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Memo Number October 21, 2000 STI:001021A Tips and Tricks: Tricks : Structural Damping Beta damping: Damping Ratio: Mode-Superposition Method: Full Method

1. Introduction: Damping is required in many dynamic applications, yet because there are many ways to include it, there is often confusion regarding the implementation of damping in ANSYS. This memo hopes to provide a general summary of the representation of damping available in ANSYS. 2. Background Discussion on Damping: Damping results in energy loss in any dynamic system, which results in decay of amplitude of motion. Damping can be considered (a) in different forms (e.g., structural, viscous, or Coulomb) (b) for single or multiple DOF systems, (c) depending on whether the oscillations are harmonic or general. Although physical damping behavior is quite complicated, the mathematical representation tends to be simplified and is dependent on whether nodal or generalized coordinates are used (i.e., full vs. mode-superposition methods). 3. Nodal vs. Generalized Coordinates: Before continuing with the discussion, it may be useful to first define nodal coordinates and generalized coordinates. 1 Nodal coordinates are always used in FEA, where the displacements at each node are solved for, such as in the basic equation:

&}+ [C ]{x &} + [K ]{x} {F } = [M ]{& x

This is also known in ANSYS as the full method when solving dynamic equations. Modal (DAMP, QRDAMP), harmonic, and transient analyses may be solved for with this method, including any nonlinearities which may be present. Damping is defined through the damping parameter [C]. 2 Generalized coordinates can be used in FEA, where the response is assumed to be comprised of a linear combination of the eigenvectors of the system (mode-superposition method). Hence, the use of generalized coordinates necessitates performing a modal analysis first to obtain n number of mode shapes (eigenvectors). Then, the response {x} is assumed to be a linear combination of the n number of mode shapes {} by solving for the mode coefficients y:

&}+ [C ]{x &} + [K ]{x} {F } = [M ]{& x

{x} = {i }yi
&i }+ {i }T [C ]{i }{& &i }+ {i }T [K ]{i }{yi } {i } {F } = {i }T [M ]{i }{& y y
T i =1

Due to the use of undamped eigenvectors and use of modal damping only, the equations are 3 uncoupled and can be simplified further as:

&i }+ 2 ii {& &i }+ i2 {yi } {i }T {F } = {& y y

The attractiveness of using the mode-superposition method (i.e., solving in terms of generalized coordinates) is that the equations are uncoupled, and only n equations are solved for (where n is usually much less than the total number of nodal DOF), resulting in efficiency of solution. However, because it is using a linear combination of modes, only linear behavior is allowed for modal 4 (QRDAMP) , harmonic, or transient analyses. Damping is specified through a dimensionless parameter called the critical damping ratio , which is actual damping over critical damping c/ccr.
Nodal coordinates is sometimes referred to as discrete coordinates. The author may sometimes refer to generalized coordinates as modal coordinates, although because of the similarity between the terms modal and nodal, the author will intend on using generalized coordinates throughout this memo. 3 For details on the mode-superposition method, see to Ch. 15.11 Mode Superposition Method in the ANSYS 5.6 Theory Manual. 4 See Memo: STI68:001014 CSI Tip of the Week: QR Damped Eigenvalue Extraction Method for more details on QRDAMP. Note that QRDAMP is actually two solutions at once: full method to get undamped eigenvectors, then modal method to get damped eigenvalues.
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4. Different Types of Damping: Regarding the different types of damping, these are usually categorized into viscous, structural, and Coulomb damping. Viscous damping usually arises in cases where a system vibrations in a fluid, such that the damping force is proportional to velocity by a constant c. This is expressed as:

& Fvd = cx
The equation can also be written assuming harmonic motion as:

Fvd eit = c(i )xeit Fvd = icx

which indicates that viscous damping is an imaginary term linearly proportional to frequency. Structural damping (also known as solid damping) is due to internal friction of the material or 5 of entire system. The former is a characteristic of the material. The latter is due to energy loss at structural joints, for example. In literature, the representation of structural damping assumes harmonic motion and is written as:

Fsd eit = igkxeit Fsd = igkx


Unlike viscous damping, structural damping is usually assumed to be constant with respect to frequency. Also, note that because of this independence on frequency, one can view this as an imaginary term to be an imaginary elastic force. Hence, one can refer to complex stiffness (or 6 complex moduli) as k(1+ig) where g is the structural damping factor. (When used in nodal coordinates, structural damping changes and becomes equivalent to viscous damping, where gk is the same value as c, although this is not really structural damping anymore.) Coulomb damping is due to frictional effects of the sliding of two dry surfaces. Coulomb damping is not dependent on the displacement or velocity but rather on the normal force FN and the coefficient of friction k:

Fcd = k FN

Since the Coulomb damping force opposes motion, the sign is the opposite of that of the velocity, so for harmonic oscillations, the sign keeps changing for each half-period. Also, this is usually included with contact elements with a distinction often being made between static and kinetic coefficients of friction, resulting in nonlinear behavior. There are also other types of damping not discussed in detail here. Negative damping is the addition of energy into the system rather than its dissipation. Some consider plasticity and other material nonlinearities as sources of damping because of the fact that energy is lost in the system.

Although often known as material damping when referring to energy loss due to internal friction of the material (microscopic or macroscopic material behavior), the author will use this term only in the context of ANSYS usage, defined later. 6 Some consider the complex moduli as another way of viewing viscoelasticity in the frequency domain, although one often refers specifically to shear behavior (as in the case of incompressible elastomers). In either case, the real term is called the dynamic (or shear) storage and the imaginary term is the dynamic (or shear) loss, and the ratio of the imaginary to real modulus is tan(delta) where delta is the difference in phase between input strain and output stress.

It is instructive to note that viscous and structural damping are the same only at a given frequency. For example, if one were to plot damping force vs. frequency under constant displacement harmonic motion for both types of damping, the graph would look as shown on right. Only at a given value (red) will the two values intersect. At this frequency, gk=c . As noted earlier, the damping ratio is defined as c/ccr, where ccr is the critical damping ratio. At resonance, =sqrt(k/m), so this means that:

c c m 1 g = = gk = ccr 2m k 2 km 2

Another useful thing to note when harmonic oscillations occur is the behavior of the force vs. deflection curve. The damping force Fd is an ellipse, as illustrated in the bottom-left figure. For linear elastic materials, we expect the elastic force Fk to be a straight line. When combining the effect of Fd and Fk, however, we get a more interesting response, as shown on the bottom-right figure 7 in blue. The difference is due to the fact that there is a phase lag in the force response. The area enclosed by the blue hysteresis loop is the energy dissipated per cycle due to damping.

Because of this hysteresis loop due to damping, structural damping is also known as hysteresis 8 damping. However, it is important to note that both viscous and structural damping result in a similar response with a hysteresis loop under harmonic oscillations, and this is not limited to just structural damping. The difference is that the energy dissipated per cycle for structural damping is independent of frequency, whereas it linearly increases with frequency for the case of viscous damping. Other forms of damping may not produce a hysteresis curve as an ellipse, as the damping energy loss needs to be a quadratic function of the amplitude (or strain), which, as mentioned earlier, is true for viscous and structural damping. There are two attached files, hyst_msup.inp and hyst_full.inp which illustrate this for a single DOF system at a given frequency. The former uses structural damping, the latter uses viscous damping, and both produce ellipical hysteresis loops.

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Note that the line specified by Fk (purple) does not define the axis of the ellipse Fk+Fd (blue) in the figure. For examples of the use of the term hysteresis damping, refer to pages M1-22, M1-24, and M1-25 in the ANSYS 5.6 Dynamics Seminar. For reasons described in the text above (coupled with the fact that sometimes users confuse the term hysteresis with nonlinear stress-strain behavior, such as in metal plasticity under cyclic loading), the author will not use this terminology.

