CHAPTER-III

MINERAL SEPERATION PROCESSES 3.1 Mineral Sands Minerals sands include the following minerals which are of commercial value: Ilmenite Secondary ilmenite Rutile Zircon Leucoxene Monazite Titanomagnetite Magnetite Garnet Silica Sands These minerals usually occur as beach sands in dunes or flatter deposits located on or close to present day coasts, although some occur inland on geologically historical coastlines. Because these minerals have been sorted, washed and weathered in marine conditions their grains are commonly liberated and rounded, although they may (particularly the older inland occurrences) be mixed or overlaid with clays and oversize rocks, and organically cemented (coffee rock). There are also alluvial deposits, which are derived from weathered rock which have been transported by water but not concentrated in marine environment. These deposits typically exhibit angular grains and greater size distribution and are often mixed with clays and oversize.ilmenites is also mined from large hard rock deposits, where the rock has to be crushed to liberate prior to separating the mineral, which is typically of low TiO2 content. The chemical composition, physical properties and appearances of these minerals can be summarized in the following table:

Mineral ilmenite

Chemical Specific Formula Gravity TiO2.FeO(TiO250- 4.5 59%)

Magnetic Response Paramagnetic

Electrostatic Response Conductor

Appearance Vitreous black/dark grey opaque grains Dull brown amorphous grains Vitreous Reddish Translucent Grains Vitreous Clear/white transparent grains Vitreous pink translucent grains Vitreous White Translucent grains Vitreous White Translucent grains

Leucoxene

TiO2.FeO(TiO26889%) TiO2 (TiO296%)

3.4-3.8

Paramagnetic (Weaker Still) NonMagnetic

Conductor

Rutile

4.2

Conductor

zircon

ZrO2.SiO2 (ZrO267%)

4.6

NonMagnetic

NonConductor

Garnet

FeO.MgO.SiO2 (complex)

3.2-3.6

ParaMagnetic (weaker)

NonConductor

Silica Sand

SiO2

2.7

NonMagnetic

NonConductor

Sillimanite

Al2O3SiO2

3.2

NonMagnetic

NonConductor

The physical properties (specific gravity, magnetic and electrostatic response) listed above are used to concentrate and separate these minerals using gravity separation, magnetic separation and electrostatic separation respectively to a saleable product or as a feedstock for further processing. The presence of clays, oversize and organics will increase the difficulty of separation, particularly when these contents are high, requiring additional processing to remove them.

Mineral sands mining can be carried out wet or dry, deciding factors as to which method is more suitable depends on the feed grade and tonnage being processed, the water table and the ground conditions. Wet mining is normally carried out by dredging (although sluicing can also be used) followed by floating wet plants, where grade is low and throughput high. The water table has to be such that the dredge /wet plant can be floated, and preferably the sand being mined is reasonably free flowing. For high dune/ free flowing sands (low slimes/ organics/oversize) a rose cutter dredge can typically be used. Where the terrain is flat and slimes/ organics and oversize are present and the sand less free flowing a bucket wheel dredge is normal. This type of dredge can handle more difficult conditions where benching is required, but may still have problems with excessive organics or oversize. Dredging is less precise than dry mining, and bottom losses will occur, although these can be minimized by sweeping back. Dry mining is generally used for lower throughput higher grade deposit as it is more expensive or where ground conditions and water table considerations exclude dredging. It is more precise than dredging as the exposed ore is visible, so mining recovery is higher. Following mining the ore is normally wet screened (trammel screens or vibrating screens)to reject +4mm, ahead of a surge bin, which is used to dewater and provide a steady feed to a subsequent gravity separation circuit. Depending on the slimes content cyclones may be used in conjunction with the surge bin overflow to reduce slimes to a level that minimizes their effect on the gravity stage. Gravity separation is almost always carried out using spirals (having replaced Reichert cones some years ago) in a multistage circuit, typically consisting of rougher, scavenger, cleaner and recleaner stages, although additional stages such as finisher and mids scavenger may be used in some circumstances. Different spiral types are used (low grade, medium grade and high grade), as can high capacity spirals and wash water spirals. The heavy mineral concentrate (HMC) thus produced is typically +90% HM at a recovery of 90% HM, although this can vary depending on the composition of the HM. The HMC is stockpiled which also allows for dewatering, and then usually separated by dry magnetic and electrostatic separation. An exception to this is a wet high intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS) stage ahead of dry milling to remove ilmenite as a magnetic product. The selection of WHIMS is dependent on the TiO2 content of the ilmenite, which determines its magnetic susceptibility. If magnetic is present (even in small quantities) it must be removed before WHIMS or dry magnetic separation, otherwise it will cause problems. Magnetite removal is usually carried out by wet or dry low intensity magnetic separation.

