3.1.

Clause elements In accordance with the rank scale principle, a clause is made up of one or more clause elements, which are the grammatical functions of the phrases constituting the clause. Kies (papyr.com) proposes a distinction between functional categories and clause functions, and identifies them as follows1:
Functional Categories (1) subject (2) verbal
2

Eight Clause Functions [1] subject [2] verbal [3] direct object [4] indirect object [5] object complement [6] subject complement [7] adverbial complement [8] adverbial

(3) objects (4) complements (5) adverbials

The following abbreviations are commonly used for the clause functions: subject (S), verbal (V), direct object (dO), indirect object (iO), object complement (oC), subject complement (sC), adverbial complement (aC) and adverbial (A). The first two elements, the subject and the verbal, have central functions in the clause, while the rest have peripheral functions. The distinction is similar in Romanian, where we talk about parts of sentence with syntactic functions. Subiectul and predicatul are the main parts of the sentence, and the rest are secondary parts. Examples for each type are provided below. 1. subject (S): The student was reading a poem. 2. verbal (V): The student was reading a poem. 3. object (O): 3.1. direct object (dO): The student was reading a poem. 3.2. indirect object (iO): The student was reading a poem to her. 4. complement (C): 4.1. subject complement/ subject predicative (sC/ sP): It was beautiful. / He became a student.; 4.2. object complement/ object predicative (oC/ oP): She found it beautiful. / They made it a symbol of their love. 5. adverbial (A): The student was reading a poem in his room. At this point it might be useful to look at the correspondences that can be identified between the English and the Romanian clause functions. English Clause element/ function subject -3
1 2

Romanian Funcie sintactic/Parte de propoziie subiect atribut

Examples will be provided and discussed further on. Although most grammars use the term verb, this course has adopted the term verbal proposed by Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson in Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition), because it avoids confusion between verb as word class and as function. 3 Although there are English grammars that use the term attribute, this constituent is only rarely assigned a function in syntax that is similar to that in Romanian. The terms subject attribute (for subject complement) and object attribute (for object complement) may serve as examples of differences in terminology and assignation. In order to avoid a possible source of confusion for the Romanian student, the approach taken by this course will not list the attribute among the elements of the clause.

verbal direct object indirect object subject complement object complement adverbial

predicat complement direct complement indirect nume predicative element predicativ suplimentar complement circumstanial

By seeing the elements in both languages side by side, the similarities and the differences between them become more obvious, and such awareness can be very useful in the process of grammatical analysis. Further comments and examples will be provided below. 3.2. The Subject 3.2.1. Definition and properties The subject is the element of a clause or, in other words, the syntactic function - normally positioned before the verb phrase and consisting of a noun phrase. Thus, in The old man is climbing the ladder and Recently they have won the elections, the old man and they are the subjects, preceding the verbals is climbing and have won. Unlike in Romanian, where the subject can be omitted quite frequently, in English it must be present in affirmative, negative and interrogative clauses. In both languages, it is not required in the imperative and in sequences of two or more conjoined clauses which have the same subject (except in the first clause, where the subject must appear). In Romanian and in English, subjects influence certain grammatical choices within the clause. Thus, subject verbal agreement, as well as (where relevant) person, number, case, and gender agreement of several other elements within the clause are governed by the subject. As for its definition, Kies (Kies n.d.) objects to traditional semantic definitions of the subject, by referring to it as what the sentence is about or as the topic of the sentence or as the actor performing the action described by the verb, and considers them grammatically misleading, because such definitions blend different ideas that are best understood if kept apart. He prefers to define the subject by the properties that can be used to identify it within a clause: form, position, agreement, pronouns, and voice. Actually, much of the discussion of the clause elements will be tailored on Kies approach (Kies n.d.) for reasons related to conciseness and clarity.
property form position property description The subject usually consists of a noun phrase or clause. The subject is usually positioned before the verb in the indicative mood, after the operator in interrogative structures, and absent, but implied, in the imperative mood. example |Her claim| proves nothing. |That she claims her innocence| proves nothing. |The old man| is climbing the ladder. [indicative mood] Is |the old man| climbing the ladder? [interrogative] Climb |the ladder|! [imperative mood] Notice: In questions where who, what or an Who (S) let (V) the dogs out? interrogative phrase such as which person is the subject, the subject comes before the Verb. 1. Subjects usually determine the number (sg. or pl.) |The old man| is climbing| the ladder|. [sg., 3rd and person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) of other elements in the person] clause. The subject determines the number and |The old men |are climbing |the ladder. [pl., 3rd person, where relevant, of the verb in finite clauses. person] 2. The subject determines the number and person, |The old man| is |my grand-father| (sC). [sg., 3rd where relevant, of any noun phrase functioning as person] the subject complement. |The old men| are |my uncles| (sC). [pl., 3rd person] 3. The subject determines the number, person, and |He| could get in and out of the rented hospital bed

agreement

pronouns

voice

gender, where relevant, of 'reflexive' pronouns in our living room, half sliding, half pulling pronouns ending with the -self or -selves inflections. himself into it like a large, damaged animal seeking shelter []. (thesunmagazine. org) [sg., 3rd person, masc.] |They| could get in and out of the rented hospital bed [] pulling themselves []. [pl., 3rd person, masc./ fem.] 4. The subject determines the number, person, and In the colonies, when |a gentleman| sounds his gender, where relevant, of the emphatic pronoun own trumpet he 'blows.' [sg., 3rd person, masc.] own in structures such as my own or their own. (www. phrases.org.uk) In the colonies, when |gentlemen |sound their own trumpets they 'blow.' [pl., 3rd person, masc./fem.] The subject determines the case, where relevant, of |They| got in just under the wire. any pronoun in subject function; that is, the subject (www.phrases.org. uk) function requires the subjective/nominative form of the pronoun. There is a systematic relationship between the |Immediately| I (S)| airbrushed away| a persistent subject of a clause and voice (active or passive). The thought|. [active voice] (thesun magazine.org) active voice subject corresponds to an adverbial |A persistent thought (S)| was airbrushed away| by (beginning with the preposition by) in the passive me (A)|. [passive voice]. voice. Notice: We can omit the subject of the active |A persistent thought (S)| was airbrushed away|. sentence when we form the passive sentence, and indeed we generally do so. The agent is omitted whenever the doer carrying it out is either unknown or unimportant to the context.

Downing and Locke provide a clear and easy criterion to identify the subject: The subject is that element which is picked up in a question tag [] and referred to anaphorically by a pronoun: Your brother is a ski instructor, isnt he?, Susie wont mind waiting a moment, will she?(2006, 43) It would be useful now to look at the table above from the viewpoint of the Romanian grammar, in order to identify the similarities and the differences between the criteria used for the identification of the subject in the two languages. For reasons of clarity and comprehensibility, I will retain the examples above and translate them into Romanian; where necessary, I will provide additional ones. property form property description example 1. The subject in Romanian usually consists of a |Afirmaia| ei nu dovedete nimic. noun/fixed nominal expression4, a pronoun, a verb/ fixed verbal expression5 in the infinitive, supine or gerund, a numeral, or an interjection. Notice that in the example the subject consists only in the noun afirmaia6 (while in English the subject consisted in the whole NP her claim).