5. Characterization of Damping for Single DOF Systems: There are various ways to measure or to characterize damping. It is important to note that the following methods assume a single DOF system, so its extension to a multiple DOF system (as in the case with FEA) needs to be done with some care, as will be discussed shortly. The half-power bandwidth (or 3 dB bandwidth) is defined as the difference of the two half-power points 1 and 2, as shown on the graph on the right. The half-power points 1 and 2 surround the resonance value n, and these half-power points are frequencies where the response is 1/2 or 0.707 of its 10 peak value. The power is proportional to the square of the response, so the half-power is defined as 1/2 of the peak response. Hence, the frequencies at which this occurs are called the half-power points. For lightly damped structures, the halfpower bandwidth can be related to the damping ratio with the following approximation:
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= 2 n
The quality factor Q provides information on the sharpness of resonance. Q is determined by computing the ratio of the resonant frequency n with the half-power bandwidth :

Q=

1 n n = = 2 1 2

The loss factor is also sometimes used, and this is defined as the ratio of damping energy per radian to strain energy, i.e., the loss factor is equal to the inverse of the quality factor (=1/Q). The logarithmic decrement is measured not in the frequency domain but in the time domain. If the rate of decay of a free oscillation is measured, the ratio of two successive amplitudes is the logarithmic decrement:
1 = ln x = ln e 2

e nt1 = ln e n d = n d n (t1 + d )

where d is the damped period. The damped period can be 2 replaced by 2/ nsqrt(1- ), which leads to the equation:

= n d =

n 2 2 = 2 n 1 2 1 2

The last expression holds for light damping (small values of ).

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Because of the fact that common characterizations of damping such as the above half-power bandwidth, quality factor, loss factor, and logarithmic decrement are for single degree-of-freedom systems, the use of these in ANSYS should be done with care. A harmonic (or, in the case of logarithmic decrement, transient) analysis should be carried out with enough resolution around the 12 frequency of interest to verify that the damping captures the response at a given location to what is expected. Because multiple modes are usually excited, the damping due to one mode will affect the other, so validation of appropriate damping values (discussed next) can be performed in this fashion. These are just recommendations, of course, and it is the users responsibility to understand where his/her damping values came from and how they relate to the FE model. Also, there are other ways of characterizing damping not discussed here, although the more common ones have been covered.
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Recall that dB is defined as 10 log (P/Pref). If P is half the power of Pref, then this results in -3 dB. Peak response refers to a result such as max (total) displacement at resonance, depending on how it was measured. 11 Note that on page M1-28 of the ANSYS 5.6 Dynamics Seminar, the table of conversion is missing a factor of 2 for log decrement . 12 A general guideline: in harmonic, use 10-15 substeps in the half-power bandwidth; in transient, use 20-30 substeps in a period
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6. Defining Damping Values in ANSYS for Full vs. Mode-Superposition Methods: The previous sections have discussed damping in general with little emphasis on the ANSYS implementation of damping. In this section, attention is drawn to different methods to account for this affect in ANSYS. The first important thing to note is how damping is defined in the full method compared with the mode superposition method. Because the former deals with nodal coordinates and the latter with generalized coordinates, accounting for damping is different between the two. As noted in Section 3, in the full method of modal , harmonic, or transient analyses, the equation of motion is:
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&}+ [C ]{x &} + [K ]{x} {F } = [M ]{& x


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The damping matrix [C] is formed from the following components:

[C ] = [M ] + [K ] + f

M N [K ] + j K j + [Ck ] j =1 k =1

[ ]

is the constant mass matrix multiplier for alpha damping (ALPHAD command) is the constant stiffness matrix multiplier for beta damping (BETAD command) 15 is the constant damping ratio, and f is the current frequency (DMPRAT command) j is the constant stiffness matrix multiplier for material j (MP,DAMP command) [Ck] is the element damping matrix for supported element types (ET and TYPE commands)

On the other hand, in the mode superposition method for harmonic, transient, or spectrum analyses, the equation solved for has also been covered in Section 3:

&i }+ 2 ii {& &i }+ i2 {yi } {i }T {F } = {& y y


d

Instead of creating a damping matrix [C], an effective damping ratio i is created for each mode i:

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i id = + + mi + 2 + i 2

E
j j =1 M

s j

E
j =1

s j
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is the inversely-related damping parameter for alpha damping (ALPHAD command) is the linearly increasing damping parameter for beta damping (BETAD command) is the constant damping ratio (DMPRAT command) mi is the damping ratio specified for mode i (MDAMP command) 18 j is the damping ratio specified for material j (MP,DAMP command) s T Ej is the strain energy for material j, calculated by ANSYS as {j} [Kj]{j} For spectrum analyses, damping is included not in the calculation of mode coefficients but in mode combination only. Also, in the case of mode-superposition method, material-dependent damping is added in the expansion of modes, so the user must include material-dependent damping (MP,DAMP) and request element stress calculations (MXPAND) before running the modal analysis. Lastly, at 5.7, mode superposition methods will support the use of QRDAMP, but the user should know that although it is a mode-superposition method, damping is included in the modal analysis phase (QRDAMP), so the full method damping equation [C] above should be used. Table 5-8 Damping for Different Analysis Types of the ANSYS 5.6 Structural Analysis Guide provides a summary of when different forms are damping are available for different analysis types.
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This is the DAMP or QRDAMP eigenvalue extraction methods. This is similar to Equation 15.3-1 of the ANSYS 5.6 Theory Manual. 15 This term is not available in damped modal or full transient analyses. 16 This is similar to Equation 15.11-22 and 17.7-1 of the ANSYS 5.6 Theory Manual. 17 No alpha damping permitted for certain types of spectrum analysis (SPRS, MPRS, DDAM) 18 No material-dependent damping ratio is permitted for certain types of spectrum analysis (PSD)

7. Description of Individual Damping Input: It may be instructive to describe how the different damping input in ANSYS affects the response. The damping ratio will be used as the reference point. Recall that damping ratio is the ratio of damping to critical damping at a given frequency (mode). If one were to plot the various types of damping input as a function of damping ratio vs. frequency, the graph would look as shown on the right. Damping is always cumulative in both full and modal methods, so this should always be kept in mind.

Damping Ratio

DMPRAT BETAD ALPHAD MP,DAMP (FULL) MP,DAMP (MSUP)

The constant damping ratio, specified by DMPRAT, is constant for each frequency, as shown in the solid dark green line Frequency on right. Modal damping, defined by MDAMP, is specified for each frequency. This is frequencydependent, so it is arbitrary and not shown on the graph above. This is added in addition to the constant damping ratio DMPRAT (if defined). Element damping, defined by the element types noted in Chapter 15.3 of the ANSYS 5.6 Theory Manual, is also not necessarily predefined and is dependent on the element, so it is not shown in the graph of damping ratio vs. frequency above. Alpha damping (specified via ALPHAD, shown in dark red in the graph) results in a damping ratio which is inversely related to frequency. Because of this, alpha damping affects low frequencies. Alpha damping is not similar to any of the damping types discussed in Section 4. Beta damping (specified via BETAD, shown in dark blue in the graph) provides a damping ratio that is linearly related to frequency. Consequently, it tends to affect higher-frequency content. This is similar to viscous damping, discussed earlier, where k=c for a single DOF system. Rayleigh damping is the use of a combination of alpha and beta damping. Because the full method for transient analysis does not support any form of a constant damping ratio, users can determine values of and which provide an approximately constant damping ratio in a given range, 19 as shown in the figure on the left. This can be done by solving the two equations below for and .