Ahead of dry separation, thermal drying of the HMC is carried out using rotary dryers or fluid bed dryers, followed by dry screening. Depending on the mineralogical composition of the HMC magnetic separation or electrostatic separation follows next or later. Magnetic separation is commonly carried out using rare earth magnetic drums (RED) at the primary stage followed by rare earth magnetic rolls (RER) for subsequent cleaning circuits. These machines have generally replaced electro magnetic seperators such as induced roll magnetic separators (IRM), cross belt magnetic separators and disc magnetic separators. Electrostatic separation has been enhanced in recent years with the introduction of new generation high tension roll (HTR) separators which offer improved performance over the standard HTR. Conductor and non conductor cleaning of the HTR products is frequently carried out using electrostatic plate separators, which overcome the grain size influence on HTR separation. A derivative of the electrostatic plate known as the electrostatic screen plate separator is also sometimes used for Zircon cleaning. For Zircon production the non magnetic non conductors normally require further gravity separation to remove quartz. This can be done using spirals and is often assisted by using a hydrosizer ahead of the spirals to size the feed into overflow and underflow fractions. If Kyanite is present to any extent, in order to reduce the Ai2O3 content to acceptable levels in the Zircon product, a Kelsey jig will probably be required as spirals alone will be unable to make a satisfactory separation between the two minerals.

3.2

Gravity Separation Gravity separation uses differences in specific gravity (SG) between various minerals to achieve a separation, and is normally a wet process although examples of dry gravity seperators exist. Gravity separation works best when there is a large difference in the SG in the minerals to be separated, and the particle size is similar and not excessively fine, and shape is rounded. The choice of separator is generally determined by these factors and includes the following: Conventional jigs Spirals Pinched sluices Centrifugal concentrators Shaking tables (wet and dry) Mozeley gravity separators (MGS)

3.2.1

Conventional jigs Jigs are commonly used as a primary stage to recover coarse liberated minerals sized 2mm and above. Feed slurry is distributed into the hutch which consists of a moving slurry bed located above a screen and is subjected to a pulsating motion and upward hutch water flow which alternately causes dilation and compaction. The pulsation can be caused by a diaphragm (in the cause of the Russell jig) or by mechanical movement of the screen (as in the ILPJ).Separation is also assisted by a ragging material of intermediate SG, with the result being that high SG (concentrate) particles pass through the ragging and screen and are removed via the hutch, while low SG particles (tailings) discharge over the lip of the hutch. Operating variables include: Hutch water flow Pulsation frequency Pulsation stroke length Ragging SG, size and shape Bed depth Screen aperture size Feed rate and density (20 tph/ hutch for Russell jig at 40% solids)

Examples of conventional jigs include those manufactured by IHC and the in line Pressure Jig (ILPJ) manufactured by Gekkos.

3.2.2

Spirals Spirals are commonly used to separate sand sized particles with moderate SG differential in the range 2mm +75um, although varieties exit that can separate reasonably efficiently down to 38um. Below this size range efficiency falls off rapidly, and enhanced fine gravity separators are generally required.

Spirals are made of fiberglass onto which smooth urethane surface is molded to form a trough in the shape of a spiral as the name suggests. Between individual spiral types, the profile of the trough and the pitch as well as the diameter and height and number of turns can vary according to duty. Feed slurry is introduced at the top and is subjected to a combination of gravitational and centrifugal forces imparted by its motion down the spiral. This causes high SG minerals to move towards the centre of the trough and water and low SG minerals towards the outside. The segregated slurry discharging from the spiral at the bottom can thus be separated by cutters into high SG (concentrate) and low SG (tailings) together with intermediate SG (middling).

The choice of spiral depends on the duty: rougher / scavenger or cleaner; the feed grade: low/ medium/ high; and the particle size: sand/ fine. Typically rougher / scavenger spirals where the feed type favorable for easy separation and overall throughput is large are high capacity designs with triple or quadruple to reduce floor area. Cleaner and fine spirals where overall throughput is less and separation more difficult are typically operated at lower feed rates, and as twin starts to assist access for operational requirements. Cleaning spirals are also available with wash water.

