INTRODUCTION

1. The size of our oil dependence and its rate of growth, as well as the environmental problems that are its consequence, require an immediate response. This calls for both changes in conventional technology and a longer-term investment in hybrid vehs, hydrogen fuel cells, and alternative fuels. In the year 2 , !"# alone consumed nearly 2 million barrels of oil products every day. $f that daily consumption, % & is consumed by cars and truc's. (y 2 2 , oil consumption is e)pected to grow by nearly % & and our dependence on imports is pro*ected to rise to more than + &.

2. #s the earth continues to warm, we face a great ris' that the climate will change in ways that threaten our health, our economy, our farms, our forests and other natural habitats. ,ars and truc's are also ma* contributors to air pollution and almost 2 & of global warming and it is pro*ected to rise by 1.% to -../, per year. 0egulations have helped clean up passenger vehs over the past three decades. 1owever, rising demand for travel and inc veh ownership will outpace even the standards on the boo's through this decade.

2. Hybrid veh. 1ybrid vehs are those that possess the dual qualities of being able to run on more than two sources of power li'e gasoline or bty. The first hybrid vehs came in the form of hybrid bi'es which has fuel features but can be operated using the pedal s'ills of the rider. 1ybrid cars are more common in 3urope particularly in 4orway and 5rance. 1ybrid buses that are operated by overhead wires and by diesel when they travel in other areas without the overhead wires are also being used in "eattle. There are also hybrid submarines which run on nuclear, diesel or electric energy.

HYBRID ELECTRIC CARS

%. The hybrid cars on sale today are referred to as hybrid electric vehs 6137s8. That means they obtain driving power from both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor powered by batteries. The technology used depends on the goals set for the veh, whether they are fuel efficiency, power, driving range, or reduced greenhouse

gas emissions. ,onsumer oriented hybrid cars, which have been on the mar'et are usually tuned for reduced emissions and driving range.

-. # gasoline-electric hybrid car has one or two au)iliary electric motors that supplement the main gasoline engine. ,ompared to conventional automobiles, the gasoline engine is smaller, less powerful, and more efficient. #lthough the gasoline engine alone would be sufficient to power the veh under most circumstances, during maneuvers requiring unusually high power the electric motor is used as well. These conditions include passing, hill climbing, and acceleration from a standstill.

ELECTRIC HYBRID CAR STR

+. The gasoline-electric hybrid car is a cross between a gasoline-powered car and a electric car. # gasoline car has a fuel tan', which supplies gas to the engine. The engine then turns a t)n, which turns the wheels. #n electric car, on the other hand, has a set of batteries that provides electricity to an electric motor which turns the t)n, and the t)n turns the wheels. The hybrid is a compromise as it attempts to significantly inc the mileage and reduce the emissions of a gas-powered car while overcoming the limited range and speed shortcomings of an electric car. The 1ybrid 3lectric 7eh 65ig 28 has the following main parts 9

Fig 2: Str o ! Hybrid E"e#tri# $eh %HE$& 6a8 '!(o"i)e e)gi)e. The hybrid car has a gasoline engine much li'e the other cars. 1owever, the engine on a hybrid is smaller and uses advanced technologies to reduce emissions and inc efficiency.

6b8 F*e" t!)+. The fuel tan' in a hybrid is the energy storage device for the gasoline engine. :asoline has a much higher energy density than batteries do as 1, pounds of batteries can only store energy equal to 1 gallon of gasoline.

6c8 E"e#tri# ,otor. The electric motor on a hybrid car is very sophisticated. #dvanced electronics allow it to act as a motor as well as a generator. 5or e)ample, when it needs to, it can draw energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. (ut acting as a generator, it can slow the car down and return energy to the batteries.

6d8 'e)er!tor. The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only to produce electrical power. It is used mostly on series hybrids.

6e8 B!tterie(. The batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric motor. !nli'e the gasoline in the fuel tan', which can only power the gasoline engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can put energy into the batteries as well as draw energy from them.