4 5

locuiune substantival locuiune verbal 6 ei este atribut. Atributul este definit ca partea secundar de propoziie care determin un substantiv sau un substitut al acestuia (pronume, numeral sau adjectiv substantivizat) pe care l precizeaz, l identific sau l calific indicnd o caracteristic sau o calitate a acestuia. Rspunde la ntrebrile: care?, ce fel de?, al/a/ai/ale cui?, ci?, cte? (ro.wikipedia.org).

position

agreement

2. Unlike in English, in Romanian the subject can be elided7 in two situations: a. when it was already expressed in a previous clause/ sentence8 and b. when it can be inferred from the verb desinence9. 3. The subject cannot consist of a clause in Romanian. The subject is usually positioned before the verb in the indicative mood, after the verb in interrogative wh-structures, and absent, but implied, in the imperative mood. 1. Subjects usually determine the number (sg. or pl.) and person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) of other elements in the clause. The subject determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb in finite clauses. 2. The subject determines the number, gender and person, where relevant, of any noun phrase functioning as nume predicativ.

a. Btrnul urc scara i fredoneaz un cntec. b. Urc ncet scara abrupt. [C i afirm nevinovia] nu dovedete nimic. Btrnul urc scara. [indicative mood] Ce urc btrnul? [interrogative] Urc scara! [imperative mood] Btrnul urc scara. [sg., 3rd person] Btrnii urc scara. [pl., 3rd person]

pronouns

voice

Btrnul este bunicul meu. (nume predicativ). [sg., 3rd person] Btrnii sunt unchii mei. (nume predicativ). [pl., 3rd person] 3. The subject determines the number, person, and Btrnul se pregtete s urce scara. [sg./pl., gender, where relevant, of 'reflexive' pronouns. 3rd person, masc./ fem.] i-ai pregtit plecarea cu grij. [sg., 2nd person] The subject determines the number, person, and Btrnul nsui se pregtete s urce scara. gender, where relevant, of the emphatic pronoun10 . [sg., 3rd person, masc.] i-ai pregtit tu nsui plecarea cu grij. [sg., 2nd person, masc.] The subject determines the case, where relevant, of Voi ai ntrziat, nu el. any pronoun in subject function; that is, the subject function requires the subjective/ nominative form of the pronoun. There is a systematic relationship between the El (S) ndeprt un gnd enervat. [active subject of a clause and voice (active or passive). voice] The active voice subject corresponds to the Un gnd enervant (S) fu indeprtat de el. complement de agent (beginning with the (complement de agent). [passive voice]. preposition de ctre) in the passive voice. Notice: We can omit the subject of the active Un gnd enervant (S) fu ndeprtat de el. sentence when we form the passive sentence, and (complement de agent). [passive voice]. indeed we generally do so. The agent is omitted whenever the doer carrying it out is either unknown or unimportant to the context.

Downing and Locke (2006, 44-48) identify the various classes of phrases and clauses Subjects can consist of. Thus, the subject is realised by: 1. noun phrases, the most prototypical realisation of the subject, as they refer to persons and things. NPs can consist of the head only, as in the first two examples below, or of extended structures, as in the third11 (also
7 8

neexprimat subiectul subneles 9 subiectul inclus 10 Pronumele de ntrire, care este folosit n romna actual doar ca adjectiv pronominal pe lng un pronume sau substantiv. 11 I use here Downing and Lockes examples.

see 4.3.). It is alarming. Cocaine can damage the heart as well as the brain. The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known. 2. dummy it, which is a non-referential/semantically empty use of the pronoun it, which occurs in expressions of time, weather and distance. Its nearly three oclock. Its raining. It is six hundred kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona. There is no plural concord between the NP complement and the verb, unlike in their Romanian counterparts. The last example above would become Sunt ase sute de kilometri de la Madrid la Barcelona. 3. unstressed there fulfils several of the syntactic criteria for subject (position, inversion with auxiliaries and repetition in tag phrases) but, unlike normal subjects, it cannot be replaced by a pronoun. Concord, when made, is with the following NP. There was only one fine day last week, wasnt there? There were only two fine days last week, werent there? Notice that concord with the following NP is made in writing, but not always in informal speech with the present tense of be, and is never made when the NP is a series of proper names: How many are coming? Well, theres Andrew and Silvia, and Jo and Pete. There are Andrew and Silvia and Jo and Pete. Because of the lack of concord and pronominalisation, unstressed there can be considered as a subject placeholder or syntactic filler, rather than a full subject. 4. prepositional phrase and adverbial phrase, which function only marginally as subject and usually specify meanings of time or place. However, instrumental meanings and idiomatic manner uses can also occur. Will up in the front suit you? (PP of place) Before midday would be convenient. (PP of time) By plane costs more than by train. (PP of means) Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic. (AdvP of place) Slowly/gently does it! (AdvP of manner) 5. the head of an adjective phrase12 preceded by the definite article the, which represents either (a) conventionally recognised classes of people, as in The handicapped are given special facilities in public places, or (b) abstractions, as in This novel plunges the reader into a universe in which the comic, the tragic, the real and the imagined dissolve into one another. 6. Embedded clauses. As Downing and Locke note, clauses can realise every element or function of clause structure except the verbal. [...] Both finite and non-finite clauses are available for embedding but not every clause function is realised by all types of clause. (Downing and Locke 2006, 46) They are illustrated in the following examples, where they all realise the subject element the two main types
12

Only certain adjectives can fulfil this position.

of embedded finite clause (A): a) that-clauses and b) wh-clauses, the latter being either indirect interrogative clauses or nominal relative clauses. That he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (that-clause) Why the library was closed for months was not explained. (wh-interrogative) What he said shocked me. (wh-nominal relative clause) a) that-clauses at subject are used only in formal styles; in everyday use they are preceded by the fact. The that-clause thus becomes part a NP functioning as subject: The fact that he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (NP) the subject that-clause is frequently extraposed, as in It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test. b) wh-interrogative clauses express indirect questions. They do not take the inversion characteristic of ordinary interrogatives. Why was the library closed for months was not explained is not acceptable. nominal relative clauses also have a wh-element, but they express entities and can be paraphrased by that which or the thing(s) which: What he said pleased me = that which/the things which he said pleased me. (B) Non-finite clauses at subject are of two main types, depending on the VP they contain: a) to-infinitive, which can be introduced by a wh-word, and b) -ing clauses. Bare infinitive clauses are very rarely used (4th example). To take such a risk was rather foolish. (to-inf. clause) Where to leave the dog is the problem. (wh- + to-inf. clause) Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (-ing clause) Move the car was what we did. (bare infinitive clause) Unlike bare infinitive clauses, to-infinitive and -ing clauses at subject can have their own subject. A toinfinitive clause with its own subject is introduced by for: For everyone to escape was impossible. (For + S + to-inf.) Sam having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (S + ing-cl.) The pronominal subject of an -ing clause can be in the genitive or the accusative case. The accusative form is the less formal: Him/his having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. 7. Anticipatory it + extraposed13 subject Downng and Locke note that subjects such as that he failed to pass the driving test and for everyone to escape sound awkward and top-heavy, especially in spoken English. The derived structure with anticipatory it is now generally preferred, as it is much easier to encode and the pronoun it is the lightest possible subject filler (Downing and Locke 2006, 47) It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test. It was impossible for everyone to escape. Both the that-clause and the to-infinitive clause are extraposed, that is, placed after the dO (everybody) or sC (impossible). The initial subject position is filled by the pronoun it.
13

extraposition = a construction/ transformation in which a clause that acts as a subject is moved (or extraposed) to the end of the sentence and replaced by dummy it in the initial position. In certain cases extraposition of a modifying clause is prohibited. In other cases, with a small set of verbs (including appear, happen, and seem), extraposition is obligatory. (grammar.about.com)