Operation variables include: Feed rate (between 1 and 6 tph/ start depending on type) Feed density (between 25% and 50% solids depending on duty) Splitter positions

Examples of spirals are manufactured by RocheMT www.rochemt.com.au, Multotec www.multotec.com and Outokumpu www.outokumputechnology.com and are popular due to their low maintenance and simplicity, and higher separation efficiency.

3.2.6

Shaking tables (wet and dry) Shaking tables have been used for many years in gravity separation, and although limited in capacity, they produce a high upgrade, can handle a wide range of SGs, are very visual and operator dependent and are still used for cleaning stages to produce final concentrates.

Feed slurry is distributed at the head of the table via a launder, together with wash water, and spreads out across the inclined surface on the basis of particle SG, with high SG grains moving along the top of the flowing film to discharge off the far end as concentrate, while low SG grains move down the inclined slope of the table with the majority of the water to discharge at the bottom as tailings. The particle separation is assisted by the backwards and forwards motion (stroke) of the table, the tilt (both longitudinally and laterally), wash water applied along the length of the table, and riffles. Operating variables include: Tilt angle Slope angle Splitter positions Wash water Stroke length Feed rate and density Riffle height

Examples of wet shaking tables include the Wilfley, and Deister.

Dry shaking tables or air tables or air tables have specialized dry gravity separation applications such as fine quartz and Zircon and consist of a table covered in cloth through which low pressure air is forced through by fans located underneath and controlled by dampers so that particles are partially fluidized and segregate according t SG and size, under the influence of stroke and tilt and discharge separately with the aid of splitters. Athe forces acting on the particles on air tables reverse the pattern of wet tables with the low SG grains discharging at the top of the table.

Operating variables include: Tilt angle Splitter positions Fan dampers(for air flow) Stroke length Feed rate

3.2.7

Mozeley gravity separations (MGS) The mozeley gravity separator combines the centrifugal motion of a spinning drum to enhance fine gravity separation with the shaking motion of a table, making it suitable for upgrading of low tonnage rate fine particle slurries.

Feed slurry enters the MGS and is distributed onto a perforated feed ring mounted internally near the top end of an inclined spinning drum, together with wash water. The diluted slurry is thus subjected to centrifugal and shaking forces which cause the high SG particles to move up the inclined drum and low SG particles to move down the drum slope to discharge as tailings. Discharge of the high SG (concentrate) particles is assisted by internal scrapers which rotate at a speed slightly faster than the drum.

Operating variables include: Spin rate Feed rate Tilt angle Wash water Stroke frequency Stroke length

3.3

Electrostatic Separation Electrostatic separators can be split into high tension and electrostatic types and listed as follows: High tension rolls (HTR) Ultra stat and Carrara rolls Electrostatic plates Screen Plates

3.3.1

High tension rolls (HTR) High tension Roll separators have been used in electrostatic separation of dry conductor and non conductor minerals for many years. Current HTRs employ a 10 inch diameter roll compared to the older 6 inch rolls, which allow for greater surface contact time. They use the different surface electrical conductivities of various minerals to effect a separation. Dry and heated feed is distributed at a controlled rate at the top of a spinning stainless steel roll and subjected to a high tension electrical field between a negatively charged electrode wire and the earthed roll. Conductor grains lose their charge immediately to the roll and discharge at a trajectory determined by their mass and velocity, while non conductor grains hold their charge and are pinned to the roll. The non conductors are subsequently are thrown off the roll or removed by a brush mounted at the rear of the roll. An alternating current wiping electrode located behind he roll also assist in non conductor removal. Operating variables include: Applied HT charge to the electrode (typically 15 to 25 KV) Roll Speed (typically 100 to 200rmp Electrode position and distance from the roll Splitter position Feed temperature (typically 80 to 150 degrees centigrade) Clean mineral and roll surfaces Humidity Feed rate (typically 3 to 5 tph)

Examples of HTRs are manufactured by RocheMT and Carpco,

3.3.2

Ultra stat and Carrara rolls These are recent developments of HTRs, examples of which are manufactured by RocheMT and Ore Kinetics, and have been used to enhance the electrostatic separation of dry conductor and non conductor over and above that achieved by HTRs. They differ from HTRs in that they have two electrodes, namely the wire of the HTR anda plate type electrode similar to that of the electrostatic plate separator.