6f8 T-). The t)n on a hybrid car performs the same basic function as the t)n on a conventional car. "ome hybrids, li'e the 1onda Insight, have conventional t)ns. $thers, li'e the Toyota ;rius, have radically different ones.

HYBRID ELECTRIC DRI$ETRAINS

<. =ust as combustion engines can be combined with a variety of technologies to create hybrid vehs, so too can hybrid electric vehs result from mi)ing and matching of technologies. $ne ma* variation depends on whether the hybrid electric uses a series drivetrain, or parallel drivetrain, or a bit of both.

.. Serie( Drivetr!i). In a series hybrid electric veh, an electric motor is the only means of driving the wheels 65ig 28. The motor obtains electricity either from a bty pac' or from a generator powered by an engine in much the same way as a portable generator. # controller determines how power is shared between the bty and the engine>generator set. "eries or serial hybrids have also been referred to as a 0ange-

3)tended 3lectric 7eh 603378? however, range e)tension can be accomplished with either series or parallel hybrid layouts.

Fig .: Str o (erie( hybrid /o0er tr!i)

@. The batteries in a series hybrid are recharged both by the engine>generator set and by storing some of the energy that is normally lost during bra'ing 6typically referred to as regenerative bra'ing8. "eries drivetrains are the simplest hybrid electric configuration. (ecause the electric motor alone drives the wheels, no clutch or complicated multispeed t)n is required. #t the same time, the engine, since it is not connected to the wheels, can operate at or near optimum efficiency. This also opens the door to using unconventional engine types such as gas turbine, #t'inson, or "tirling engines, rather than more conventional gasoline engines. #n advantage of a series hybrid is the lac' of a mechanical lin' between the combustion engine and the wheels. The combustion engine can be run at a constant and efficient rate, even as the car changes speed as the reqmts for the engine are not directly lin'ed to veh speed any more, which gives more freedom in engineering. This ma'es more efficient or alternative designs possible, such as a linear combustion engine.

1 . To gain the most advantage in efficiency from using a small engine, series drivetrains typically use relatively large bty pac's. (ut batteries and motors cost more than engines for the same amt of power, so series hybrids are generally more e)pensive than the parallel hybrids described below. The generator needed to produce electricity from the engine also adds to the cost. "eries hybrids show to their greatest advantage under slower operating conditions characterized by stop-and-go driving. Auring high-speed and highway driving, the inefficiency of always converting the mechanical power from the engine into electricity, storing some of it, and then converting it bac' to mechanical power through the motor ta'es its toll. 5or this reason,

most of the series hybrids currently under development are for buses or other heavyduty urban vehs.

11. 1!r!""e" Drivetr!i)(. ;arallel hybrid sys are most commonly produced at present and have both an internal combustion engine 6I,38 and an electric motor connected to a mechanical t)n. Bost designs combine a large electrical generator and a motor into one unit, often located between the combustion engine and the t)n, replacing both the conventional starter motor and the alternator. To store power, a hybrid uses a large bty pac' with a higher voltage than the normal automotive 12 volts. #ccessories such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by electric motors instead of being attached to the combustion engine. This allows efficiency gains as the accessories can run at a constant speed, regardless of how fast the combustion engine is running.

12. In a parallel hybrid electric veh, both the engine and the motor can drive the wheels 65ig %8. 1onda Insight and the 1onda ,ivic 1ybrid are parallel hybrids. T)n is required to allow the engine to drive the wheels. There must be a means of coupling the engine, motor, and t)n. # controller is necessary to ma'e all components wor' together and so it is more comple) than series drivetrain.

Fig 2: Str o /!r!""e" hybrid /o0er tr!i)

12. ;arallel drivetrains use a smaller engine than a conventional veh, though it is typically larger and somewhat more e)pensive than the engine in a series drivetrain. In series hybrids, the batteries in parallel hybrids can be recharged through regenerative bra'ing. "ince parallel drivetrains typically use smaller bty pac's, much of the recharging can be done this way. The drive motor can also be turned into a generator during driving to recharge the batteries, li'e alternators do in conventional cars. The smaller motors and bty pac's help 'eep down the costs of parallel hybrids relative to series hybrids. (ut the necessity of t)n and the need to couple everything together

means their cost advantage will diminish as bty and motor costs come down over time. #s the engine is connected directly to the wheels in parallel drivetrains, these hybrids do not suffer the efficiency penalty li'e series hybrids e)perience on the highway. In the city, this same str will reduce, not eliminate, some of the efficiency benefits of a parallel drivetrain. #s a result, parallel drivetrains provide some advantages in both city and highway driving.