Extraposition is used in both speech and writing when the subject is long and is better placed at the end of the sentence. Extraposed subjects frequently occur as postmodifiers of a noun or adjective in SVsC structures: Its a pity (that) you are leaving the firm. (That you are leaving the firm is a pity) Its easy to forget your keys. (To forget your keys is easy) 3.3.2. The meanings of the subject14 Though the clause elements are grammatical, not semantic categories, they are however associated with certain meanings. 1. In sentences with a transitive or intransitive verb, the subject typically has an agentive role (it denotes the person that performs the action). The old man climbed the ladder. 2. The identified role of the subject is typical of structures with a linking verb (usually with a sC consisting of a NP15). Jane is the new manager. 3. The characterized role is also typical of structures with a linking verb (usually with a sC consisting of an AdjP). The girls were happy. 4. With intransitive verbs, the subject frequently has the affected role; it stands for the person or thing directly affected by the action, but not intentionally performing it. They were dying. 5. Whenever there is no participant, it takes the function of the subject. Its raining. 3.3. The Verbal 3.3.1. Definition and properties The function of verbal is the least ambiguous in English grammar since only one category (the verb phrase) realises this function (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.). The verbal is defined at clause level as the central element, consisting, unlike the Predicate, exclusively of verb words16. It would be useful to note here that it closely corresponds to the Romanian predicat verbal and to the verbal part of predicatul nominal. However, unlike in Romanian, the verbal function is realised in English by both finite (e.g. calls) and nonfinite (calling) lexical and primary verbs. A verbal may consist of one word (read) or more than one verb words (might be calling). This is also true about the Romanian predicat which may consist of simple or compound forms such as citesc and am citit or a fi citit, respectively. In both Romanian and English, auxiliaries precede the main verb. Like the subject, the verbal is recognizable by a combination of the following formal and functional properties.
14

The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 15 The level of phrases will be discussed in the next section. Until then note the following abbreviations: noun phrase NP, verb phrase VP, adjective phrase AdjP, adverb phrase AdvP, prepositional phrase PpP. 16 Some grammarians include in the verbal all the elements following it, such as the object and the adverbial, so in this view, the verbal becomes an equivalent of the predicate, but this book has adopted the first definition.

property form position

property description The verbal is composed of a main verb with or without auxiliaries.

example The man climbs the ladder every day.

The man is climbing the ladder. The verbal usually occurs after the subject in the indicative The old man is climbing the ladder. mood, around the subject in questions, and at the beginning of [indicative mood] the clause in the imperative mood. Is the old man climbing the ladder? [interrogative] Climb the ladder! [imperative mood] The verb corresponds in number (sg. or pl.) with the subject in The old man is climbing the ladder. [sg., 3rd finite clauses. person] The verb of a finite clause is marked for tense (present or past). The man climbs the ladder every day. [present] The man climbed the ladder every day. [past]

agreement tense

modality aspect

The verb can be marked as predicating something other than The man might climb the ladder every day. simple fact (modal). The verb can be marked as completing or continuing the The man has climbed the ladder process indicated by the main verb (perfect and/or recently.[perfect] progressive). The man was climbing the ladder. [progressive] The man has been climbing the ladder. [perfect and progressive]

voice

The verb is marked for voice (active or passive).

Immediately I airbrushed away a persistent thought. [active voice] (thesunmagazine.org) A persistent thought was airbrushed away by me. [passive voice].

According to Geoffrey Leech (2006: 121-2), the verbal involves five principal choices. The first choice, of tense, is between present and past tense, and involves choosing the appropriate form of the finite verb, e.g., am/is/are ~ was/were; has/have ~ had; write(s) ~ wrote. The remaining four choices are whether to use twoverb constructions, whether alone or in combination. They are: modal construction: perfect construction: progressive construction: passive construction: modal auxiliary+infinitive have+past participle be+-ing participle be+past participle must eat has eaten is eating is eaten

These constructions can be combined in the order stated:

modal+perfect modal+progressive modal+passive perfect+progressive perfect+passive progressive+passive modal auxiliary+have+past participle modal auxiliary+be+ing modal auxiliary+be+past participle have+been+past participle have+been+past participle be+-ing+past participle must have eaten must be eating must be eaten has been eating has been eaten is being eaten

A further combination, namely of three constructions, is also possible, though rare.

modal+perfect+ progressive: modal auxiliary+have+been+-ing must have been eating

modal+perfect+ passive modal+progressive+ passive: perfect+progressive+ passive:

modal auxiliary+have+been+past participle modal auxiliary+be+being+past participle have+been+being+past participle

must have been eaten must be being eaten has been being eaten

(Leech 2006: 121-2) 3.3.2. The meanings of the verbal17 The main distinction is between the meanings of stative and dynamic verbs. 1. Stative verbs introduce a quality attributed to the subject or a state of affairs. She is a member of the board. He has two cousins in London. 2. Dynamic verbs introduce events (actions, activities, processes, etc.) as opposed to states. They refer to something that happens. They work hard all day. 3. Dynamic verbs can normally occur in the progressive form. They were listening to her. 4. When stative verbs occur in the progressive form, they change their meaning and become dynamic verbs. She is seeing him in an hour. (that is, they will meet in an hour.) 3.4. The Direct Object 3.4.1. Definition and properties The direct object is the element of the clause which normally follows the main verb, and corresponds to the subject of a passive clause. Compare: But the surgeon had smashed the idea of privacy in the hospital. - the idea of privacy is the object. But the idea of privacy had been smashed in the hospital []. (thesunmagazine.org) - the idea of privacy is subject of the passive. There is a close similarity between the direct object in English and the Romanian complement direct, as well as between the indirect object and the complement indirect. Their functions are analogous in the two languages and similar steps are taken in the course of the grammatical analysis for identifying them. Nevertheless, you should note that, from a grammatical viewpoint, the terms complement (English) and complement (Romanian) are false friends. The direct object is also identifiable by its formal and functional properties. property form property description example The direct object usually has the form of a noun phrase or clause. The man is climbing the ladder. [NP] At the time she thought [that hed had the flu]. (the sunmag azine.org) [nominal-Cl18] Direct objects usually occur after the subject and verb, as in the examples above.

position

17

The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 18 Cl will thereafter be used as an abbreviation for clause.

pronouns If the subject and the direct object of a clause refer to the same entity, then the direct object will be in the form of a reflexive pronoun. The reflexive pronoun will agree with the subject in number, person, and gender, where relevant. All other pronouns assuming the object function will take the objective/accusative form (me, him, her, us, them not I, she, we, they). There is also a systematic relationship between the direct object of voice an active voice clause and the subject of a passive voice clause. The object of the active voice clause corresponds to the subject in the passive voice equivalent.