3.3.3

Electrostatic plates Electrostatic plates are typically used after HTRs to counteract the effect of grain size (HTRs and rolls tend to throw coarse non conductors into the conductor product due to their greater mass and momentum derived from the spinning roll) There are no moving parts on an electrostatic plate, with the feed being distributed and moving down an inclined and curved metal plate surface by gravity. A negatively charged electrode shaped like an commonly called a muffler creats an electrostatic field between its surface and the plate, causing fine non conductor grains to be lifted up and discharge from the plate such that they can be spilt from the bulk of conductors and coarse grained non conductors. The gravitational and electrical forces involved are smaller than those in the HTR and the separation is generally less efficient overall, but the opposite in terms of the effect of grain size to that of the HTR. An electrostatic plate normally consists of five stages of conductor cleaning. Operating variables include:

Applied electrode charge (typically 25 to 32KV) Electrode position and distance from the plate Plate angle Splitter position Feed temperature (typically 60 to 120 degrees centigrade) Clean mineral and plate surfaces Humidity Feed rate (typically 1 to 2tph)

Examples of electrostatic plates are manufactured by RocheMT and Carpco 3.4 Magnetic Separation Magnetic separators used for mineral processing can be split into wet and dry, low and high intensity, and electro and rare earth magnets and listed as follows: 3.4.1 Wet high intensity magnetic separators(WHIMS) Wet/dry low intensity magnetic drums (LIMS) Induced roll magnetic separators Cross belt magnetic separators Rare earth magnetic drums (RED) Rare earth magnetic rolls (RER)

Wet high intensity magnetic separators (WHIMS) They are commonly used to recover / reject ilmenite from HMC ahead of dry separation. The ilmenite generally needs to be of a low TiO2 content (around 505), so the magnetic susceptibility is high. The Readings unit consists of a rotating carousel, which has vertically inclined salient plates through which feed slurry is passed. As the carousel rotates it passes through fields of magnetic influence generated by surrounding electromagnets, followed by fields of no magnetic influence. The magnetic grains are initially held up in the plates while the non magnetic grains are washed through into a launder below. When the plates are in the non magnetic field the magnetic grains are then wash off into a separate launder below.

In order to operate successfully the WHIMS need to be: Free of magnetite (which would hang up in the plates/matrix) Free of +1mm grains (Which would bock the plates / matrix) Have a clean constant supply of high pressure water. Steady feed rate and density

The reading WHIMS operating variables are: Field strength (measured indirectly and controlled by amp adjustment of the electromagnet) typically up to 15,000 gauss Wash water position and flow Plate gap (typically 2mm) Product splitters position Feed rate is typically 25-30tph for 16 pole unit

Examples of these separators are the Reading and Eriez.

3.4.2

Wet / dry low intensity magnetic drums (LIMS) They are commonly used to recover / reject magnetite from HMC ahead of high intensity wet or dry magnetite separation.

For the wet LIMS these are two models, counter current and co-current flow. All LIMS consists of a rotating drum within which a fixed permanent magnet is located. Feed is presented to the drum and depending on the magnetic susceptibility of the grains is either attracted by the magnetic field and held to the drum surface or discharged by gravity/ centrifugal throw. As the drum rotates the magnetic grains leave the magnet field and are discharged separately usually with the aid of a scraper / brush (and spray water for the wet LIMS).

The speed of drum rotation, magnet and splitter position are the variables used in the dry LIMS The level of the slurry bath and magnet position are the variables used in the wet LIMS As the names suggest the counter and co- current wet LIMS remove the products at different points in relation to the direction of the feed flow. The later is more suited to cleaning duties. For the dry LIMS feed is distributed across the drum at the top, and as the drum rotates enters the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, with the non magnet grains being unaffected and thrown off by centrifugal force, while the magnetic grains are held to the drum surface until they leave the magnetic field and either fall or are scraped off separately. Operating variables: Drum speed Splitter position Magnet position

Examples of these separators are manufactured by Eriez and Multotec. 3.4.3 Induced roll magnetic separators (IRM) They are commonly used to separate ilmenite from less magnetic and non magnetic in dry mills. The readings IRM consists of an electromagnet which induces a magnetic field onto a serrated rotating roll via a cast iron pole located a short distance away. Dry feed is distributed across and onto the surface

of the roll at top, where depending on the magnetic susceptibility of the grains is either held to the roll or discharges off due to the centrifugal motion of the roll. The machine has two parallel feed points, each with two rolls which are mounted vertically above each other, with the lower roll operating as a non magnetic cleaner. Operating variables are: Field strength (measured indirectly and controlled by amp adjustment of the electromagnet) typically up to 15,000 gauss. Pole gap (closer the gap higher the field strength), typically 2mm. Roll speed (normally fixed and only adjusted by pulley and belt changes) Splitter position (determined by visual observation of the fan) Feed temperature will affect magnetic susceptibility Feed rate typically 2.5tph

Examples of these separators are the Readings and Carpco.