1%. $ne special type of parallel hybrid uses a CsplitD drivetrain, in which the engine drives one set of wheels, while an electric motor drives another 65ig -8. This can provide %-wheel drive? although recharging the batteries by the engine is then more complicated since it involves operating the front wheels in regenerative bra'ing mode while the engine is driving the rear wheels. Aaimler,hrysler is planning to produce a Aodge Aurango "!7 with such a sys.

Fig 3: Str o (/"it4/!r!""e" hybrid /o0er tr!i)

1-. Serie(51!r!""e" Drivetr!i)(. The Toyota ;rius made popular a new concept that combines many advantages of the parallel drivetrain with the series drivetrainEs ability to maintain engine operation near its most efficient operating point 65ig +8. Toyota ;rius will be disused in details subsequently.

Fig 6: Str o Toyot! 1ri*( hybrid /o0er tr!i)

1+. 7ariations on this design have shown up in the 4issan Tino. This series>parallel design is similar to the parallel drivetrain in that the engine can drive the wheels directly. Fhat ma'es it unique is that the engine can be effectively disconnected from the t)n and operated in the same way as a series drivetrains. #s a result, the engine can operate at near optimum efficiency more often. Auring lower-speed driving, the engine is disconnected from the demands of the wheels and the veh operates with many of the efficiency benefits of a series drivetrain. Auring higher-speed driving, when the engine can power the wheels efficiently, the inefficient energy conversion steps of the series drivetrain can be avoided or minimized. This drivetrain has the potential to perform better than both the previous designs. 1owever, it inherits some of the higher costs of the series hybrid as it needs a generator and a larger bty pac'.

1<. The series>parallel drivetrain 65ig +8 also inherits the mechanical comple)ity of the parallel drivetrain, and because it combines the two it requires more computing power to cont the sys.

1.. Fig 7: Str o (erie( /!r!""e" hybrid /o0er tr!i)

DE'REES OF HYBRIDI8ATION

1@. 1ybrids have been traditionally classified by the amt of driving power supplied by the electrical sys and the amt supplied by the engine 65ig .8. 5or bty electric vehs and hybrid electrics with large electrical syss and very small engines, this definition wor's pretty well. It also wor's relatively well for vehs that do not have a downsized engine and have simply added on a technology referred to as an integrated starter generator9

these are *ust conventional vehs that can turn the engine off when the veh is stopped. $nce regenerative bra'ing is included or the engine is downsized, how to classify the hybrid becomes less clear. Fhat, for e)ample, is the dividing line between a 1onda ,ivic 1ybrid a mild hybrid, and a Toyota ;rius a full hybridG Bore importantly, classification by the amt of electrical sys power does not necessarily indicate the level of environmental performance of the hybrid, since improvements in fuel economy correlate only wea'ly with the amt of electrical power onboard.

9ODES OF :OR;IN' OF ELECTRIC HYBRID

2 . :enerally 3lectric hybrid cars have four modes of functioning and switching between different modes is automatically by the onboard computer called the 3B, 63nergy Banagement ,omputer8 depending on various factors li'e torque reqmts of the veh. The four modes are 9

6a8 E"e#tri# drive. In this mode only electric power from bty ban's is used for driving and the engine is in ideal 6with clutch open8 or off condition. This mode is generally useful in city condition i.e. start, stop, red-light and slow driving. 5low of electric drive is from bty ban' to power electronic controller further to electric motor which gives the drive to t)n sys 65ig @8.