1 2 + = + 21 2 2 2 2

Rayleigh damping arises because it is a form of proportional damping ([C] is proportional to [K] and [M] in this method), which makes it easier to deal with numerically. Beta damping, without alpha damping, is sometimes used in linear dynamics. In nonlinear transient applications, because beta damping is proportional to the stiffness matrix which can sometimes change drastically, it is not preferred in these situations. While beta damping affects higher-frequencies, alpha damping affects lower ones. This means that alpha damping should not be used in the large mass method commonly used in linear dynamic applications, as the large mass would create an artificially high damping force. However, by the same token, alpha damping is sometimes used in the slow dynamics approach of nonlinear transient problems to help deal with possible rigid-body motion by damping out this behavior.

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Graph copied from Figure 5.6 Rayleigh Damping in the ANSYS 5.6 Structural Analysis Guide

It is extremely important to note that MP,DAMP means different things, depending on the analysis method used. In the full method, material-dependent damping values represent a stiffness matrix multiplier for that material (dotted dark blue line), similar to viscous damping but per material. Hence, in this case, the value for MP,DAMP will be equal to /f or to c/k for a single DOF system. When multiple materials are present, the damping matrix [C] simply applies each value of j to the portion of the stiffness matrix associated with that given material j:

[C ]MP,DAMP = j [K j ]
M j =1

In the mode-superposition method, however, material-dependent damping values indicate the damping ratio for that material (dotted dark green line), similar to structural damping. This means that the value supplied via MP,DAMP will be equal to or to g/2 for a single DOF system. When multiple materials are present, the Modal Strain Energy Method (MSE) is used to calculate an effective damping ratio for the system, as shown below:

iMP ,DAMP =

E
j j =1 M

s j

E
j =1

s j

This means that an effective constant damping ratio is calculated for all modes. Because the last point of the difference in behavior of MP,DAMP is often a point of confusion, several input files are attached of a simple LINK1 model, which may hopefully provide some insight: sdof_full.inp is a single DOF model using full method and MP,DAMP. This is a form of viscous damping. sdof_msup.inp is a single DOF model using mode-superposition method and MP,DAMP. This is a form of structural damping. sdof_betad.inp is a single DOF model using mode-superposition method and BETAD. This is a form of viscous damping, as noted above. sdof_dmprat.inp is a single DOF model using mode-superposition method and DMPRAT. This is a constant damping ratio. mdof_full.inp is a 3 DOF model using full method and MP,DAMP. This is a form of viscous damping, so higher modes are affected more by the damping. mdof_msup.inp is a 3 DOF model using mode-superposition method and MP,DAMP. This is a form of structural damping, so the damping ratio is constant. mdof_dmprat.inp is a 3 DOF model using full method and DMPRAT. This is a constant damping ratio, which is also applicable for full harmonic analyses. One important thing to note is that for the single DOF model, the forces due to the mass, damping, and stiffness terms are added in /POST26 and compared with the applied force. For the full method, these two values are always equal, as expected. In the mode superposition method, however, as damping is increased, the slight inaccuracy becomes more noticeable. This is due to the fact that some differences are introduced by using undamped modal coordinates in the mode-superposition phase.

8. Conclusion: This memo hoped to review some background information on the different types of damping (viscous, structural, and Coulomb) and its characterization in single DOF systems (half-power bandwidth, quality factor, loss factor, and log decrement). The implementation of damping models in ANSYS (ALPHAD, BETAD, MDAMP, DMPRAT) and their differences were also covered, including their applicability in full and modal methods. Lastly, the difference in behavior of MP,DAMP in full and modal methods was emphasized, indicating that in modal methods, MP,DAMP provides a similar response to complex modulus for structural damping. Some input files were provided to illustrate some of the points. In the future, the author hopes to cover the use of damping elements (rotordynamics, surface effect elements, discrete lumped-parameter elements, and fluid elements) and the QR-Damp eigenvalue extraction method introduced at ANSYS 5.6. 9. References: ANSYS Theory Manual, Version 5.6 Hurty, W.C. and Rubinstein, M.F., Dynamics of Structures, Prentice Hall, 1964 th Thomson, W.T. and Dahleh, M.D., Theory of Vibration with Applications, 5 ed., Prentice Hall, 1993

__________________________ Sheldon Imaoka http://ansys.net/ansys/

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