3.4.4

Lift roll magnetic separators They reverse the effect of grain size (coarse magnetic grains with non magnetic grains) due to the centrifugal action of the IRM, as in this case the magnetic grains are lifted onto a rotating roll from a moving feed prior to separate discharge from the non magnetic grains which are unaffected. Examples of these separators are the Readings.

3.4.5

Cross belt magnetic separators The cross belt consists of a single belt upon which the feed is distributed across and is transported slowly underneath a series of five electromagnets, the magnetic fields of which lift the magnetic grains off the belt depending on their susceptibility. Underneath each magnet is a smaller faster moving belt across the main belt at right angles which picks up the magnetic grains and transports them away from the magnetic field to discharge into launders. Non magnetic grains unaffected by the magnetic fields remain on the main belt and discharge off the end. Operating Variables include: Field strength (measured indirectly and controlled by amp adjustment of the electromagnet) typically up to 15,000 gauss. Polo gap (distance between the poles and the belt) Typical feed rate 1.5tph

Examples of these separators are the Readings.

3.4.6

Disc magnetic separators These separators are similar to cross belts, except that instead of using belts to transport magnetic material they employ rotating disc. Operating variables are similar.

3.4.7

Rare earth magnetic drums (RED) They are similar to the dry LIMS except that they employ an exotic permanent magnet capable of producing much higher intensity magnetic field. This magnet is positioned inside a large diameter drum. Operating variables include: Drum speed Magnet position Splitter position

Examples of these separators are manufactured by Eriez.

3.4.8

Rare earth magnetic rolls (RER) They differ from REDs in that they have two smaller diameter rolls between and around which a belt tracks. Feed material is distributed onto the belt which transports it to the end roll which contains an exotic permanent magnet similar to the RED. The rolls and belt move at high speed and the trajectory of the grains discharging from the belt depends on their magnetic susceptibility and the following operating variables: Belt speed Belt thickness Splitter position

Examples of these separators are manufactured by Eriez.

Examples of classifiers are 3.5.2.1 Hydrocyclones These separators produce a size and SG separation of feed slurry into overflow and underflow components, with the water and fine low SG solids flowing preferentially to the former and coarse solids high SG to the latter. This is achieved primarily by the geometry of cyclones the feed pressure applied to them. There are a number of cyclone manufacturers including Krebs, Weir and Mozely. Cyclones vary in size from large high capacity units down to small low capacity ones. Larger cyclones generally produce a coarser cut size, with the cut being the mean particle size that a given mass percentage of the feed reports to either underflow. Operating variables include: Feed pressure Feed density Spigot size Vortex finder size

3.5.2.2 Hydrosizers These separators also produce a size and SG separation of feed slurry into overflow and underflow components, with the water and fine low SG solids flowing preferentially to the former and coarse solids high SG to the latter. This is achieved by the application of an upward flow of water which is injected into the hydrosizer, so that depending on their size and SG the grains move either in an upward or downward direction. A pressure sensor in the hydrosizer measures the head (Which is a function of the slurry density) which controls the underflow valve to a set point. Hydrosizer manufacturers include Outokumpu and linatex

Operating variables include: Injection water flow Underflow valve opening (controlled by slurry head) Feed density

3.5.2.2 Thickeners These separators are primarily used to settle and dewater fine solids, although exceptionally they can be used to separate fine low SG particles to overflow and coarser high SG particles to underflow and consist of a large tank into which the flocculated feed slurry enters through a central well, with the water overflowing to a launder around the perimeter, and the solids via a central underflow well assisted by a slow moving rake.

In their conventional mode a clean overflow is produced by mixing a dilute flocculent to a fine feed slurry which attaches itself to the particles to form chains of large particles which then have sufficient mass to settle.

Other types of thickeners include high rate, deep cone and paste.