You (S) should see yourself (dO)!

Bob loves her.

Immediately I airbrushed away a persistent thought. (thesunmagazine.org) [active voice] A persistent thought was airbrushed away by me. [passive voice].

Because the identification of the direct object can pose problems, I find it useful to resort to an adaptation of Downing and Lockes enumeration of the main forms (they call them realisations) illustrated with the original examples (2006: 51-2). Thus, a direct object may consist of: 1. a noun phrase. As in the case of the subject, the NP can range from a pronoun or proper name (a) to longer and more complex NPs as in (b), or even to clauses (c). a. I dont understand it. b. Forest fires are threatening the worlds remaining population of orangutangs. c. Have you read that new novel I lent you? 2. the semantically empty pronoun it - necessary as an anticipatory direct object in SVOC structures in which the direct object is realised by a finite or non-finite clause. S I She You V find might consider must find (dO) it it it oC strange insulting flattering Do that he refuses to come. for you to leave now. having so many fans.

3. prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realise direct object. I would prefer before noon for a meeting. Dont choose by a swamp for a picnic. 4. finite clauses: nominal that-clauses19 and wh-clauses They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-clause) No-one knows where he lives. (wh-clause) You can eat whatever you like. (wh-nominal clause) Both that-clauses and wh-clauses functioning as direct objects can sometimes become subject in a passive clause and then be extraposed: It is feared that there may be no survivors. (extraposed cl.) It is not known where he lives. (extraposed cl.) However, passivisation is not a unique criterion for assigning object status. A more reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase; it can be applied to the following example, which rejects passivisation but fulfils the wh-cleft test: I wonder whether they know the truth.
19

that is often omitted in informal styles.

Whether they know the truth is wondered. What I wonder is whether they know the truth. 5. non-finite clauses: infinitive clauses with or without to and -ing clauses. Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. Many Londoners prefer travelling by train. Notice that the non-finite clause can be replaced by a NP (prefer the train) or by it/that (prefer it). Also note that the non-finite clause can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence (What many Londoners prefer is to travel/ travelling by train).

By using the criteria above, an analogous table can be compiled for the direct object in Romanian. For reasons of clarity and comprehensibility, where possible, I will retain the original examples in the English table and translate them into Romanian. Where necessary, I will provide additional ones. Property Property description The direct object in Romanian usually consists of a Form noun/fixed nominal expression, a pronoun, a verb/ fixed verbal expression in the infinitive, supine or gerund, a numeral, or an interjection. Notice that, in the example, the direct object consists only in the noun scara (while in English the direct object would consist in the whole NP the high ladder). Also note that the non-finite verbs (the infinitive, supine and gerund) can also take direct objects. The direct object cannot consist of a clause in Romanian Position Direct objects usually occur after the subject and verb, as in the examples. Nevertheless, due to a freer word order in Romanian, in combination with the preposition pe, the direct object can precede both the verbal and the subject. Pronouns The direct object is reiterated in the weak forms of the pronoun in the accusative. [-o in the example above] when the direct object precedes the verb. When the direct object follows the verb, it is anticipated by pronouns. Such pronouns will agree with the object in number, person, and gender, where relevant20. All pronouns assuming the object function will take the objective/accusative form. There is also a systematic relationship between the direct Voice object of an active voice clause and the subject of a passive voice clause. The object of the active voice clause corresponds to the subject in the passive voice equivalent. Example Brbatul urc scara nalt. [NP] A asculta tcerea e o art. [NP] A asculta cum tace muntele e o art. [NP]

Pe fat nimeni n-o cunotea. [NP]

Nimeni n-o cunotea pe fat. Pe fat nimeni n-o cunotea.

M-a sunat pe mine nti. M-a sunat pe mine nti. Eu am fost sunat nti. [passive voice].

In both English and Romanian grammars, in terms of meaning, the direct/indirect object is often identified with the person, thing, etc. that is directly/indirectly affected by the action described by the verb. Put differently, while the subject typically represents the doer, the object typically represents the doee.

20

Pe fat i -o formeaz un complement direct simplu dublat fie prin anticipare, fie prin rel uare.

3.4.2. The meanings of the direct object21 1. affected (the typical role of the dO) She waved her hand. 2. resultant (the dO may refer to something that is a result of the action) Hes written a novel. 3. eventive (the dO may refer to an event) The eventive object generally contains a noun derived from a verb. We were having a fight. (cf: We were fighting.) 3.4.3. Transitive and intransitive verbs. Direct, indirect and prepositional objects As a main verb, a transitive verb requires a direct object to complete the clause. In the two examples below, the subject of the sentence performs an action that directly affects the person or thing identified as the direct object (dO). New Self, New World explores the implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains. (thesunmagazine.org) Any pressure on the wound can compromise the blood supply. (thesunmagazine.org) In other words, when used transitively, verbs always occur in SVO patterns22. Notice that all transitive verbs are action verbs. Much like in Romanian, in English the direct object can be found by asking the question << Subject + verbal + what/whom? >>. For example, to identify the direct object in the first example above, we use the question <<New Self, New World explores what? >>. The direct object is thus the noun phrase the implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains, and explore is a transitive verb. The direct action of the verb on the direct object is not always obvious. Downing and Locke point to a small category of verbs that take untypical direct objects. They include verbs such as have (They have two cars), cost (It cost ten pounds), lack (She lacks confidence), resemble (She resembles her elder sister), fit (Do these shoes fit you?), suit (That colour doesnt suit me), weigh (The suitcase weighs twenty kilos), contain (That box contains explosives) and measure (It measures two metres by three.) All these answer questions with What? Who? How much/how many?, as is usual with Ods23. These verbs dont passivise, but their Ods pass the whcleft test: What she lacks is confidence. (Downing and Locke 2006, 51) Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. Thus, when applied to the sentence Born in 1953, he grew up in a suburb of Toronto, Canada, on the fringe of wilderness and farmers fields (thesunmagazine.org), the question << Subject + verbal + what/whom? >> does not identify any direct object. This makes us label grew up as an intransitive verb. Nevertheless, depending on the context in which a particular verb is used, the same verb can be recognized as either transitive or intransitive. transitive intransitive eat You can also end up eating more than you would have done if you'd served up your own portions. (http://www.nhs.uk) If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make choices to ensure that your meal is healthy and balanced. (http://www.nhs.uk) start

21

The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 22 Verb/clause patterns will be discussed further on. 23 Downing and Locke use the abbreviation Od for direct object.

transitive intransitive

More recently these organizations have started receiving corporate support. (thesunmagazine.org) Your book starts close to home with the story of Yosemite National Park. (thesunmagazine.org)