Fig <: F"o0 o e"e#tri# drive

6b8 Hybrid e"e#tri# !((i(t. This mode is generally useful in power driving condition li'e on highway or even while going uphill. Auring this mode both the sys of electric power and the engine power are utilized for optimum performance. There are two power flow routes one from engine via the clutch to the motor and second is flow of electric drive from bty ban' to power electronic controller further

to electric motor. #ll the power comes at motor and meets to combine in constructive manned using a power splitter from where the drive is given to t)n sys 65ig 1 8.

Fig =>: F"o0 o /o0er d*ri)g hybrid e"e#tri# !((i(t drive

6c8 Bty #h!rgi)g. Fhen the bty ban' charge is low then 3B, switches over to this mode. Auring this mode the engine power is wor'ing to driving power, and at the same time it provides drive to the electric generator which charges the bty ban' for future use. The power flow route is from engine via the clutch to the motor and further to t)n sys. #t the same time some amt of power from the engine is fed to the generator for charging of bty ban' 65ig 118.

Fig ==: F"o0 o /o0er d*ri)g bty #h!rgi)g

6d8 Rege)er!tive br!+i)g. Fhenever bra'es are applied in any sys Hinetic energy due to motion is dissipated by the bra'es during which bra'e friction converts the energy to heat which is lost to environment. In hybrid electric sys this energy is captured and store as in the bty for future use. #s the car decelerates, the electric motor acts as a generator by converting the 'inetic energy into electric power and for charging the bty ban' 65ig 128.

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Fig =2: F"o0 o /o0er d*ri)g Rege)er!tive br!+i)g

THE TOYOTA 1RIUS

21. The Toyota ;rius, which came out in =apan at the end of 1@@<, is designed to reduce emissions in urban areas. To accomplish this, Toyota has designed a parallel hybrid powertrain, called the Toyota 1ybrid "ys 6T1"8 that adds some of the benefits of a series hybrid. The ;rius meets ,aliforniaIs super ultra low emissions veh 6"!J378 standard. It is a four-door sedan that seats five, and the powertrain is capable of accelerating the veh to speeds up to 2% Hph on electric power alone. This contributes to the better city mileage than highway mileage.

22. The ;rius mainly relies on two features to optimize efficiency and reduce emissions9

6a8 It( e)gi)e o)"y r*)( !t !) e i#ie)t (/eed !)d "o!d. In order to reduce emissions, the ;rius can accelerate to a speed of about 2% Hph before switching on the gasoline engine. The engine starts once the veh has passed a certain speed. #nd once the engine starts, it operates in a narrow speed band.

6b8 It *(e( ! *)i?*e /o0er (/"it devi#e. :asoline engines can be tuned to run most efficiently in certain speed and load ranges. The power split device on the ;rius, allows the engine to stay in its most efficient load and speed range most of the time.

22. Co)(tr*#tio)!" Fe!t*re(. The main components of the 1ybrid sys incorporated in the Toyota ;rius are shown in 5ig 1%9-

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Fig =2: 9!i) #o,/o)e)t( o Toyot! 1ri*(

2%. IC E)gi)e. The engine being used in Toyota ;rius is a 14K- 5L3 1.- litre inline % cyl engine with 77Ti 6variable valve timing with intelligence8 and 3T,"i 63lectronic Throttle cont sys with intelligence8. It includes a no of mod that helps balance performance, fuel economy and cleans emissions.

6a8

$$T4i.

6b8

At+i)(o) Cy#"e.

6c8 6d8 6e8

ETCS4i. E)gi)e Co)t Sy( Se)(or(. Coo"i)g Sy(.

2-. Hybrid Tr!)(!-"e. The hybrid transa)le is the a)le which provides for the mounting of following dvg>dvn members and connecting gears9

6a8 6b8

Botor :enerator 1 6B:18. Botor :enerator 2 6B:28.

6c8 ;lanetary gear unit that provides continuously variable gear ratios and wor's as a power splitting device.

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6d8 6e8 6f8

0eduction unit consisting of silent chain counter gears and final gears. # std two pinion differential. # transa)le damper to cont the occasional vibrations.

2+. 9otor 'e)er!tor = %9'=& !)d 9otor 'e)er!tor 2 %9'2&. B: 1 and B: 2 function as highly efficient alt current synchronous generators and electric motors. They also serve as sources of supplemental motive force that provides power assistance to the engine as and when needed.

