J. M.

Riieger

Electronic Distance Measurement

An Introduction
Fourth Edition

With 56 Figures and 18 Tables

Springer

Contents

History

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4

Physical Laws and Units Related to EDM Definitions Frequency Spectrum Velocity of Light in a Vacuum Units and Their Definitions Second of Time Metre Kelvin Other Units yi EDM

3 3 5 6 8 8 8 9 9

3 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3

Principles and Applications of EDM Pulse Method Principle of the Pulse Method Applications of the Pulse Method Phase Difference Method Phase Difference Between Transmitted and Received Signal Phase Difference Between Two Received Signals . . . Doppler Methods Interferometry Principle of a Michelson Interferometer Principle of Operation of the H P 5526A Laser Measurement System Vaisala Interference Comparator

11 11 11 12 14 14 21 23 26 26 27 29

XI

4 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3

Basic Working Principles of Electronic Distance Meters Electro-Optical Instruments Principle and Components Methods of Modulation and Demodulation of Light and NIR Waves Methods of Phase Measurement Microwave Instruments Introduction Working Principle and Components Effects of Reflections in Microwave EDM (Multipath)

31 31 31 34 41 44 44 44 46

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.6 5.6.1 5.7 5.8 5.8.1 5.8.2 5.8.3 5.8.4 5.8.5 5.9 5.9.1 XII

Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves Through the Atmosphere Atmospheric Transmittance Range of EDM Instruments Phase Refractive Index Group Refractive Index of Light and NIR Waves for Standard Conditions First Example Second Example Third Example Error Analysis Group Refractive Index of Light and NIR Waves at Ambient Conditions Error Analysis Omission of Humidity Refractive Index of Microwaves Error Propagation Coefficient of Refraction Measurement of Atmospheric Parameters Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure Measurement of Atmospheric Temperature Measurement of Atmospheric Humidity Computation of Partial Water Vapour Pressure from Psychrometer Measurements Computation of Partial Water Vapour Pressure from Relative Humidity Determination of the Refractive Index Normal Procedures

48 48 49 51 51 53 53 54 54 54 55 56 56 57 58 60 60 61 62 63 65 66 66

5.9.2 5.9.3

Limitations of Normal Procedures Special Procedures

67 69

6 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4

Velocity Corrections to Measured Distances Reference Refractive Index First Velocity Correction Derivation of First Velocity Correction for the Infrared Distance Meter Kern DM501 Derivation of First Velocity Correction for the Infrared Distance Meter Pentax PM-81 Derivation of First Velocity Correction for the Pulse Distance Meter Distomat Wild DI3000 Derivation of First Velocity Correction for the Microwave Distance Meter Siemens-Albis SIAL MD60 Derivation of First Velocity Correction for the Microwave Distance Meter Tellurometer CA1000 .. Real-Time Application of First Velocity Correction by EDM Instrument Second Velocity Correction Refined Method of Reduction of Measured Distance to Wave Path Chord

73 73 74 76 76 77

78 78 79 80 82

6.2.5 6.3 6.4 6.5

7 7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4

Geometrical Corrections Reduction to the Spheroid Using Station Heights . . First Method: Step-by-Step Solution Second Method: Closed Solution 1 Analysis of Errors Reduction to the Spheroid, Using Measured Zenith Angles Introduction Reduction to the Spheroid: Closed S o l u t i o n . . . . . . . Reduction to the Spheroid: Step-by-Step Solution .. Analysis of Errors

84 84 87 91 92 93 93 95 96 99

8 8.1

Miscellaneous Corrections, Computations and Numerical Examples Correction of Measured Distance to Zenith Angle Ray Path

101 101 XIII

8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.5 8.5.1 8.5.2 8.6 8.6.1 8.6.2