The same Downing & Locke argue that we should talk about transitive or intransitive uses of certain verbs, as a great many verbs can be used in English both transitively and intransitively [...]. Land is transitive in The pilot landed the plane safely, but intransitive in The plane landed. Carry is transitive in They carried backpacks, but it has an intransitive use in His voice carries well (= projects) (2006, 37). In Romanian, transitivity is defined as the capacity of a verb to govern a direct object. According to this feature, verbs are divided into a) transitive verbs (= have or can have a direct object) and b) intransitive verbs (= do not have and cannot have a direct object). One observation can be especially useful for this discussion, because it goes in line with Downing and Lockes suggestion above: the transitive verbs with no direct object present24 (= with their transitivity valency free) are called tranzitive absolute/ folosite absolut, as in Am mncat la ora opt. (Neamu 1989, 171). To further highlight the similarities between the approaches to transitivity in the two languages, it can be useful to translate the examples for eat in the table above into Romanian, and thus to see the comparable behaviour of the verbs with regard to transitivity. mnca Poi, de altfel, s sfreti prin a mnca mai mult dect ai fi mncat... transitive intransitive Dac mnnci la un restaurant sau bufet, poi s alegi .... As I have already pointed out, the valency of the verb decides how many clause elements need to be present to form a complete clause. In the two examples above, as well as in their English counterparts, mnca and eat used transitively have a valency of 2 in Poi, de altfel, s sfreti prin a mnca mai mult dect ai fi mncat.../You can also end up eating more than you would have done... Mnca and eat used intransitively have a valency of 2 in Dac mnnci la un restaurant sau bufet, poi s alegi ..../If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make choices ... However, if a verb that can be used transitively is used intransitively, then we can say that its valency is reduced to 1, because in English finite clauses normally require a subject (also see 3.2. and 3.9.). Depending on their valency, transitive verbs fall into three classes: 1. monotransitive verbs have only one object, a direct object, as in She knows you. and He hurt himself. 2. ditransitive verbs have two objects. There are two main patterns for ditransitive verbs: a. direct object preceded by indirect object (SViOdO) and b. direct object followed by prepositional object (SVdOppO). a. The basic ditransitive pattern contains verbs of transfer (give, lend) and intended transfer (buy, get), as in I gave her a present and I got her a present. Downing and Locke argue that three-place verbs like give have a subject and two Objects, representing the transfer of goods or information from one person to another. They also include speech act verbs such as offer and promise (2006, 92). Other verbs in the give category are: hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, send, show, teach, throw, write. The get category includes: book, bring, build, buy, cash, cut, fetch, find, leave, spare, keep, make, pour, save. The same authors illustrate the existence of a prepositional counterpart for the indirect object, the give type with to, the get type with for (I gave a present to her. I got/bought a present for her). In the examples, the PP functions as a prepositional/oblique object, defined by Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson as a clause element with a semantic role characteristic of an object (affected, effected or beneficiary), but realized by a prepositional phrase. An oblique object may occur in the same
24

Al cror complement direct nu este exprimat.

clause as a direct object. An oblique object may be a variation on an indirect object, as in I gave some flowers to my neighbours. (Cf. I gave my neighbours some flowers). Alternatively, an oblique object may be a element which might have been expressed as a direct object, but which has lost that status in competition with another phrase, as in He stuffed his mouth with peanuts. (Cf. He stuffed peanuts into his mouth.) [...] Objects of prepositional verbs are analysed as direct objects, and prepositional phrases with meanings similar to direct or indirect objects are analysed as adjunct adverbials. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.) In simpler terms, three object types are generally acknowledged in mainstream English grammars: direct objects, indirect objects, and prepositional/oblique objects, all illustrated in the following table. type direct object (dO) indirect object (iO) prepositional/oblique object (ppO/oO) description example entity acted upon I gave her a present. entity indirectly affected by the action I gave her a present/I gave a present to her. object introduced by a preposition I was looking for a present for her.

Notice that there are iOs that consist of a prepositional phrase, just like the ppO/oO. The difference is that an indirect object cannot occur without a dO, while a ppO/oO can. Downing and Locke (2006, 93) also point to the existence of two passives with the give type: Active: Passive 1: Passive 2: I gave Jo a copy. Jo was given a copy. A copy was given to Jo. ? A copy was given Jo.25 (Oi in active clause S in passive clause) (Od in active clause S in passive clause)

In Romanian, ditransitive verbs26 have two direct objects. According to Neamu (1989, 177), only few verbs fall into this category: a asculta, a ntreba, a examina, a nva, a ruga, a trece, a sftui. Pe Ion (dO) l-a nvat gramatic (dO) 27 Pe Ionescu (dO) l-am ascultat lecia (dO). The structure with two direct objects is quite rare in Romanian, and the second direct object is usually replaced by an indirect object or by another complement or adverbial, as in M- (dO) a ntrebat despre atribut (iO). However, the structure with direct object and completiv direct (that replaces the second direct object) is quite common, L-am rugat s-mi mprumute pixul. 3. complex transitive verbs have a direct object and an object complement (see 3.6.). They painted the table white. They elected her president. In both English and Romanian, the large majority of verbs may be used transitively as well as intransitively, often with the same meaning. Downing and Locke identify the following types: 1 Verbs with an implied Object, such as smoke (cigarettes), drive (a car), park (a car),drink (alcohol), save (money), wave (ones hand), as in Do you smoke? and He doesnt drive. The authors comment on the valency of such verbs:
25 26

Downing and Locke use ? to indicate divided acceptability. They are called verbe bitranzitive or dublu tranzitive. 27 According to Neamu, pe Ion = complement direct al persoanei, reluat prin pronumele personal l-; lecia = complement direct al obiectului, nedublabil.

Such intransitive uses can be considered as instances of valency reduction, that is the normal valency of two of these verbs is reduced to one. As these reductions are based on cultural schemas and tend to have an implication of habituality, they are not extended to other object referents such as wave a flag, drink milk. With certain verbs such as read, write, eat and teach the deleted direct object is not specific, and is perhaps unknown, as in He teaches and she writes. (Downing and Locke 2006, 91) 2 Causatives with an intransitive counterpart, constituting an ergative pair SVdO He opened the door. She clicked the camera. SV The door opened. The camera clicked.

Neamu (1989, 173) describes similar pairs in Romanian: tranzitiv Mi-l amintesc pe Ion. intranzitiv mi amintesc de Ion.

3 Verbs with a reflexive meaning: He shaved (himself), She dressed (herself). 4 Verbs with a reciprocal meaning: Tom and Jo met at a concert. (met each other) There are some verbs that are always intransitive. They are grouped by Downing and Locke (2006, 85) in verbs of behaviour which is typically involuntary or semi-voluntary: laugh, smile, cry, blink, blush, cough, sneeze, sigh, tremble, yawn; wait, stay; die, collapse, faint, fall. verbs of weather: rain, snow verbs of occurrence: appear, disappear, go, come, arrive, depart, vanish, fade, happen.

They all laughed, someone yawned, one soldier fainted. Its raining. Its snowing. The sun rose. Has everyone arrived? Hopes of avoiding war are now fading. idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs where there is no verb of the same meaning.

3.5. The Indirect Object 3.5.1. Definition and properties A clause may have an indirect object, in addition to a direct object. The indirect object (iO) refers to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence. The person generally receives something or benefits from something28. The following example can be used to illustrate that the indirect object will fill the function of the direct object if the latter is omitted, and that such an omission changes the meaning of the whole clause. In Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal, his girlfriend is the indirect object (representing the person who benefits from the action) and a meal is the direct object. If a meal is omitted, his girlfriend no longer benefits from the subjects action and becomes the part that is directly affected, with Bob at the same time becoming a cannibal! Formal and functional criteria can be applied to identify the indirect object.
28

In Romanian, the indirect object is defined very similarly.