6a8 1ri)#i/"e o O/ o 9'= !)d 9'2. Fhen three phase #, is passed through the windings of the stator core a rotating magnetic fd is created. Fhen the rotation of this magnetic fd is properly timed in relationship to the rotor, the magnetic fd pulls the rotorEs permanent magnet causing is to turn. The generated torque is proportional to the amt of current and rotational speed is cont by the frequency of three phase #.,.

6b8

9' =.

B: 1 performs the following functions9

6i8

0echarges the 17 (ty and sup electrical power to drive B:2.

6ii8 (y regulating the amt of power generated, B: 1 effectively cont the transa)leEs continuously variable t)n. 6iii8 "erves as the engine starter.

6c8

9' 2.

B: 2 performs the following functions9

6i8 For's along with the engine to drive the wheel ie motive force at low speeds and supplemental force at high speeds. 6ii8 #ddn of B:2Es strong torque characteristics help achieve e)cellent dynamic performance to incl smooth start off and acceleration. 6iii8 Rege)er!tive Br!+i)g. Auring the bra'ing, it converts 'inetic energy into electrical en which is then stored in the 17 (ty.

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2<. 1o0er S/"itti)g Devi#e. The planetary gear unit is used as a power splitting device. It is connected to other dvg>dvn members as under9

6a8 6b8 6c8

"un gear is connected to B:1. ;lanet carrier is connected to the engine o>p shaft. 0ing gear is connected to B:2.

2.. The 1o0er S/"it Devi#e o Toyot! 1ri*(. The power split device is the heart of the Toyota ;rius. This is a clever gearbo) that hoo's the gasoline engine, generator and electric motor together. It allows the car to operate li'e a parallel hybrid -the electric motor can power the car by itself, the gas engine can power the car by itself or they can power the car together. The power split device also allows the car to operate li'e a series hybrid -- the gasoline engine can operate independently of the veh speed, charging the batteries or providing power to the wheels as needed. It also acts as a continuously variable t)n 6,7T8, eliminating the need for a manual or automatic t)n. 5inally, because the power split device allows the generator to start the engine, the car does not need a starter.

2@. The power split device is a planetary gear set 65ig 1+6a8 and 1+6a88. The electric motor is connected to the ring gear of the gear set. It is also directly connected to the differential, which drives the wheels. "o, whatever speed the electric motor and ring gear spin at determines the speed of the car. The generator is connected to the sun gear of the gear set, and the engine is connected to the planet carrier. The speed of the ring gear depends on all three components, so they all have to wor' together at all times to cont the output speed.

Fig =6%!&: 1o0er S/"itti)g Devi#e

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Fig =6%b&: 'e!r (y( o /o0er (/"it devi#e o Toyot! 1ri*(

2 . Fhen you accelerate, initially the electric motor and batteries provide all of the power. The ring gear of the power split device is connected to the electric motor, so it starts to spin with the motor. The planet carrier, which is connected to the engine, is stationary because the engine is not running. "ince the ring gear is spinning, the planets have to spin, which causes the sun gear and generator to spin. #s the car accelerates, the generator spins at whatever speed it needs to in order for the engine to remain off.

21. $nce you reach about % mph 6+% 'ph8, the gasoline engine will turn on. The generator suddenly changes speed, causing the planet carrier to turn and start the engine. $nce the engine is running, it settles into a constant speed while the generator varies its speed to match the output speed with the electric motor. If you are really accelerating hard, the motor will draw e)tra power from the batteries. $nce you are up to freeway speed, the car will move under a combination of gas and electric power, with all of the electricity coming from the generator.

22. The ;rius never needs to be recharged. The onboard generator automatically maintains the proper level of charge in the batteries. The motors and batteries in these cars typically donIt require any maint over the life of the veh. The engine doesnIt require

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any more maint than the one in any other car. #chieving hybrid power is certainly more comple) than using straight gasoline power or straight electric power.

