facilities. Also has
excellent information pertaining to foundations, roadways, runways, dams, earthwork and soil
properties.
Teng, W.C., Foundation Design, Prentice Hall International,1962.
Johnson, S.M. and Kavanaugh, T.C., The Design of Foundations for Buildings, McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1968.
Peck, R.B., Hanson, W.E., and Thornburn, T.H., Foundation Engineering, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1974.

TECHNICAL GUIDANCE

Detailed specifications and guidance can be found at your local State Department of
Transportation Specifications for Roads and Bridges. Some of these principles may apply to
building structures, retaining walls and slope stability. Most State Departments have a wealth of
information on-line. See calculations for compaction, earthwork and phase diagrams below:

COMPACTION
Example #1: A project requires fill to be compacted to 95% relative density with relation
to the standard Proctor (ASTM D698). Laboratory results for the standard Proctor
indicated that the soil has a maximum dry density of 19.0 kN/m
3
(121 lb/ft
3
), and an
optimum moisture content of 8.9%.
After compaction of the fill soils with a vibratory roller, field testing with a sand cone,
nuclear densiometer, or other appropriate method indicated that the compacted fill soils
have an in-place unit weight of 18.76 kN/m
3
(124.4 lb/ft
3
), and a moisture content of 7.5%.
Calculate the relative compaction, and does the compacted fill exceed project
requirements?

Given

m
= 19.0 kN/m
3
(121 lbs/ft
3
) maximum dry density
m
o
= 8.9% optimum moisture content
= 19.54 kN/m
3
(124.4 lbs/ft
3
) in-situ density
m = 7.5% in-situ moisture content
R
d
= 95% required relative compaction per project specifications

Solution
Verify that compacted fill meets or exceeds compaction requirements,
R
d
> 95%
R
d
= d
m

d
= - (m) dry density of the in-situ soil
100

d
=19.54 kN/m
3
- 19.54 kN/m
3
(7.5%) = 18.07 kN/m
3
metric
100

d
=124.4 lb/ft
3
- 124.4 lb/ft
3
(7.5%) = 115.1 lb/ft
3
standard
100
R
d
= 18.07 kN/m
3
= 95.1% > 95% o.k. metric
19.0 kN/m
3

R
d
= 115.1 lb/ft
3
= 95.1% > 95% o.k. standard
121 lb/ft
3


Conclusion
The compacted fill exceeds project requirements of at least 95% relative density.
*****************************

Example #2: A project requires fill to be compacted to 100% relative density with
relation to the standard Proctor (ASTM D698). The fill has been vigorously compacted to a
relative density of 96.9%. Subsequent compacting does not increase the relative density.
What could be the problem?

Solution
1) Check the moisture content of the compacted fill. Depending on the soil type, an in-situ
moisture content deviating 2% to 4% from the optimum moisture content as determined from the
Proctor test, may create impossible conditions to achieve the required compaction. If this is the
case, scarify soil and add moisture (or let dry), and re-compact at the optimum moisture content.
Sometimes, complete removal and replacement of the soil is necessary.
2) Verify the maximum dry density as determined from the Proctor test still holds true for the
'un-compactible' soils. Sometimes the maximum dry density changes as different soils are
excavated from the borrow pit. If this is the case, use the new maximum dry density value when
determining the relative density.
3) Check compaction methods. Type of equipment used for compaction and the depth of
compacted lifts make a difference in the relative compaction.
4) Check for inadequate compaction in underlying lifts. Sometimes achieving adequate relative
density is impossible when compacting soils on top of loose or unconsolidated soils.
*******************************

EARTHWORK/ COMPACTION/ PHASE DIAGRAM
Example #3: This is in part, a phase diagram problem. A project requires fill to be
compacted to 95% relative density with relation to the standard Proctor (ASTM D698).
Laboratory results for the standard Proctor indicated that the soil has a maximum dry
density of 19.49 kN/m
3
(124 lb/ft
3
), and an optimum moisture content of 9.5%. Borrow soil
from another location that will be used as compacted fill for this project has a moisture
content of 12%, a void ratio of 0.6, and a specific gravity of 2.65.
Assuming that no moisture is lost during transport, what is the volume of borrow required
that is needed for 28.32 m
3
(1000 ft
3
) of compacted fill?

Given

m
= 19.49 kN/m
3
(124 lbs/ft
3
) maximum dry density
m
o
= 8.9% optimum moisture content
e = 0.6 void ratio of borrow soil
G
s
= 2.65 specific gravity of soil
m = 12.0% moisture content of soil
R
d
= 95% required relative compaction per project specifications
V
T
= 28.32 m
3
(1000 ft
3
) total soil volume of required fill

e
= 9.81 kN/m
3
(62.4 lbs/ft
3
) unit weight of water (constant)

Solution
Find dry unit weight,
o
, of soil required for 95% compaction.

o
= Rd
m

100
= 0.95(19.49 kN/m
3
) = 18.52 kN/m
3
metric
= 0.95(124.0 lb/ft
3
) = 117.8 lb/ft
3
standard
Calculate the weight of the soil solids, W
s
, required for 95% compaction. The weight of the soil
solids will be equal for both the fill and borrow material because only volume changes via
compaction.
W
s
=
o
(V
T
) *see notes within conclusion
= 18.52 kN/m
3
(28.32 m
3
) = 524.5 kN metric
= 117.8 lb/ft
3
(1000 ft
3
) = 117,800 lb standard
Determine the volume of soil solids, V
s
, required for 95% compaction.
V
s
= Ws
G
s
(
e
)
= 524.5 kN = 20.18 m
3
metric
2.65(9.81 kN/m
3
)
= 117,800 lb = 712.4 ft
3
standard
2.65(62.4 lb/ft
3
)
Find the volume of voids, V
v
, for the borrow material
V
v
= e (Vs)
= 0.6(20.18 m
3
) = 12.11 m
3
metric
= 0.6(712.4 ft
3
) = 427.4 ft
3
standard
Calculate the total volume, V
T
, of the borrow soil
V
T
= V
v
+ V
s

= 12.11 m
3
+ 20.18 m
3
= 32.3 m
3
metric
= 427.4 ft
3
+ 712.4 ft
3
= 1140 ft
3
standard

Conclusion
The volume of soil required from the borrow pit is 32.3 m
3
(1140 ft
3
). Equations used for this
problem are standard phase diagram relationships shown here. Other phase diagram equations
may be required depending on the situation.


COMPACTION
Below are a few powerpoint presentations that you can download. The original author of these
powerpoints is unknown. The original versions were slightly edited afterwards.
o Review of Compaction Principles powerpoint
o Relative Density powerpoint