Property Form

Property Description Although both objects usually occur either as noun phrases or as clauses in form, the indirect object is restricted to the relative clause form. The indirect object can occur only when the direct object is also represented in the clause. The indirect object occurs only between the verb and the direct object.

Position

For a different position, the indirect object must be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial, beginning with either to or for. The choice of the preposition is governed by the main verb of the clause. The indirect object can be omitted without affecting the semantic relationships of the remaining elements of the clause. Pronouns If the subject and the indirect object of a clause refer to the same entity, then the indirect object will be in the form of a reflexive pronoun. The reflexive pronoun will agree with the subject in number, person, and gender, where relevant. All other pronouns assuming object function will take the objective form (me, him, her, us, them not I, she, we, they) There is also a systematic relationship between the indirect Voice object of an active voice clause and the subject of a passive voice clause. The indirect object of the active voice clause may become the subject in the passive voice equivalent. If the direct object becomes the subject, the indirect object (if retained) generally consists of a prepositional phrase introduced by to or for:

Example Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal. [NP] I sent whoever wants it copies of a receipt. [relative-Cl] Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO) a meal (dO). *Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO). Bob is cooking his girlfriend (iO) a meal (dO). *Bob is cooking a meal (dO) his girlfriend (iO). Bob is cooking a meal (dO) for his girlfriend (iO).

Bob is cooking a meal (dO). Bob (S) is cooking himself (iO) a meal.

Bob (S) is cooking her (iO) a meal. The board offered Jane (iO) a scholarship. [active voice] Jane (S) was offered a scholarship.[passive voice] A scholarship was offered to Jane (iO). [passive voice]

Notice that the indirect object consisting of a prepositional phrase normally comes after the direct object; consequently, there are two possible variants of a SVOO clause, I will give Jane my umbrella. (SViOdO) and I will give my umbrella to Jane. (SVdOiO). The two structures differ to some extent in their use, because of the general tendency for the more important information to come at the end. For example, if Jane has already been mentioned, but not the umbrella, we would expect the first to be used rather than the second, though in speech the focus can be indicated by giving it prominence in the intonation pattern. In line with Kies, Downing and Locke (2006, 56) identify the following realisations of the indirect object and illustrate them with examples: a. typically, NPs (see examples in the table above) b. less typically, wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional alternative: You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (recipient as nominal relative Cl.) Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (beneficiary as NP) c. marginally, a non-finite -ing clause or a PP. These options are only open to a recipient iO. Im giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl) Lets give before lunch-time priority. (PpP)

3.5.2. The meanings of the indirect object Greenbaum and Nelson identify the recipient role of the indirect object, as the entity that is indirectly affected by the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive something, or benefiting in some way (2002, 36) Bob was cooking her a meal. Downing and Locke (2006, 55) distinguish between two different meanings (they call them semantic roles): recipient (the one who receives the goods or information), and beneficiary (intended recipient) and argue that the differences between them are reflected in the syntax. The authors propose the following examples: Recipient Oi She has lent me a few CDs. The doctor gave the injured man oxygen. Sammy Karanja is teaching the students maths Beneficiary Oi Ill buy you a drink. He got us the tickets. She left him a note.

Thus, in passive counterparts iO as recipient corresponds to the subject, while most beneficiary iOs do not easily become subject in a passive clause, although this restriction is not absolute. Recipient as Subject I have been lent a few CDs. The injured man was given oxygen. The students are being taught maths by Sammy Karanja. Beneficiary as Subject Youll be bought a drink. We were got the tickets. He was left a note.

With both its recipient and beneficiary roles, direct objects have an optional prepositional paraphrase, which functions as a prepositional/ oblique object. For the recipient, the preposition is to, for the beneficiary it is for. (see 3.4.2.) 3.5.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects
Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing direct objects from indirect objects are: An action verb affects a direct object directly (there is no preposition between them). Before looking for the indirect object, look for the direct object. A direct object is possible only if the direct object is present in the clause. An indirect object is normally a person who receives something, such as a gift or a favour, or who beneficiates from an activity performed by the subject. The direct object answers the question << subject + verbal + what/whom? >>. I told the children a story. I told what? A story (dO). The indirect object answers the question << subject + verbal + to/for/from whom? >>. I told the children a story./ I told a story to the children. I told to whom? The children (indirect object). If the direct object is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will alter or no longer make sense. I told the children a story. I baked my daughter a cake. If you remove the indirect object, the sentence will make sense but will be less clear, as the recipient/beneficiary remains unknown. I told the children a story. I baked my daughter a cake.

3.6. The Object Complement 3.6.1. Definition and properties Etymologically, the term complement was attested during late 14c., and meant "that which completes," from Old French compliement "accomplishment, fulfilment", from Latin complementum "that which fills up or

completes,"). Originally, it also had senses which were taken up c. 1650-1725 by compliment (www.etymonline.com). In linguistics, complement broadly means a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a certain structure. One type of complement is called object complement, defined by Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson29 as a syntactic function in the clause, occurring (as we have seen in 3.4.2.), after a complex transitive verb and a direct object. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.) The object complement is a type of complement because it completes the object in that it describes what the object refers to: At the time, she thought him a quiet, gentle man. (thesunmagazine.org) In the example above, a quiet, gentle man is the object complement, and him is the object. The object complement refers to a property or the identity of the direct object, but has a link to the verbal at the same time (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.). The relation between the object and the object complement is representable by the verb be: an implied meaning of the above sentence is that in her view, he was a quiet, gentle man. The object complement can be realised by a noun phrase - as in the example above - or by an adjective phrase, as in She has dyed her hair red. Here the implied meaning is that her hair has become red as a result of dying. Much on the same line, in Kies view, the object complement completes a reference and/or an implication suggested by the object of the clause. The object complement is recognizable by a combination of the following formal and functional properties. property form property description Object complements are most usually noun phrases or adjective phrases, although gerund and, prepositional phrases, as well as nominal clauses may assume this function on occasion. (the last three examples are from suite101.com) example They appointed Jane the new manager. [NP] They found her very accomplished. [AdjP] My supervisor considers his least favorite duty dealing with customers.[gerund-Cl] Students declare the best time of year during the summer. [PpP] I declare the problem that you do not want to learn about grammar. [nominal-Cl] Object complements only occur if there is an object in the They appointed Jane the new clause and then occur normally after that object. manager. They appointed the new manager. They appointed the new manager Jane. Unlike objects themselves, object complements do not The new manager was appointed Jane have any passive voice corresponding clauses, in which by them. the complement appears in the subject position. Object complements complete a reference to the object of They appointed Jane (O) the new the clause. There is in effect a copular relation that exists manager (oC). between the object and its complement, in that the object {They performed an action directed at and its complement can be paraphrased by a SVC Jane.}

position

reference

29

These authors, as well as others, call the object complement object predicative.

agreement

structure. {Jane is the new manager.} SVC Object complements usually agree with the object in They appointed Jane (O) the new number (singular or plural). manager (oC). They appointed them (O) the new managers (oC).