22. High $o"t!ge Bty. The sealed 64i.B18 bty tech devp for the hybrid sys provides both high power density and e)cellent longevity. The hybrid sys cont the ch and disch rates to maint the 17 (ty at constant state of charge 6"$,8. The following components ma'e up the sys.

2%. Br!+e Sy(. The hybrid veh bra'e sys incl both standard hydraulic bra'es and a unique regenerative bra'ing sys that uses the veh momentum to recharge the bty.

Fig =<: The Br!+e Sy( 6a8 Rege)er!tive Br!+i)g. #s soon as the acc pedal is released the 17 3,! initiates regenerative bra'ing. The following actions are initiated9-

6i8 B:2 is turned by wheels and used as a generator to recharge the btys. Auring this phase of bra'ing hydraulic bra'es are not used.

6ii8 Fhen more rapid deceleration is reqd, the hydraulic bra'es are activated to provide addl stopping power.

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6iii8 "electing M(E on the shift lever will ma)imize the regenerative efficiency and is useful for cont speeds downhill. In M(E mode about 2 & of the energy is recovered.

:OR;IN' OF TOYOTA 1RIUS

2-. Hybrid Sy( Co)t 9ode(. The hybrid sys uses various modes to achieve the most efficient op in response to the dvg conditions. The 1 7 3,! cont the op modes. The various veh op modes are reviewed as under 9

6a8 Sto//ed. If the 17 (ty is well charged and the veh is not mov the engine stops, hence improving fuel efficiency. The engine will be automatically started by the 17 3,!, if the 17 (ty needs charging.

Fig 2=: $eh (to//ed /o()

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6b8 St!rti)g O*t. 17 (ty.

The veh is started only using the elec power from the

6i8

The B:2 turns and drives the 7eh.

6ii8

The engine remains stopped.

6iii8

This phase continues till 2% 'm per hr speed is attained by the veh.

6iv8 1owever if the sys requires more power the 17 3,! activates the engine as well in the low speed.

6v8 17

$n attaining the speed of 2% 'm per hr, the engine is started by the 3,!.

6vi8 B:1 rotates bac'wards and *ust idles, it does not generate electricity.

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Fig 22: St!rti)g O*t

6c8

Nor,!" Drivi)g.

6i8 Auring normal low speed dvg, the engine runs and power.

provides

6ii8

B:2 turns and runs as a motor providing electrical assist.

6iii8 B:1 is turned in the same dirn by the engine as generator and provides electricity for B:2.

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Fig 2.: Nor,!" Drivi)g

6d8

F*"" Thrott"e A##e"er!tio) !)d High S/eed Cr*i(e.

6i8 5or more acc elec drive power from B:2 supplements engine power. The 17 (ty provides electricity to B:2.

6ii8 The B:1 also receives electrical power from the (ty and turns in reverse dirn to create an overdrive ratio for more speed.

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Fig 22: F*"" Thrott"e A##e"er!tio) !)d High S/eed Cr*i(e

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6e8

De#e"er!tio) !)d Br!+i)g.

6i8

#s soon as dvr releases the acc pedal B:2 becomes a generator

6ii8 B:2 is turned by drive wheels and generates electricity to recharge the bty activating regenerative bra'ing.

6iii8 #s the veh decelerates, the engine stops running and B:1 turns bac'wards to maint the gear ratio.

6iv8

The hydraulic bra'es are only activated if rapid deceleration is reqd.

Fig 23: De#e"er!tio) !)d Br!+i)g

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6f8

Rever(e.

6i8 Fhen the veh mov in reverse, B:2 turns in reverse as an electric motor.

6ii8

The engine does not run.

6iii8

B:2 turns in fwd dirn and *ust idles, it does not generate electricity.

Fig 26: Rever(e

2+. Toyota designed the 1.--liter engine in the ;rius to run at a ma) speed of only -, rpm, where it ma'es <+ horsepower. Heeping the ma) speed of the engine low allows for the use of lighter components that improve efficiency. The electric motor on the ;rius is rated at +< horsepower from 1,2 to 1,-% rpm. It produces 2@- pound-feet of torque from to 1,2 rpm, which is more than enough to get the car going without the aid of the gasoline engine.

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