Correction for Unequal Heights of Theodolite, EDM Instrument, Target and Reflector Correction for Theodolite-Mounted EDM Instruments Correction for Telescope-Mounted EDM Instruments Eye-to-Object Corrections for Zenith Angles and Distances Eye-to-Object Correction for Zenith Angles Eye-to-Object Correction for Distances Numerical Example Height Difference from Measured Zenith Angle(s) and Slope Distance Single Zenith Angle Measurement Reciprocal Zenith Angle Measurements Determination of the Coefficient of Refraction from Reciprocal Zenith Angle Measurements Derivation of the Equation for the Coefficient of Refraction Error Analysis Reduction to Centre of Distances Angles and Distances Measured at Satellite Station Angles Measured at Centre Station, Distances at Satellite Station Numerical Examples Reduction of a Long Distance Reduction of a Short Distance

101 103 104 105 105 106 107 108 108 110 Ill Ill 113 114 114 116 117 117 120

9 9.1 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 XIV

Electro-Optical Distance Meters Classification of Electro-Optical Distance Meters . . Classification According to Range Classification According to Accuracy Classification According to the Degree of Integration with Theodolites Special Features of Modern Short Range Distance Meters Design of Some Electro-Optical Distance Meters .. Kern DM500 Topcon ET-1 Distomat Wild DI3000 Kern Mekometer ME5000

123 123 123 124 124 128 135 135 139 141 145

10 10.1 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4 10.2.5 10.2.6 10.2.7

Reflectors Introduction Glass Prism Reflectors Accuracy of Reflectors Shape and Size of Reflectors Phase and Group Refractive Index in Glass Reflector Constant Effects of Errors of Reflector Alignment Temperature Effects Care of Reflectors

148 148 150 152 153 155 156 158 163 164

11 11.1 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.3 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4

Batteries and Other Power Sources Review of Power Sources Batteries Used in EDM Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries Sealed Nickel-Cadmium Batteries Construction and Principle Discharge Characteristics Charge Characteristics Capacity and Life of Battery

165 165 167 167 167 168 168 170 171 172

12 12.1 12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.2.3 12.2.4 12.2.5 12.3 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.4 12.5

Errors of Electro-Optical Distance Meters Additive Constant Short Periodic Errors * '; Electrical or Optical Crosstalk Errors Analogue Phase Measurement Errors Multipath Errors Experimental Results Reduction of Short Periodic Errors Scale Errors Oscillator Errors Diode Errors Non-Linear Distance-Dependent Errors Summary and Mathematical Model of Errors

174 174 175 175 177 178 178 179 179 179 181 181 183

/...

XV

13

Calibration of Electro-Optical Distance Meters

186 186 186 187 189 189 195 197 199 207 208 209 211 213 217 217 218 220 220

13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Reasons for Calibration 13.1.2 Concept of Calibration 13.2 Calibration on EDM Baselines 13.2.1 Geometric Design of EDM Baselines 13.2.2 Physical Design 13.2.3 Measurements on EDM Baselines 13.2.4 Analysis of Baseline Measurements 13.2.5 Determination of Baseline Lengths 13.3 Calibration on Cyclic Error Testlines 13.3.1 Design of and Measurements on Cyclic Error Testlines 13.3.2 Semi-Graphic Determination of Short Periodic Errors 13.3.3 Analytical Determination of Short Periodic Errors . 13.4 Calibration of Modulation Frequency 13.4.1 Frequency Measuring Techniques 13.4.2 Calibration of Ageing and Warm-Up Effects 13.4.3 Frequency Versus Temperature Characteristic 13.5 Accuracy Specifications of EDM Instruments

Appendices A. B. C. D. First Velocity Correction for Precise Electro-Optical Distance Measurement Tables of Saturation Water Vapour Pressures Parameters of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere Data of a Selection of Electro-Optical Distance Meters as Required for the Derivation of the First Velocity Correction and for Calibration Purposes .. Technical Data of a Selection of Short Range Distance Meters Technical Data of a Selection of Pulse Distance Meters Technical Data of a Selection of Long Range Distance Meters Critical Dimensions of a Selection of Reflectors . . .

222 222 225 230

232 241 251 255 257 259 269

E. F. G. H.

References Subject Index

XVI