The set of verbs which permit an object complement is not large and includes to keep, declare, leave, call, like, want, consider, find, think, get, make, send, turn, elect, appoint, vote. In order to make the recognition of this clause element easier for the Romanian speaker of English, I suggest a correlation between it and the element predicativ suplimentar (EPS), because they share a number of features. Property Form Property description Example EPSs are most usually participles, gerunds, adjective phrases or i vedem grbii. [participle] noun phrases (examples belong to Bulgr, 1995). i vedem grbindu-se.[gerund] De la grl [] zgomotoi copiii vin. [AdjP] EPSs normally occur after the predicate, but other positions are See above. Position possible. When EPS consists in anAdjP, the presence of the dO is not De la grl [] zgomotoi copiii vin. compulsory. [AdjP] Le-am vzut vesele. [AdjP] When EPS consists in aNP, either the dO or the agent is El este socotit de revoluionari ca present. specialist. [NP] I-am gsit directori. [NP] EPSs may complete references to the object, subject and to I-am gsit directori. Reference the predicate. There is in effect a copular relation that exists {I performed an action directed at between the object or subject and the EPS, in that the object them.} or subject and EPS can be paraphrased by a SVC structure. {Ei sunt directori.} SVC Another relation is between the predicate and EPS, in that the action or state of the verb is described by the EPS (especially when it consists of an AdjP). Agreement EPSs agree with the object in gender (feminine, neuter or Le credeau studente.[fem., pl.] masculine) and number (singular or plural). If the object is i credeau studeni. [masc. pl] not present, then EPSs agree with the subject. Copiii vin voioi. [masc., pl.] Fata vine voias. [fem., sg.] In both Romanian and English, the EPS and the oC can be quite easily taken for adverbials of manner, so extra attention should be paid to their basic features and behaviour. 3.6.2. The meanings of the object complement The meanings of the subject complement will be treated in the following section, together with the meanings of the subject complement. 3.7. The Subject Complement 3.7.1. Definition and properties The subject complement is the element of the clause which typically follows the verb be, and which consists either of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase:

Jane was the new manager. She was very accomplished. This type of complement is called a subject complement, because it typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject. From the two examples above we find out who Jane is (the new manager) and how she is (very accomplished). Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson define the subject complement as the clause element that comes in addition to a subject and a link/copular (two-place) verb, normally placed after the verb and realised by a noun phrase and an adjective phrase (as shown above), or by a nominal subordinate clause, as in The problem is finding the right person. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.) Their definition brings about the issue of valency which has already been discussed in 2.2. and 3.4.2., and will be reiterated in 3.9. Because the subject complement is primarily a complement, its basic function is to complete something. Similar to the oCs behaviour towards the object, the sC completes a reference or an implication related to the subject. It both shares some of the features of the oC and has properties unique to itself. property form property description Subject complements are most usually noun phrases or adjective phrases, although gerund and prepositional phrases, as well as nominal clauses may assume this function on occasion. example She is the new manager. [NP] She is very accomplished. [AdjP] His least favorite duty is dealing with customers. [gerund-Cl] The new rug is out of place. [PpP] His hobby is to work in the garden. [nominal-Cl] The subject complement always occurs after a copular verb in See above. the SVC clause pattern. Exceptionally, the sC can occur at the beginning of a clause, in A good man he was, indeed! front of both the S and the V but exclusively in contexts marked by emphasis. sCs do not have any passive voice corresponding clauses, due to the stative nature of the linking verbs. This also excludes the possibility of the objects of any kind. sCs complete a reference to the S of the clause. Jane is the new manager. sCs usually agree with the S in number (singular or plural) Jane is the new manager. They are the new managers. (oC).

position

reference agreement

The behaviour of the Romanian counterpart of the sC is very similar with the features listed above, with the observation that traditional approaches include the nume predicativ in the structure of the predicat nominal. In both languages, the relation created in the clause by the linking verb is representable by the = sign, and can be diagrammed as follows: Jane = the new manager. Jane = very accomplished. 3.7.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement30 The complement typically has the role of attribute31. It attributes an identification or characterization to the subject if it is a subject complement (sC) or to the direct object if it is an object complement (oC):
30

The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 31 Note that the meaning of the tern attribute in English grammar is different from the meaning of atribut in Romanian.

subject complement Jane is my boss. The girls were happy.

object complement They have made Jane my boss. The news made the girls happy.

3.7.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement If a verbal requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the clause, then the verbal is realised by a linking/copular verb. The most common linking verb is be, but the category also includes appear, become, seem, feel, get, look, sound, etc. The linking verbs link the subject and the subject complement in a clause. Downing and Locke (2006, 87-88) distinguish between a. verbs of being, b. verbs of becoming and c. other linking verbs. a. verbs of being are stative and introduce current or existing attributes: The reason is simple. Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic. We have to remain optimistic about the future. b. verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow suggests gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes: Her latest novel has become a best-seller. We began to grow uneasy when the skin-diver didnt appear. His face went white. c. other linking verbs can function as copulas with specific adjectives as sC: The child fell flat on its face. The soldiers all fell asleep/ fell ill. The label has come unstuck. d. a verb phrase can also function as copular verb, if it indicates some kind of identity of the subject and the subject complement, according to Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson, as in She is called Susan. and She has been voted 'woman of the year'. As be links the subject not only to a characteristic (sC realized by AdjP) or a status (sC realized by NP) but also to a circumstance of position, place or time (Your mother is on the phone.). The complement, underlined in the example, is then identified as adverbial complement, as described in 3.8.2. 3.7.4. Object complement vs. subject complement Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing object complements from subject complements are: An object complement follows a complex transitive verb and says something about the direct object of the verb. If there is no direct object in the clause, do not look for the object complement; it cannot be present. A subject complement follows a linking/copular verb and says something about the subject (what/ how it is). Examples like the two clauses below show that structures with sC and oC can be quite similar. She| has been elected| president|. (subject + linking verb + sC) They| have elected| her| president|. (subject + transitive verb + dO + oC)

 To check if a verb is a copular verb (followed by a sC) or a transitive verb (followed by an object) you can try if the verb can be replaced by a form of to be, possibly accompanied by 'I think', as in He seems nervous = he is nervous, I think. (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.) 3.8. The Adverbial 3.8.1. Definition and properties Leech (1992, 10-11) sees adverbials as the most peripheral of the clause elements which make up the structure of a clause, possibly for reasons regarding both their position and their relevance. He defines the adverbial as the (normally) optional element of the clause which adds extra meaning about the event or state of affair expressed by the verbal. According to the function of adverbial in the clause, Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.) distinguish three classes: a. adjuncts, b. conjuncts, and c. disjuncts32. a. adjuncts indicate the circumstances of the action. They express relations such as time, place, manner, reason, condition, etc. They are usually optional, but in certain situations are obligatory (see below). Downing and Locke call this class circumstantial adjuncts; this can be a way for the Romanian learner to see more clearly the analogy with the Romanian complemente circumstaniale and their corresponding propoziii completive circumstaniale. (see 2.5.2. and 3.1.) Exactly like their Romanian counterparts, adjuncts answer the questions where, when, how, why etc. and are named accordingly. Because of that (adjunct of reason), he took a job in a store (place adjunct) last year (time adjunct). Another characteristic the two languages have in common at clause level is that more than one adjunct can occur in a clause (see example above). This is not true about the other elements of the clause, as only one subject, verbal, direct object etc. can occur in the same clause. b. conjuncts are adverbials that connect and express relations between independent clauses or sentences. They are realised by conjunctive/coordinating adverbs that often function as conjunctions in joining two independent clauses. They can occur - at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of the two clauses in a compound sentence. - at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of two related sentences. The table below provides examples of conjuncts and the most common types of relation they express. conjuncts of afterward, at one moment...at the next, henceforth, later, meanwhile, now...then, sometimes...sometimes, time soon , then, etc. also, besides, then too, for one thing ...for another (thing), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, addition partly...partly, etc. similarity likewise, similarly, etc. concession/ exactly the opposite , however, instead, nevertheless, on (the) one hand...on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, still, etc. contrast accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc. result condition otherwise (= if not) Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson describe conjuncts as text organizers, in that they guide the hearer/reader through the text, showing how the different pieces hang together, and where they belong in the text (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.).

32

For reasons of clarity, during analysis and discussion, the term adverbial will commonly refer to adjuncts.

c. disjuncts are adverbials that are always optional in the clause. According to Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson, they are evaluative and express a. the speaker's judgement of the truth of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably, certainly, maybe) b. the speaker's evaluation of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to my surprise) c. the speaker's comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other words, to tell you the truth) d. the speakers comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. Wisely, she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money') The table below provides further explanations and examples regarding the form, position, meaning and reference of the adverbial (A). Property Form Property description The adverbial is normally an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, or a clause. Occasionally, a noun phrase can function as adverbial. Example She quickly put her gloves on. [AdvP] She put her gloves in her purse. [PpP] She put her gloves on as soon as she could.[Adv-Cl] Last week she put her gloves away. [PpP] Quickly, she put her gloves on. [initial] She quickly put her gloves on. [medial] She put quickly her gloves on. [medial] She put her gloves quickly on. [medial] She put her gloves on quickly. [final] Only I ate an egg. I only ate an egg. I ate only an egg. *I ate an only egg. I ate an egg only. She left suddenly. [SV] She left. [SV]

Position

Im leaving now. [time] Ill stay for a while.[duration] I often sing. [frequency] Ill stay here. [place] I sing well. [manner] If raining, Ill stay in. [condition] Ill cut it with a knife. [instrument] I worked much. [degree] I'll stay to finish the book. [purpose] I sing well. Reference Adverbials refer to the verbal of the clause. Notice: In spite of their name, adverbials do not necessarily contain adverbs. Adverbials can be realized by adverbs, adverb phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, or subordinate clauses (see table above). Meaning 3.8.2. The Adverbial Complement Though adverbials are normally optional, some elements that convey the same information as adverbials, are obligatory because the main verb is not complete without them. Such adverbials are called adverbial complements (aC). Typically, adverbial complements refer to space, that is, location or direction. Adverbial adverbial complements

The adverbial is described by grammars as mobile, that is, it can occur in many different positions within a clause: at the beginning (clause-initial), in the middle (clause-medial), or at the end (clause-final). Additional examples are provided in the table of conjuncts above. Though the mobility of the adverbials is greater than that of any other clause element, actual usage rules limits the number of position choices. Besides, the examples it show how, in the case of only, changes in position produce alterations of meaning. Unlike the other clause elements, adverbials are normally optional. Their omission does not change the relations of meaning and structure in the rest of the clause. The adverbial conveys a wide-ranging set of meanings, among which the most common are: time, duration, frequency, place, manner, means, instrument, degree, purpose. In many cases, these categories can be distinguished as answering different questions: when, where, how, why, how long, how often, how much, how far etc

Your mother is talking on the phone. The sentence is complete without the adverbial.

Your mother is on the phone. The sentence is not complete without the adverbial complement.

Because the most common verbal in the SVcA structure is be, we should note that it can be quite difficult to distinguish between an adverbial complement and certain varieties of subject complement. This is due to the complex nature of be, recognized by some grammars to have a copular nature even in contexts where the location of the subject is expressed, i.e. They were in the garden. One possible argument would be that the part that follows be refers to the subject, by giving information about its location, as in the example above, and this makes be copular. However, for the Romanian speaker it is more convenient to adopt the view that recognizes be as a lexical verb expressing the existence or location of the subject, in line with the Romanian grammar, and label adverbial complements expressing location/existence as obligatory adverbials. 3.9. Verb complementation and clause patterns 3.9.1. Verb complementation The element(s) required after the verb to complete its meaning is/are called the complementation of the Verb and should be seen in relation to valency. Thus, as we saw in 3.8., in an example like She left suddenly, the omission of the adverbial produces no effect on the verb meaning and on the clause structure (SV both with and without the optional adjunct). If we omit any of the other elements of the clause, as in Left suddenly or She suddenly, we will no longer have a complete meaningful clause. Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson suggest that the complementation of a verb thus consists in supplying all the elements that are necessary for that verb to function as verbal in a clause (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.). This means that the great majority of clauses in English contain a subject and a verbal, as well as other elements whose presence is determined by the verb or, put differently, by its valency, as we saw in 3.4.3. 3.9.2. Clause patterns According to Leech (2006), a clause pattern33 is a pattern which contains a main verb and whatever elements have to follow that verb to complete its meaning grammatically. Downing and Locke (2006, 83) identify and illustrate three main types of complementation: intransitive, copular and transitive. type of complementation intransitive copular transitive monotransitive ditransitive complex-transitive intransitive structural pattern S-V S-V-C S-V-O S-V-O-O S-V-O-C S-V-A illustration Ted| laughed. The idea| is| crazy He| bought| a video He| gave| Jo| the video I| find| the idea| crazy comment verb used intransitively linking verb verb used transitively pattern with iO pattern with oC

The pattern with obligatory adverbial can be added as another type of complementation. Your mother| is| on the phone. pattern with obligatory A

Each pattern specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are sufficient and necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be added, but this does not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial to a SVO clause pattern, as in The man/ is writing/ a poem/ for his lover, the verb pattern will still be recognized as SVO.
33

Also called verb pattern.

In Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johanssons view, a verb with a valency of one (=a one-place verb) needs only a subject in order to build a complete sentence. A verb with a valency of two (=a two-place verb) needs two other clause elements (subject + direct object, subject + subject predicative, or subject + adverbial). A verb with a valency of three (=a three-place verb) needs three other clause elements (subject+ indirect object + direct object, subject+ direct object + object predicative, or subject + direct object + adverbial). No English verb has a valency of more than three (Hasselgrd, Lysvg and Johansson n.d.). There are many verbs in English that admit more than one type of complementation and thus have different valencies in different patterns. They are mostly verbs of general meaning, such as get, turn and make, as well as some of the sense verbs (smell, see, etc.). Downing and Locke chose make, a verb that can enter into all but intransitive patterns, and propose the following examples: I|ll make| some tea. SVdO I|ll make| you| a pizza. SViOdO He| made| the coffee| too strong. SVdOoC They| make| a good couple. SVsC It| makes| for good relations. SVpO To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place verbs which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place verbs, with a subject and two other elements ( SVOO and SVOC).